NETA Handbook Series II - Transformers PDF

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TRANSFORMERS
HANDBOOK
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TRANSFORMERS
HANDBOOK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dielectric Response Analysis of Transformers ........................................................ 4

Will Knapek and Jeff Foley, OMICRON electronics Corp., USA
Power Transformer Moisture Assessment using Dielectric Frequency Response ........... 8

Mats Karlstrom, Matz Ohlen, Peter Werelius, and Brad Morse, Megger
SFRA: The Basics of Swept Frequency Response Testing and Analysis .................... 21
Matt Kennedy and Mario Locarno, Doble Engineering Company
Dry-Type Power Transformers: Understanding Transformer .................................... 26

Ron Widup, Shermco Industries
Abnormal Weather Conditions ......................................................................... 29

Kyle Springinatic, Magna Electric Corp.
Importance of Analyzing Excitation Test Results................................................... 33

Keith Hill, Doble Engineering Company
Modern Methods in Current Transformer Testing ................................................. 37

Peter Fong, OMICRON electronics Corp., USA
Advanced Diagnostic Testing Methods for Transformers ....................................... 39

Charles Sweetser, OMICRON electronics Corp., USA
Ancillary Devices Need Testing Too................................................................... 44

Rick Youngblood, American Electrical Testing Company
NETA Accredited Companies ........................................................................... 51
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Transformers Handbook 5
DIELECTRIC RESPONSE ANALYSIS

OF TRANSFORMERS
NETA World, Winter 2009-2010 Issue
by Will Knapek and Jeff Foley, OMICRON electronics Corp. USA
You have just come from your annual physical checkup. The produces water. This is caused by the molecular breakdown of the
doctor has ordered a blood test, and a few of the results have come cellulose which is high in hydrogen and oxygen molecules. The
back out of the normal range. He scheduled you for a few more original bonds are broken by what is call depolymerization and
diagnostic tests such as x-ray, treadmill, and EKG. Those test re- the loose hydrogen and oxygen molecules reunite to form H2O,
sults are inconclusive. Further tests are required to provide a com- hence water.
MOISTURE ESTIMATION IN INSULATION

as CAT scan and MRI are available. In the power industry there
are advanced tests available for transformers when the blood test The only direct method to determine the moisture content in
result (oil test) comes back out of the normal range. In the past, the cellulose is to take paper samples from the transformer and
you could do a power-factor test, turns-ratio test, and a winding- test for moisture content. This is possible only during the repair or
resistance test to try to diagnose a problem in the transformer. tear down of a unit; hence, it is of limited use. There are several
There are new tests available to the power industry where more indirect methods to determine the moisture content. We can deter-
mine the moisture content by measurement of properties that can
complete diagnosis can be performed. Tests such as sweep fre-
quency response analysis and dielectric response analysis make
methods can be done by moisture in oil measurements. They are
the high-end diagnosis possible for transformers, motors, genera-
easy to conduct, (however, temperature is critical and equilibrium
tors, and cables. Let us explore the dielectric response analyzer as
curves must be applied) but often the results have large errors.
diagnostic tool for transformers.
A traditional method for determining mositure content in a
During the service life of high-voltage equipment such as pow-
transformer has been an oil sample. Oil samples are easily taken
er transformers, rotating machines, and cables, insulation systems from transformers while they are on-line. This sample is then ana-
are subjected to numerous stresses. As a result, a gradual loss in lyzed by what is called a Karl Fisher titration test (ASTM D1533-
mechanical and dielectric properties will eventually compromise A). The moisture content measured at the lab temperature would
the equipment’s reliability. Moisture is particularly detrimental to give an indication of the dryness/wetness of the oil. Titration is
paper insulation and is a good indicator of aging. a chemical reaction where oil is injected into a reaction vessel.
Moisture in transformer insulation can affect transformer per- The water inside the oil chemically reacts and this is measured.
formance in several ways. First, it can trigger partial discharge Moisture in paper is then estimated using equilibrium curves or
(PD). PD is a discharge of energy in a void or gas bubble. Second, relationships that link moisture in oil to moisture in paper.
it can generate bubbles in the oil. As the transformer heats, the cel- It is also very important to understand that the cellulose insu-
lulose will release the moisture that is contained inside. The mois- lation acts like a sponge for moisture. When the transformer is
ture trapped inside the cellulose will also decrease the dielectric loaded and the winding temperature rises, the moisture is driven
strength of the paper and the oil. This third problem can be seen by from the insulation to the oil. When the transformer cools, the
performing dielectric strength or breakdown voltage test. Lastly, it moisture is absorbed back into the cellulose. Since the loading
of transformers often varies and the rate that moisture is driven
can lead to the premature failure of otherwise healthy transform- out versus absorbed back in occurs at different rates, it makes oil
ers. The last issue decreases the life expectancy. samples and equilibrium curves problematic. As can be seen from
Even the best efforts to install a transformer properly provide

important consideration in applying the curves. Often times, the
opportunities where the moisture level can increase in several oil temperature of the transformer is not known, or is recorded
ways. Faulty seals can allow moisture in the vessel. Exposure dur- arbitrarily at the time of sampling. Further, moisture relation-
ships and curves have limitations to application and accuracy.
way into the transformer. In addition, normal aging of cellulose
6 Transformers Handbook
Figure 1: Moisture Equilibrium Curves

It should be noted that moisture in oil is not necessarily an
indicator of moisture in paper. The oil moisture content can
change quickly during warm up and cool down of a transformer.
The volume of water in the cellulose can be as much as 200
percent more than in the oil at the point of equilibrium. That is
why it is much more important to know the moisture content Figure 2: Dissipation factor vrs. frequency
of the cellulose than the moisture content of the oil. Another
The most common techniques used to measure this response
issue with applying the equilibrium diagrams is that these
are frequency domain spectroscopy (FDS) and polarization and
are based on new oil and do not take into account the effects
depolarization current (PDC) methods. Using the frequency do-
of aging byproducts that are found in older transformer oil.
main spectroscopy, the dissipation factor of the insulation system
under test is measured by frequency sweep. The FDS allows fast
DIELECTRIC RESPONSE
measurements at high frequencies but requires long measurement
Let us look at the advanced techniques of moisture analysis. The times at frequencies down to 0.1 millihertz.
dielectric response is a unique characteristic of the particular in-
The current measurement in the time domain, also called the
sulation system. The increased moisture content of the insulation
results in a changed dielectric model and, consequently, a changed polarization and depolarization current method, where a dc volt-
dielectric response. By measuring the dielectric response of the
equipment in a wide frequency range, the moisture content can be and the polarization current is measured. After this, the insulation
assessed and the insulation condition diagnosed. For the dielec- system is shorted and the depolarization current is measured. From
tric response test, the test performed is a traditional ungrounded the polarization and depolarization currents the dielectric response
specimen test made from the high voltage winding to the low volt- is evaluated, and the dissipation factor frequency characteristic is
age winding (CHL) in a two winding transformer. We are most calculated. The PDC method is much faster than the FDS at very
concerned with the CHL test, as this is the measurement which
contains the most cellulose insulation material. The test connec- rise time of the dc pulses. Measurements in the very low frequen-
tions and modes are the same as used in a traditional transformer cies are important because that is where moisture content is most
insulation power-factor test with the difference being the test is clearly indicated.
performed at a low voltage, up to 200 Vp-p, and the test is per- Both of these can be compared by transforming the results from
the time domain into the frequency domain or vice versa. With im-
data needed to complete the test is the temperature of the oil. provement in technologies, we can now use two well-established
Figure 2 is the response curve for oil-impregnated paper. This dielectric response measurement techniques together and reduce
curve shows a frequency vs. dissipation factor relationship. The the time of measurement down to less than three hours whereas
higher frequencies display the moisture and aging of the cellulose. with the separate measuring techniques it could take up to eight
Moving from left to right the frequency is reduced and the oil con- hours to perform the test.
ductivity properties are displayed. In the millihertz range, the insu- After the test is completed the results must be compared to a
lation geometry comes into play. As the moisture properties of the standard to determine the actual moisture content. IEC 60422 and
cellulose change so does the shape of the curve.
sets allow the evaluation of the data with consideration of the con-
ductivity of the oil which will increase with age. The quality of di-
electric response analyzers is not primarily given by the accuracy
of the measurement device but rather by the built-in knowledge of
the analysis software.
One is often faced with the question of “What do these results
mean?” Whether the moisture in oil tests (with equilibrium charts)
or advanced dielectric response methods are performed, each test
technique should lead to some conclusion about the condition of
the transformer. Much study and work has been performed in eval-
uating what to do with moisture results. In some cases, a wet trans-
former may be vacuum processed, reducing the moisture content
to an acceptable level. In cases where the transformer is very old
and there is concern that exposing the insulation system to vacuum
processing may do more harm than good (further reducing the me-
chanical strength of the insulation), this information can be used
to assist in an assessment as well. In general, dielectric frequency
response methods are more accurate than traditional oil sample
analysis. Because of this increased accuracy, better decisions can
be made and useful life extension solutions can be provided to the
end user.
So the next time you test transformer oil and still have questions,
ask yourself if a more advanced test is needed to completely diag-
nose the condition of the transformer.
__________________________________________________
Will Knapek is an Application Engineer

for OMICRON electronics Corp, USA. He
holds a BS from East Carolina University
and an AS from Western Kentucky
University both in Industrial Technology.
He retired from the US Army as a Chief
Technician and a former NETA Level IV

technician.
Jeff Foley is an Application Engineer

for OMICRON electronics Corp, USA.
He holds a BSEET from Milwaukee
School of Engineering. Jeff has 15 years
systems testing, maintenance, design and

commissioning.
POWER TRANSFORMER MOISTURE ASSESSMENT

USING DIELECTRIC FREQUENCY RESPONSE
PowerTest 2010
by Mats Karlstrom, Matz Ohlen, Peter Werelius, and Brad Morse, Megger
Outline:
• What is DFR? • 1990’s
• When does DFR testing apply in practice?
• What does DFR measure?
• DFR analysis and modeling software • 1990-2004
• Power Transformer moisture measurements – Method & technology of DFR developed further
• PF temperature correction • 2004-2009
– CIGRE
• , ”Dielectric Response Methods for
Diagnostics of Power Transformers” is published
– Certain materials will behave a particular way when an
• reported at CIGRE
• “Dielectric response diagnoses
– Apply a voltage to insulation and study how it reacts over
various frequencies
• 2009
– IEEE Transformer Committee presentations
– Another name for DFR
• 2010
– IEEE
Insulation testing/Dielectric response methods
• Measure Power Factor at multiple frequencies

–
Example: Identify material composition in mineral samples
• Compare measured data with modeled data
–
• Result presented as
– As % of total paper weight and oil conductivity
• Accurate temperature correction

• Ability to detect contamination • Physical cellulose inside transformer
– Kraft paper
– Pressboard
• Moisture detection:
– Winding paper
– Before and after dry out process
– Sticks
• Manufacturing facility before & after oven
– Spacers
• On site at substation, out of service
– Etc
• With and/or without oil
• Manufactured to different
• Commission Test
– Densities
– To ensure dry before going live
– Shapes
• Part of regular scheduled maintenance
– Sizes
– Monitor moisture content
• Suspected problems
– Potential internal faults or contamination Capacitance = ability for a body to hold a charge
• Isolates live electrical components from ground and other

conductors
• Moisture • Chemicals
Permittivity is material’s ability to transmit (or “permit”) an
• Aging • Contaminants
electric field through polarization of dipoles in the material.
• Heat • Etc……
• Measures
• Measures
• Measures MOISTURE % in insulation
• Changes in the dielectric material changes the capacitance.

• Compare measured values to known insulation dielectric
responses.
Q= cellulose C V Q= oil C V Q= combined contaminent C V
• The insulation between the HV and LV winding can be modeled

as a complex capacitance with the following dielectric materials
• This is better known as the CHL measurement in P.F. testing
• Cellulose
– Barriers
– Spacers
• Oil
Typically, insulation diagnostics represent insulation impedance

as a combination of Capacitance and Power Factor (or Tan Delta).
• Primary - distinguish between moist versus dry paper
– Corrosive Sulfur
– Carbon Tracking
– Semi-Conductive sludge deposited in ducts
between windings
– Aging paper as it breaks down
– Incorrect shield connections
– Ultimately, it leads to a condition assessment of the
electrical insulation inside a transformer!
• Note, values are frequency dependant (f)

• Apply voltage V(f)
V( f )
• Measure loss current I(f) Z( f )
• Calculate Complex Impedance I( f )
• From Complex Impedance Z(f) we can calculate
– Capacitance
– Resistance
• Plot P.F. values at each frequency
Primary Insulation Characteristic Parameters of concern:

• Power Factor (Tan Delta)
• Capacitance
• Permittivity
• Frequency of measured values
• Temperature
• Multiple Power Factors plotted against frequency

– Standard test consists of :
• CHL P.F. (UST) plotted at 19 frequencies (18 min)
• CH P.F. (GST) plotted at 16 frequencies (7 min)
• CL P.F. (GST) plotted at 16 frequencies (7 min)
• Power factors plotted versus varying frequency

• How do we interpret? • 1968 vintage
• Modeling Software • Free breathing
• Stored inside, used for demonstration purposes
– Reference model curves
• Match measured curve to model
• Moisture in solid paper insulation
• Analysis – where does this come from?

• Software can actually distinguish between Oil & Cellulose when taking measurements
– Oil responds differently than cellulose
• Through various frequencies and temperatures
– Reference curves
1. OIL response
2. CELLULOSE response
3. TRANSFORMER (Oil and Cellulose combined) response
This is entirely a characteristic of oil power factor response over frequency

View multiple curves to illustrate OIL’S

conductivity affect on PF
This is entirely a characteristic of CELLU-

LOSE power factor response over frequency
View multiple curves to illustrate CELLU-

LOSE’S moisture affect on PF
Typical PF values (0-0.5%) @ 60 Hz

fall in this range
Oil Cellulose
This is entirely a characteristic of Transform-

er power factor response over frequency
• Single PF value is not enough to make the

right decision
• Dielectric Frequency Response tells
the story!HL – Example: Comparison
measurements from a dry vs a wet
transformer
• These values vary with:

• < 0.5 % New transformer – Transformer
• 0.5 - 1.5% Dry insulation – Transformer
• 1.5 - 2.5% Medium wet insulation – Transformer ambient
• 2.5 - 4% Wet insulation – Transformer
• > 4% Very wet insulation – Transformer
• Interpretation of moisture content of solid insulation
(% of weight water per weight cellulose
Algorithm based on Arrhenius equation for combination of cellulose and oil

• Insulation properties changes with temperature

• Described by the Arrhenius equation:
– In short:
A measurement at e.g. 60 Hz, 20C corresponds to a
measurement at higher frequency at higher temperature
• Various material have different activation energy (W above)
– Non-impregnated paper typically around 1.0 eV
– Oil-impregnated paper typically 0.9 – 1.0 eV
– Mineral transformer oil typically 0.4 – 0.5 eV
• Dew Point DFR analysis can:

• Investigate increased PF in power system components
– Sensitive to equilibrium and temperature •Estimate the moisture content of oil-immersed cellulose
– Only surface moisture is indicated insulation in power transformers, CTs, bushings, PILC etc
– Long wait time for equilibrium at least 12h, typically 24 h • Perform individual accurate temperature corrections based on
• Oil Sampling the actual insulation material (s) and condition (patent pending)
– Only transformers with oil
– Sensitive to temperature and equilibrium
– Only surface moisture is indicated
• DFR
– Can be measured at any temperature

– Average moisture (surface and embedded moisture)
– Can be used for Bushings, CT’s, and other paper oil insulations
SFRA: THE BASICS OF SWEPT FREQUENCY

RESPONSE TESTING AND ANALYSIS
PowerTest 2010
by Matt Kennedy and Mario Locarno, Doble Engineering Company
INTRODUCTION
In the past several years, SFRA testing has evolved from a design The international community has widely accepted SFRA and is
tool to a mainstream test used by hundreds of utilities, industries, now developing guidelines for its use. Doble Engineering has been
and testing companies around the world. This paper introduces the active in both the IEEE and IEC organizations in preparing guides
basics of SFRA testing and highlights some interesting cases to and worldwide standards for test methods and analysis of SFRA
illustrate practical application and analysis techniques. test results. The following guides will soon be available:
SFRA is a diagnostic tool that provides information about the • The IEEE C57.149 Working Group is preparing the “Guide
mechanical integrity of a transformer core, windings, and connections for the Application and Interpretation of Frequency Response
without requiring a technician to climb inside the transformer. It is Analysis for Oil Immersed Transformers.”
often used before and after a transformer is moved from one location • Members of the International Electrotechnical Commission
to another. The premise of SFRA testing is that changes in the (IEC) are preparing a similar FRA standard, “Measurement of
frequency response of a winding may indicate winding movement. Frequency Response” under the Power Transformer Technical
The SFRA test process is as follows: Committee TC14/PT 60076-18.
1. Inject a voltage at one end of a winding. These documents will lead to greater acceptance of SFRA test
2. See what comes out the other end. techniques and further signify worldwide acceptance.
3. Repeat at a variety of different frequencies.
4. Plot the results.
5. Investigate unexpected variations. When SFRA testing is performed on a transformer winding, a signal
is injected at one end of the winding and the response is measured at
PROBLEMS SFRA HAS DETECTED the other end of the same winding. The signal is a sine wave voltage
• Radial deformation (hoop buckling) which is swept through a range of 20 Hz to 2 MHz. The response
• Telescoped windings at each frequency is dependent on the complex arrangement of
• Turn-to-turn short circuits in the winding inductance, capacitance, and resistance of the winding. The input and
• Open-circuited winding output voltages are measured with reference to ground; this makes
• High-resistance connections the SFRA test a true two-port network, with the need for a ground
• Defects in the core reference. Usually the shield of the coax test leads is grounded at the
• Bulk and local movement base of the bushings. See Figure 1.
SFRA is usually performed in the factory before shipment, after

transport, at commissioning, during periodic condition assessment,
and post fault.
While SFRA test results can be useful in isolation, SFRA is

particularly telling when used with other diagnostic tools such as
power factor, winding resistance, exciting current, oil test results
and Leakage Reactance. To a trained tester, the information
obtained from these tests tells a story about the condition of a
transformer. In many cases, the SFRA test results provide the
critical data for understanding the condition of a transformer. Figure 1: Typical SFRA Test Connections
The SFRA measurement is plotted as a voltage ratio that

represents the attenuation of the input signal as it passes through test procedures are relatively straightforward. They can be broken
the winding; it is recorded in dB across the frequency range. into two groups: open circuit tests and closed circuit tests.
At low frequencies, the response is dominated by inductive • Open circuit responses are dominated by the core at low frequencies
elements in the winding, especially the core. At higher frequencies, and are similar to exciting current results in this respect. Different
the response becomes more capacitive. At all frequencies, a magnetic paths lead to different responses with typical center phase
combination of an individual inductance and capacitance produces variations. Figure 2 shows sample results.
a resonance (a peak or a valley in the response curve). • responses remove the effect of core at low frequencies
Figures 2 and 3 show typical responses consisting of many and are similar to leakage reactance results in this respect. All three
resonances. short circuit responses should be close, usually within 0.2 dB
deviation of outer phases. See Figure 4 for sample results.
Figure 2: Typical SFRA Result of HV Open-Circuit Tests on

a Wye Delta Transformer
Figure 4: Typical SFRA Result of HVSC Short-Circuit Tests

on a Delta Wye Transformer
This section provides typical test hookups for open-circuit and

short-circuit tests on Delta Wye transformers.
Table 1: Open-Circuit Test Configurations for

Delta Wye Transformer
Figure 3: Typical SFRA Result of LV Open-Circuit Tests on a

Wye Delta Transformer
CONSISTENT TEST CONFIGURATIONS ARE OF

CRITICAL IMPORTANCE
The SFRA test is very sensitive to such conditions as tap changer
positions, oil levels, test lead grounding, and so on. If the test is
later performed on the same transformer – in a slightly different
is not recognized, the tester may assume that a deformation exists

and waste time, effort, and money in the effort to identify the
source of the variation.
Table 2: Short-Circuit Test Configurations for CASE STUDY #1: AUTOTRANSFORMER TRANS-
Delta Wye Transformer PORTATION DAMAGE FOUND USING SFRA
Figure 6: With Oil and Actual Bushings H – X Open Circuit

ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS Test
• Results can vary between units, depending on size and type of unit.
• Results can be different because of magnetization and
grounding effects.
• Variations occur with tap changer positions. The standard is
16R, nominal.
• Change occurs based on the oil level.
Certain frequency bands indicate different problem conditions:

• Main core deformation, open circuits, shorted
turns, residual magnetism
• Bulk component, shunt impedance Figure 7: Before and After Comparison of H2 – X2
• Deformation within the main windings Open-Circuit Tests
• Tap winding
As a result of the Swept Frequency Response Tests, an internal
These are general guidelines; every transformer is a little different.
inspection was performed, revealing the following conditions:
• Y1 lead lying on top of core (Figure 8)
• Loose center winding clamping hardware resulting in loss of
pressure on the stack (Figure 9)
• Loose boards inside the transformer (Figure 10 and 11)
Figure 5: SFRA Analysis Regions

Figure 8: Y1 Lead Lies on Top of the Core Figure 11: Board on Top of Core
A fault occurred. No historical data was available and it was

unclear if there had been damage to the unit. SFRA testing was
done to assess its condition.
Figure 9: Loose Clamping Hardware
Figure 12: Nameplate Data
Figure 10: Loose Boards

Based on the SFRA results a recommendation was made for

internal inspection. It was discovered that the tertiary winding
connections had never been bolted together and that the energy
from the fault had pushed the connection apart.
It was clear upon inspection that there had been arcing across
the connections. This problem might have been caught at the
factory if SFRA testing had been performed there.
Figure 13: SFRA Results – Series Winding Open Circuit Tests
Figure 16: Internal Connection Missing Bolted Hardware
CONCLUSION
SFRA is a useful addition to your toolset. It should be used with
other tests such as power factor, excitation current, TTR, and so
on. Used correctly, it will assist you to spot various failure modes
Figure 14: Short Circuit Test Results – Series Winding and help your transformer assessment process.
Figure 15: Short Circuit Test Close-up – Inductive Roll off

Region – Series Winding
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DRY-TYPE POWER TRANSFORMERS:

UNDERSTANDING TRANSFORMER
ISOLATION AND NOISE
NETA World, Spring 2010 Issue
by Ron Widup, Shermco Industries
One of the more overlooked aspects of dry-type transformer

installations is the removal of shipping bolts and/or shipping
blocking material attached to the unit. Questions such as: Should
you remove them or leave them connected? What is their purpose?
Why does a transformer hum? (Assuming it doesn’t know the
words.) We’ll look at these questions and other topics surrounding
the dry-type transformers and the noise they make.
Transformer core and coil

assemblies are typically very heavy
and require supplemental supports
prior to shipment so that the unit
does not get damaged while being
transported from the manufacturer
to the job site. It is very important
to remove any temporary shipping
bolts or blocking materials prior to
energization.
Figure 1: Typical Transformer Assembly
Also, it is important to loosen or
Removal of Temporary (Courtesy of Federal Pacific)
remove any bolts that are connected
Shipping Bolts is Important to resilient* mounts located on the
Reading further in C57.94, to control audible sound sources
unit. These resilient mounts are the core and coil mounting bolts should be adjusted to the
intended to transfer vibration from the core to the frame, and quite manufacturer’s recommendation. Other bolts, fasteners, and
often are simply a rubber pad between the core frame and the devices should be examined for possible audible sound sources.
bottom of the unit. See detail of vibration isolators in Figure 1 and
the photograph detail in Figure 2.
capable of
withstanding shock without permanent deformation or rupture.
In IEEE C57.94, Recommended Practice for Installation,

Application, Operation, and Maintenance of Dry-Type General
Purpose Distribution and Power Transformers, they tell us that the
audible sound produced by transformers is due to energizing of the
core by the alternating voltage applied to the windings. This creates
vibrations whose fundamental frequency is twice the frequency of the
applied voltage. The vibrations producing audible sound can occur in
the core, coil, mounting, and housing. The transmission of sound from Figure 2: Resilient Mount on Dry-Type Transformer
the transformer can be by various media such as air, metal, concrete, (Shermco Industries photo)
Vibration isolators installed between the transformer and its

mount (Figure 2) will reduce case vibration and compensate for
slight unevenness of the mount. They should be sized for the
appropriate loading at the fundamental frequency.
The transformer housing must be securely fastened to the mount
to eliminate possible sound generation.
Fans used for ventilation should be studied carefully for their
contribution to the general audible sound level.
Figure 4: Dry-Type Transformer Construction

(Courtesy of Square D)
Figure 3: Flexible Bus Connectors
(Shermco Industries photo)
Noise is caused by magnetostricition (changes in shape) of the
To control the transmission core laminations while the transformer is energized. Transformers
(Figure 3) should be used on all incoming and outgoing cables emit a low-frequency, tonal noise that people living in their vicinity
or bus to reduce vibration transmission. Acoustical absorbing experience as an irritating “hum” and can hear even against a noisy
background. The electrical power industry produces a range of
solutions to abate humming, which originates in the transformer’s
core and, when it is loaded, in the coil windings. Core noise is
Vibration pads or properly designed springs will reduce transmittal generated by the magnetostriction of the core’s laminations when
of sound considerably.
load noise,” as it is independent of the load passing through the
A careful study of the location of vaults within buildings can go
transformer. As the phenomenon occurs it causes air columns to
far toward not only reducing sound but also reducing complaints.
be formed in the spaces between the transformer core and the
If practicable, vaults should not abut sleeping areas, study areas,
low-voltage windings of the core and other adjacent parts of the
or other frequently occupied areas where the ambient sound level
transformer, and these air columns cause audible noise as it moves
is low. Interrupting the sound transmission medium can also be
between the various parts of the transformer. Magnetostriction
considered during initial vault or pad construction. This could
takes place at twice the frequency of the supply load: for a 60 Hz
include installing sound absorbing foam, etc., in ceilings and walls
supply frequency, a lamination vibrates at 120 cycles per second,
or separating the transformer pad from foundation construction.
frequency of the even number harmonics.

is placed in permanent position, shipping braces should be
removed, and shipping bolts, if present, should be loosened or
removed per manufacturer’s recommendations.
Figure 5: Dry-Type Transformer in the Field Figure 6: Average Sound Levels for Dry-Type Transformers
(Shermco Industries Photo) (Courtesy of General Electric)
Also, the audible sound produced by fan-assist cooled (FAC)
transformers is partially due to the energizing of the core by the any sound that is
alternating voltage applied to the windings and also by the fans forcing undesired or interferes with one’s hearing of something.
air through the coils. The noise generated by the core, and whose So who is to say what sound is undesired or interferes with
fundamental frequency is twice the frequency of the applied voltage, something? What may be a calming sound of transformer
will create audible sound that will be present even under no load (humming to some), may be a nuisance to others.
conditions. The vibrations producing audible sound can occur in the
Just as rock concerts may be annoying to some, and the loud
core, coil, mounting, housing, and in the conduit. The transmission of
music and rhythm may be stimulating and desirable to others.
sound from the transformer can be by various media such as air, metal,
concrete, wood or any combination. And since different people have different opinions as to what is
acceptable and what is not, and how annoying a transformer has
become is different in different situations, the best tactic is to try
Transformer hum also arises through the vibration caused when
and mitigate the problem on the front end through proper placement
the load current passes through the windings, interacting with the
and design, and when initially tested and commissioned make sure
you carefully inspect the shipping bolts, packing materials, and
the size of the load current.
resilient mounts so sound is kept at a minimum.
CONTROL OF TRANSFORMER SOUND TRANSMISSION Removal or loosening of the shipping bolts will allow for a smooth
transfer of vibration and should reduce the overall noise generated
by the unit.
Ssshhh! I need to listen to the hum, it’s just getting to the good part.
a mass as possible. Vibration pads or properly designed isolation
mounts under the transformer will reduce transmittal of sound. Ron. A. Widup, Executive Vice President/
The neoprene rubber isolation pads (Figure 2) provided with the General Manager of Shermco Industries,
unit should be installed between the transformer and its mounting
surface. This will reduce case vibration and compensate for slight the low-, medium-, and high-voltage
unevenness of the mount. Care must be taken to ensure proper and switchgear and substation market. He is
tight installation of conduit. Flexible conduit is recommended. a principal member of NFPA Technical
A normal conversation is typically 60-70 dB. OSHA has an
actionable level to sound exposure at 85 decibels whenever noise Safety in the Workplace and a member of
levels equal or exceed an eight-hour time-weighted average sound NEC Code Panel 11. He is past president
of NETA and currently a member of the
Per General Electric Installation Guide No. 475A667AAP008,

as a NETA Level IV Test Technician.
dry type transformers are designed and manufactured to comply
with NEMA and ANSI standards. The decibel values referenced
below (Figure 6) represent average values obtained in a sound
laboratory per industry standard test procedures.
ABNORMAL WEATHER CONDITIONS
NETA World, Fall 2011 Issue

By Kyle Springinatic, Magna Electric Corp.
In Canada and countries with similar climates, winter can be

bitterly cold with heavy snowstorms along with ice, freezing
rain, and temperatures almost always below zero degrees Celsius.
These conditions, most notably temperatures, pose a big challenge
for the electrical industry personnel that have to work outdoors.
Interpreting outdoor electrical equipment test data and results
requires a lot of preparation and analysis.
In this article, a comparison of results on a 3.0 MVA, 13.8 to
0.6/0.347 kV transformer will be demonstrated in two different
temperature of -10ºC. The second scenario is performing the

identical tests just moments apart indoors at a temperature of 20ºC.
These tests were accomplished by placing the transformer outside
our shop on March 13, 2011, when the ambient temperature Photo 2: Transformer Testing in Winter Conditions
was -19 degrees C and the wind chill was -28. Test results were
obtained during the early morning hours and the actual transformer One of the most challenging feats is performing transformer
temperature was approximately – 10ºC as the previous day was work. This is particularly true when transformer assembly and
around 0ºC.
pretense that moisture will be under low pressure, but
that will not work when the moisture is in a solid state (yes, that is
ice). Normally the transformer will need to be completely covered
with insulated tarps, and heat must be applied to make the vacuum
process effective.
Photo 1: Transformer Testing in Winter Conditions
Electrical power system testing and maintenance has a number of

challenges when working in extreme cold weather conditions. While
large amounts of snow create problems, low temperatures have a
huge effect on insulating mediums like SF6 gas and insulating oil as
well as the test results associated with the equipment. Photo 3: Oil Heating Process for Vacuum Filling
Handling transformer oil is a challenge as well due to the viscosity Table 1-2: High Side Winding Resistance Correction Factors
of the oil becoming so low that the oil cannot be moved. The oil
actually looks more like thick maple syrup. In these cases heated
tankers are required to warm the oil to the point where transferring
it becomes possible. If the oil is already in the transformer tank,
the radiators can be shut off and the oil circulated through heaters
to bring the transformer up to temperature for testing.
Most test equipment does not function properly at extremely low Table 1-3: Low Side Winding Resistance Correction Factors
temperatures. Test equipment is often required to be set up in the warm
vehicle and the test leads run out through the window. It is important
to understand why some testing should not be performed, nor is it
recommended when the temperature reaches below freezing point,
unless certain heaters and insulated tarps with support structure can
be provided to help keep heat in and around apparatus. For example, INSULATION RESISTANCE
if a company were to test a transformer in -40ºC temperature, how
accurate will the test results be? Are the powerfactor results going to Looking at the table from the ANSI NETA MTS-2011, it can be seen
capture all the moisture present in the oil, windings, and insulation? that at 20°C the temperature correction factor equals one. For every
Is the test set screen going to freeze up? Are the results going to 10°C increase in temperature the correction factor approximately
accurately compare with summer test records? Can the drain valve be doubles and vice versa for decreasing temperature by 10°C.
accessed to take an oil sample? These are just some of the questions Table 1: Insulation-Resistance Correction Factors (20ºC)
you will have to ask yourself before maintenance is performed on NETA Table 100.14.1
outdoor transformers and a service report is developed.
Temperature has a direct proportional affect to the resistance of a

conductor. For the operating range in temperature of a transformer,
the relationship between resistance and temperature is a linear
available for calculating the resistance of copper or aluminum

conductors, but this article will only focus on the inferred absolute
temperature method as follows:
Inferred Absolute Temperature (Ti) Formula:
When performing a polarization index test on the transformer,
as shown in illustration 1 and illustration 2. The polarization index

Where: |T1|= inferred absolute temperature of conductor in Table 1-1
value with energizing the primary winding at 5 kV and measuring
T2= measured ambient temperature R1= measured resistance to the grounded secondary winding equaled 2.509 @ -10°C
T3= temperature to correct resistance value to and 1.986 @ 20°C (23.3% difference). With the same test, but
energizing the secondary winding at 500 volts and measuring to
R2= calculated corrected resistance
the grounded primary winding, PI results were calculated as 2.609
Table 1-1: Inferred Absolute Temperatures (Ti) @ -10°C and 2.171 @ 20°C (18.3% difference).
Having the correct conversion factors will in fact give an accurate

reading to 20°C for analyzing the test data as shown in Table
1-2 and 1-3. If no conversion factors were used for the winding
resistance, results would not give a correct interpretation on the
integrity of the transformer.
Table 1-3: Outside -10ºC Doble Overall Tests
Table 1-4: Inside 20ºC Doble Overall Tests
Illustration 1: 5000 Volt Primary to Secondary and

Ground PI Test
OIL SAMPLING
Gathering an oil sample from the top and bottom drain valves at
below operating temperatures will give the greatest insight on the
oil quality. As the temperature decreases closer to freezing point,
the moisture present in the oil will escape, thus affecting high
voltage testing. When the moisture is becoming extracted from
Illustration 2: 1000 Volt Secondary to Primary and the oil, it will sit closer to the bottom of the transformer tank.
Ground PI Test
Power-factor testing can provide the most helpful and accurate

results when it comes to transformer testing. Having previous data
stored on the Doble history database allows one to compare results
from past and interpret the stability of the transformer. But what
if the stored test results differ in values? Table 1-3 and 1-4, show
how the same transformer can provide different results at extreme
temperature changes.
Photo 4: Power-Factor Testing Preparation

The fact that the transformer tested poorly outside and good
inside shows how crucial it is to consider the entire transformer’s
temperature during testing. By placing a higher voltage on the
windings, more results are revealed, but testing at a nonoperating,
freezing temperature will not give acceptable data as clearly shown
RECOMMENDATIONS
Move to Florida! There are many challenges involved with
winter work especially when dealing with transformers and
transformer oil. Special precautions and extra effort are required to
get the equipment up to temperature so certain tasks can be done.
It can be seen how such a drastic change in results are affected by
temperature. Therefore, having an accurate test sheet temperature
correction-factor database is crucial in order to have comparable
results from season to season. In today’s world, digital test sets
perform the majority of the testing and should, therefore, be kept
in a warm environment where results can be accurately processed.
If need be, bring the test set inside a vehicle or indoors and run
the test leads outside to the equipment under test. When tarps and
heaters are used to heat the transformer, ensure that all proper
clearances are kept around bushing and test connections. Having
scaffolding or any support structure too close to the bushings will
also pose a threat to accurate test results.
Kyle Springinatic is a NETA Level II technician

that has been working with Magna Electric for
four years in the oil and gas, potash, steel and
generation industries.
IMPORTANCE OF ANALYZING
EXCITATION TEST RESULTS
by Keith Hill, Doble Engineering Company
Often times an indication of a problem is overlooked by testing in the tap-changing device. These conditions result in a change of
personnel. Fortunately for the owner of this transformer, the the effective reluctance of the magnetic circuit which consequently
core, or in other words, the exciting current measurement.

a problem with abnormal excitation current tests prevented this
transformer from being placed into service which would have to uncover similar types of problems and, therefore, lend themselves
resulted in a failure upon energizing. well as sanity checks, the exciting current test largely stands alone in
The technicians from the testing company performed the standard its diagnostic capabilities. For this reason, most companies consider
acceptance tests that included: transformer overall power-factor the test an essential one in the basic suite of tests performed on a
transformer. While a low-voltage, turns-ratio test will detect complete
(DETC) positions, low-voltage transformer turns ratio (TTR) tests failures in the turn-to-turn insulation, it is not nearly as sensitive as the
exciting current test in detecting a strand-to-strand fault.
the primary and secondary windings. The overall power-factor, The exciting currents measured by the testing company are
TTR, and winding-resistance results were all considered to be shown in Table 1.
acceptable by the technicians performing the tests. The technicians
Exciting Current Tests
conform to the two high and one low current that is normally
Exciting current tests are performed in an attempt to identify an

low-voltage, electronic type instrument. All of the TTR test results were
abnormal condition with the core or coil. Exciting current tests are
determined to be acceptable by the technician performing the tests.
often affected by a magnetized core. A magnetized core may be the
result of performing dc winding resistance tests. For a three-legged The manufacturer of the transformer was contacted by the owner
core transformer, one usually expects to have two high currents and and the data was reviewed by both parties. The manufacturer
one low current with the middle winding having the lowest exciting
current, although there are exceptions. When exciting current tests an attempt was made to demagnetize the transformer following the
have a low-medium-high pattern, it is suspected that the core is demagnetizing procedure recommended by Doble Engineering.
magnetized. When this low-medium-high pattern is received, it
is often recommended to demagnetize the transformer. Often the were unsuccessful as the currents did not change from the high-
technician will assume that the core is magnetized and will not medium-low pattern. The H2 – H3 phase continued to have the
investigate the odd exciting current patterns. It is fortunate that the high current (over four times higher) when compared to the other
technicians who performed acceptance testing of this transformer outside winding H3 – H1.
At this point, Doble Engineering was contacted by
on the problem. the manufacturer to review the test data and to provide
The exciting current test is a single-phase test that was introduced recommendations for additional diagnostic tests. After discussing
in North America as a diagnostic tool in 1967 and today is part of the results, factory personnel wanted personnel from Doble to
perform testing that would include power factor, exciting current,
circuit of a transformer. Since that time, the exciting current test’s and sweep frequency response analysis (SFRA). The manufacturer
diagnostic capabilities have proven the ability to identify a range
of problems. These include defects in the magnetic core structure As in the acceptance tests, all of the overall power-factor
such as shorted laminations or fundamental changes in the iron test results performed during the follow-up investigation were
characteristics, failures in the turn-toturn insulation, or problems acceptable and matched prior test results.
Table 2 records the exciting current test results attained by Doble Doble Transformer Turns Ratio
personnel before the demagnetizing procedure was performed.
Exciting Current Tests before Demagnetization
The SFRA test was performed on this transformer in an attempt

to identify the problem. The SFRA is a technique that has gained
popularity internationally over the last ten years and is experiencing
rapid growth and application in North America.
Attempts made to demagnetize the transformer did not result in
changes to the pattern or magnitude of the excitation currents. A of the winding and core and the series and parallel impedance
problem with the core or windings was suspected. network of inductance, capacitance, and resistance. This network
Table 3 contains the exciting current test results obtained after
the demagnetizing procedure. Frequency response analysis testing by the sweep frequency
response method uses network analysis tools to determine the
Exciting Current Tests after Demagnetization
the impedance network and, in turn, alter the transfer function.
Interpretation of SFRA test results relies, in part, on comparison

between phases and against previous test results. Commonality
between transformers of the same design is also expected.
Test 6: Performed on Tap 5 after Demagnetizing of the
Transformer was Attempted.
Test 7: Performed after Demagnetization was Performed on
H3 – H1.
Test 8: Performed on Tap 5 with Shorter Intervals of DC
Current Applied.
It is noted that the H2-H3 phase continues to have current values
four times higher than the H3-H1 phase. Since demagnetizing
the core did not change the excitation test results, some other
problem is assumed to be involved with the core or windings. One
test that is recommended as part of the standard test procedure
is the TTR. Turns ratio tests are particularly useful if there is a
suspected open or short circuit. The turns ratio tolerance should SFRA – HV Open Circuit Tests H3 – H2 Appears to be
be within the prescribed IEEE C57 guidelines of +/- 0.5 % based Abnormal
on the nameplate stated voltages for all windings. As part of the
investigation, a TTR test was performed using the TTR capacitor.
Using the capacitor in place of the standard TTR test set allows
a higher test voltage, up to 10 kV, to be applied to the primary
winding. Most TTR test sets are limited to less than 100 volts
which greatly reduces the voltage on the secondary windings.
Abnormalities were observed when attempting to energize the
H2-H3 winding that limited the test potential for that phase. With
10 kV applied, test results were attained for phases H3 – H1 and
for H1 – H2; however, when the test voltage was applied to H2
– H3, the test set would trip out on overcurrent. The test voltage
applied to H2 – H3 had to be reduced to 2 kV before a ratio could
be attained as the test set would trip out at 2.6 kV. SFRA – HV Tests with LV Winding Short CircuitedWindings
Appear to be Normal
It should be noted that all of the TTR results were acceptable
at 2 kV. Using the standard, low-voltage, TTR test set would not
have revealed a problem with the windings of this transformer.
with the magnetic circuit of this transformer. It was determined

by the customer that the transformer would not be accepted and
would be returned to the factory for inspection and repair.
FACTORY INSPECTION AND TESTING
problem with the windings. The transformer was returned to the

factory for further inspection and testing. The following tests were
scheduled to be performed:
1. Preliminary tests (ratio test, dc insulation, resistance)
2. Exciting current tests
SFRA -LV Open Circuit Tests X3 – X0 Appears to be 3. No load losses tests (NLL )
Abnormal and is the Same Phase as H3 – H2
4. High-voltage impulse test
The SFRA tests are actually a series of many tests over a band of
5. Low-voltage impulse test
frequencies from 20 hertz to 2 mega-hertz. The SFRA test results
can be referred to as traces that are shown on a graph. The x-axis 6. Induced voltage test
of the graph is the test frequency and the y-axis is the magnitude In the factory report, it was noted that a high exciting current
in decibels. These traces show the ratio of the output voltage to the was measured on phase 3, H2 – H3, as reported by the customer.
input voltage of the transformer circuit under test at each of the On the NLL test, the losses measured were nearly three times the
frequencies. It has been shown that these traces are a signature that value when tested in the plant during the original routine tests.
is related to the distributed resistance, inductance, and capacitance During the high- and low-voltage impulse tests, the neutral low
(RLC) of the components within the transformer. They should voltage failed. At this point it was determined to stop the electrical
follow certain general shapes and favorable comparisons should tests and to carry out the investigation of the failure.
exist among the phases of a transformer with previous test
The top cover of the transformer was removed and the core and
coil assembly was removed from the tank. The frame and top yoke
benchmark, traces also provide a valuable tool to identify winding
were removed, and no signs of failure were observed. It was noted
movement in the future.
that the low-voltage coils from phase 2 had possible overheating
The SFRA test results for this transformer are shown in Figures on the top section.
1 through 3. Figure 1 shows the results of the open circuit scan
The coil was removed from phase 3, and the conductor in the
performed on the high voltage winding. The H1-H3 phase and
high-voltage winding was unwound layer by layer, with a careful
examination of the condition of each layer. An initial evidence
windings. H3-H2 phase reveals a deviation in the low frequency
of arcing was detected in layer 16 between adjacent turns. Similar
range which indicates irregularity with the transformer’s magnetic
circuit.
The factory noted that all ANSI routine and temperature rise
The SFRA traces in Figure 2 show the tests when highvoltage
tests were performed. After the temperature- rise test, no other
winding is energized with the low-voltage winding short circuited.
tests were performed on this unit.
The traces are expected to exhibit a similar starting point and an
Low Voltage
expected trail-off, followed by the more complicated form above
20,000 hertz which is typical of the short-circuit tests. By shorting
the lowvoltage winding, the effect of the core is removed. The
waveforms in Figure 2 are typical for the short-circuit test.
Figure 3 plots the SFRA open-circuit test results for the low-
voltage winding. As was observed in the high-voltage winding
open circuit (Figure 1), there is a deviation in the low frequency
magnetic circuit.
Although the overall power-factor test results were within
the recommended limits, the single-phase exciting-current tests Figure 5: Low Voltage
combined with irregularities observed when performing the TTR Phase 2
Phase 3
and SFRA tests provides substantial evidence there is a problem Layer 16
with the small blister was not detected by routine test. After the
temperature rise test, the blister in the conductor developed an
increased contact between adjacent conductors. This condition
resulted in an increase in the damage and the fault current but
was not detected since no other tests were performed after the
temperature rise test.
It should be noted that the factory took immediate corrective
actions in their test process/laboratory and in the winding process
to prevent recurrence of this problem. It was noted in the factory’s
Layer 11 diagnostic report that some testing will be performed at the factory
after the heat rise test.
CONCLUSION
investigating an odd exciting current pattern. Power-factor results

should never be the only criteria used in determining the acceptance
of a transformer as other test data may reveal a problem. If the
current pattern, this unit could have failed when placed into service.
When an odd exciting current pattern is obtained, the tester should
not take for granted that the core is magnetized, as this odd pattern
may indicate a problem with the core or windings. It should also
Layer 16 be noted that the low voltage TTR tests did not reveal a problem
with the turn’s ratio on this transformer. Use of the TTR capacitor,
at a higher test voltage, revealed a problem with the turns ratio
when the voltage applied was above 2.6 kV. The TTR capacitor
problem with this phase.
REFERENCES
High Voltage Transformer Tests Uncover Manufacturing Defect

Not Detected in the Factory. Presented by Keith Hill at the April
2008 Annual International Conference of Doble Clients.
Keith Hill
The diagnosis of the failure suggested an issue with the
currently works as a Principal Engineer in the
that the damage on the windings was due to a lack of conductor
Client Service Department and is secretary
serving on the Arresters, Capacitors, Cables,
has a low level of insulation.
and Accessories Committee. Before being
The fact that there were no other tests performed after the employed by Doble, Keith had over twenty-
temperature rise test led factory personnel to the following
conclusion: During the temperature rise test, and with the thermal eighteen years as the electrical supervisor
expansion on the conductors, the incipient short circuit between of engineering services at Lyondell-Citgo
adjacent turns was aggravated, causing the arcing observed and
worsening the fault current which was not detected afterwards since the University of Houston with a major in power. Keith is a member
no additional testing was performed after the temperature-rise test.
Factory personnel determined that the failure of the unit was due Technician.
to a small blister in the conductor insulating enamel. The conductor
Single and 3-Phase Ratiometers
99%
OF ALL EQUIPMENT SOLD IS
STILL IN OPERATION TODAY!
In 1997, Raytech demonstrated the durability of
its original TR-SPY by throwing it across the room
10A and 200A Contact Resistance at the NETA New Product Forum.
That exact unit, along with over 3,000 sold since,
is still in operation today.
Raytech stands behind its custom-made, high-
quality measuring and testing equipment
developed and produced for the international
power industry.
Winding Resistance with

Core Demagnatization
www.raytechusa.com
MODERN METHODS IN
CURRENT TRANSFORMER TESTING
by Peter Fong, OMICRON electronics Corp. USA
Different test devices and methods are used in the market to Several ways of conventional testing are possible:
verify the performance of current transformers during development, 1. The traditional way of testing a current transformer is to apply a high
production, installation and maintenance. This article describes current to the primary side and read the signals on the secondary
an innovative solution to test current transformers at all lifecycle side. By using different burdens or injecting overcurrents, various
stages by using a revolutionary testing method called “the modeling situations can be simulated and the signals on the secondary side
concept.” can be measured and analyzed. However, this method is time-
Current transformers are used in electrical power systems for consuming and requires a lot of equipment. Sometimes it is not
relaying and metering purposes. Depending on the application for even feasible as very high currents are required, e.g., for on-site
which they are used, the current transformers are designed differently. testing of a bushing current transformer inside a power transformer
or a shunt reactor.
APPLICATIONS AREAS
2. Another common testing scenario for current transformers is
The current transformers for metering and protection applications
work basically the same way – transforming high power primary the reverse transformed value on the primary side. Unfortunately,
signals to lower secondary values. However, while current using this scenario, some parameters like accuracy and knee point
transformers used for protection applications operate to well above (excitation curve), can only be tested with limitations. This is due
the load current, the current transformers for metering purposes must to the scenario’s restrictions in accuracy caused by the very low
go into saturation directly above the load current level to protect the signals in use and the maximum voltage of approximately two kV
connected meter. which can be applied to the secondary side of current transformers.
Other important parameters like the transient dimensioning factor,
Current transformers play an important role in the protection of the accuracy limit factor, the safety factor, composite errors, time
electrical power systems. They provide the protection relay with a constancies, and many others cannot be tested at all.
replication of the primary current so that it can operate according to As both methods have limitations, OMICRON has developed an
its settings. The transformation of the current values from primary innovative method of testing CTs.
to secondary must be accurate during normal load conditions and
especially during fault conditions on the primary side (when currents MODELING CONCEPT
up to 30-times the nominal current can be expected). OMICRON developed a CT analyzer test device which uses a
revolutionary testing concept. The concept of modeling a current
Today, energy is supplied by many different sources including transformer allows for a detailed view of the transformer’s design and
alternative energy sources like solar and wind power. To guarantee its physical behavior. The test device builds up a model of the current
accurate billing in this competitive electricity market, additional transformer by using initial data, measured automatically during the
metering points are necessary. It is, therefore, important to have the test. Based on this model the test device is able to calculate parameters
entire metering circuit calibrated, as the meter is only as accurate as like the secondary terminal voltage, Vb,the accuracy limiting factor
the instrument transformers sourcing it. This makes the testing and (ALF), and the safety factor (FS), and simulate the CT’s behavior
calibration of current transformers up to the 0.15 accuracy class under different burdens or with various primary currents.
essential. However, on-site testing of CTs of the 0.15 accuracy class The analyzer measures the transformer’s copper and iron losses
according to its equivalent circuit diagram. While copper losses are
the measurement results. described as the winding resistance, RCT, iron losses are described
as the eddy losses or eddy resistance Reddy, and hysteresis losses as
TESTING OF CURRENT TRANSFORMERS hysteresis resistance RH. With this detailed information about the
Conventional testing methods apply a signal on one side and read core’s total losses, the CT analyzer is capable of modeling the current
the output signal on the other side. transformer and calculating the current ratio error as well as the phase
displacement for any primary current and secondary burden.
Therefore, all operating points described in the relevant standards the current which caused the remanence. In a second step, the current
for current transformers can be determined. The model also allows transformer is demagnetized by reducing the voltage gradually to zero.
important parameters such as the residual magnetism, the saturated
and unsaturated inductance, the symmetrical short-current factor
(overcurrent factor) and even the transient dimensioning factor
(according to the IEC 60044-6 standard for transient fault current
calculations) to be assessed.
Within seconds a test report, including an automatic assessment
according to IEEE C57.13 or C57.13.6 (Standard for High Accuracy
Instrument Transformers) is generated. The CT analyzer offers a
very high testing accuracy of 0.05% (0.02% typical) for current Figure 5 and 6: Demagnetization principle of iron cores
ratio and 3 minutes of angle (1 min typical) for phase displacement.
The CT analyzer performs the residual magnetism measurements
prior to the usual CT testing cycle as it automatically removes
residual magnetism after testing. In order to determine the residual
magnetism the CT analyzer drives the core into positive and negative
saturation alternately until a stable symmetric hysteresis loop is
reached. The CT analyzer then calculates the initial remanence
condition to determine whether the core was affected by residual
magnetism. The results are displayed as absolute values in voltage
Figure 1: Equivalent circuit diagram of a real current transformer
RESIDUAL MAGNETISM
Additionally, the remanence factor Kr is shown on the test card.
A new measurement function for the CT nalyzer allows current
transformers to be tested for residual magnetism. Residual magnetism
may occur if a current transformer is driven into saturation. This can
happen as a consequence of high fault currents containing transient
components, or direct currents applied to the current transformer during
winding resistance tests or during a polarity check (wiring check).
Figure 7: Test card of the CT analyzer showing the

measurement results of a residual magnetism test
The CT analyzer automatically demagnetizes the current
transformer when the test is complete.
CONCLUSION
After installation, current transformers are typically used for 30 years.
In order to guarantee a reliable and safe operation over the life time of the
CTs, a high level of quality during design phase, manufacturing process,
and installation is essential. Therefore, several quality tests are performed
from development to installation. After installation, CTs should be tested
Figure 4: Hysteresis curve at the max. saturation point on a regular basis to ensure correct functioning over the entire life time.
showing the possible area for residual magnetism
Since remanence effects in protective current transformers are not Peter Fong received a BS in Electrical
predictable and barely recognizable during normal operation, these Engineering from the University of British
effects are even more critical. Unwanted operation of the differential Columbia in 1988. He joined OMICRON in
protection may be caused. Protective relays also may show a failure
to operate in case of real overcurrent as the current transformer’s of Application Engineer. Prior to joining
signal is distorted due to the residual magnetism in the CT core.
Once the current transformer is magnetized, a demagnetization Hydro and two years at a relay manufacturer in
process is necessary in order to remove residual magnetism. This can the US. Peter Fong is a Professional Engineer
be achieved, e.g., by applying an ac current with similar strength as (APEGBC) and a member of IEEE.
ADVANCED DIAGNOSTIC TESTING

METHODS FOR TRANSFORMERS
PowerTest 2012
by Charles Sweetser, OMICRON electronics Corp. USA
INTRODUCTION INSULATION PROPERTIES

The electric power industry is always looking for best the Insulation systems consisting of cellulose and oil exhibit both
approach to better determine the condition of power transformers. polarization and conductivity phenomena. These two phenomena occur
For decades the industry has relied on conventional off-line tests simultaneously, and superposition must be applied to discriminate
which depend on a single measurement at single frequency, constant their effects due to the combination of both cellulose and oil.
voltage, or static mode. At times, only having conventional test
data for review has led to an inconclusive analysis or condition polarization and conductivity domains, where moisture has the
assessment. Research in conjunction with modern measuring
separate these components (polarization losses and conductive
exists if frequency, voltage, and other dynamic parameters are losses) at an arbitrary frequency (60 Hz) [7].
allowed to vary. From an engineering and maintenance perspective,
these advanced diagnostic tests, which are just extensions of the
conventional tests, provide new and critical information about the In the frequency range in the neighborhood of 60 Hz, DC(0 Hz)to
health of the power transformer. 10 kHz, two types of polarization losses exist, interfacial polarization
(0.0003 Hz) and molecular polarization (10 kHz). When dissimilar
applied today in transformer diagnostics, though careful selection, materials, such as cellulose and oil are combined together, an
hierarchal value, and appropriate times of use, includes: interfacial polarization process materializes. Interfacial polarization
is typical for non-homogeneous dielectrics with different permittivity
• Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
or conductivity. Here space charge carriers such as ions accumulate
• Oil Screen at the interfaces, forming clouds with a dipole-like behavior [1].
• Power Factor The interfacial polarization is the resonance that occurs between the
• Exciting Current propagation speed and distance traveled of the space charge carriers
as a function of the insulation geometry (ratio between oil, barriers
• Turns/Voltage Ratio
and spacers). Interfacial polarization between cellulose and oil occurs
• DC Winding Resistance at lower frequencies; 1 mHz for dry and cool insulation systems and
• Sweep Frequency Response Analysis (SFRA) 10 Hz for wet and hot insulation systems.
• Leakage Reactance In cellulose and oil insulation systems the individual molecular
• Insulation Resistance structures produce polarization losses. These molecular losses can
• Partial Discharge (PD) peak around 10 kHz. At or near 60 Hz, these losses cause the power
factor values to slightly increase and decrease proportionally with
• Thermography (IR)
frequency for healthy insulation systems. Figure 1a illustrates this
The focus of this paper is to investigate advanced variations behavior in the 10 Hz to 1 kHz range.
of the traditional power factor measurement that is performed at
rated frequency. Understanding insulation properties is essential
in exacted in-depth diagnostic information. The advanced protocol Both cellulose and oil exhibit conductive losses, however oil
takes advantage of frequency domain measurements (Dielectric is unique in the fact that by itself it solely produces conductive
Frequency Response – DFR) to identify polarization and losses. Figure 1b illustrates contact conductive losses in oil.
While conductive losses are seen in both cellulose and oil, it
interest, is the interfacial polarization effect, which occurs at the
interface boundaries between cellulose and oil. Particular emphasis However, at very low frequencies occurring below the interfacial
will focus on dielectric behavior as a function of frequency at or polarization range the conductive properties of oil are minimized
near the fundamental power frequency. as compared to cellulose.
dissipation factor was the Schering Bridge. This is basically a four-

arm alternating-current (AC) bridge circuit whose measurement
depends on balancing the loads on its arms. The bridge required
the use of a higher voltage, a few kV. For practical reasons, the
frequency was mostly limited to power frequency. These historical
where a test voltage of typically 10 kV and a limited frequency

Figure 1a: Losses in Cellulose Figure 1b: Losses in Oil range close to power frequency are used [1].
Industry standards give various limits for power factor. For
It is worthy to mention the dangerous effects of moisture and
high temperatures in insulation systems. Together they negatively transformers and reactors, the power factor measurements should
affect the performance and life expectancy of insulation systems. not exceed 0.50%. It further recommends that it is acceptable for
Moisture and/or high temperatures contribute to the following: older power transformers to have power factors between 0.50%
and 1.00%; however, power factors greater than 1.00% should be
• Decrease in dielectric withstand
investigated.
• Accelerated cellulose aging
• Bubble evolution
Dielectric diagnostic methods deduce moisture in paper
Moisture enables acids to serve as a catalyst to assist the
or pressboard from dielectric properties like re-turn voltage,
breakdown process. As the polymer chains of the cellulose
polarization and depolarization currents and dissipation factor.
are broken down into smaller chains, the cellulose over time
Primary motivations for the development of dielectric response
becomes brittle. This brittleness can be measured by the Degree of
methods were the lack of methods for on-site moisture assessment
Polymerization (DP), where new cellulose has a DP of 1200 and a
in power transformers and the disappointing results of the hitherto
DP of 200 indicates “end-of-life.”
used conventional equilibrium approach.
MEASUREMENTS
Traditionally, basic measurements have been performed on In this method, a voltmeter determines the recovery voltage
insulation systems to estimate the condition or to identify an after charging the insulation with a DC voltage. By subsequent
incipient failure mode. These methods range from oil and material relaxation and repeated charging for varied times the so called
analysis to Power Factor measurements. “polarization spectrum” can be created [2]. This technique is
outdated since its interpretation scheme appeared to be unable
for compensating the interfacial polarization effect and oil
The Power Factor at one single frequency point has been used
properties [3]. In recent years, the Recovery Voltage Method
for decades to determine the integrity and condition of an insulation
has lost popularity to improved dielectric response methods,
system. Figure 2 illustrates the equivalent circuit for losses in
such Polarization and Depolarization Currents PDC [4] and the
insulation materials and the corresponding vector diagram. Any
Frequency Domain Spectroscopy FDS [5].
solid or liquid insulation can be modeled by a capacitance Cp,
representing the “ideal” behavior of insulation, and a resistor
A time domain current measurement records the charging and
indicates the quality of insulation materials by the ratio of resistive discharging currents of the insulation. They are usually called
current IR to total current IT [1]. Polarization and Depolarization Currents PDC. Figure 3 depicts
the shape and common interpretation of a PDC measurement.
Figure 2: Equivalent circuit for insulation materials and Figure 3: PDC Wave Shape and Interpretation
corresponding vector diagram
The Frequency Domain Spectroscopy test measures and models

the properties of insulation systems across a wide frequency range,
e.g. 1000 Hz to 0.1 mHz. This frequency span over 7 decades
enables for discrimination between the effects of polarization
losses, conductive losses, and aging by-products within the overall
insulation system [1]. Techniques that provide power factor
measurements across a frequency band better help discriminate
the characteristics of moisture, aging, temperature, contamination,
conditions. Analysis algorithms are then applied to determine

moisture, conductivity, and insulation geometry.
Figure 4 displays the dielectric behavior of paper, pressboard,
and oil having 1.0 % moisture content at 20°C. The frequency
range of 10 Hz - 1 kHz is dominated by the cellulose insulation,
however also the measurement cables and the connection technique
0.01 Hz – 1 Hz. Dissolved conductive aging by-products increase Figure 5: Combined PDC and FDS Measurement
Using Transformation
polarization (insulation geometry, ratio of oil to pressboard)
determines the local maximum or “hump” in the 0.003 Hz range. the combining of time and frequency domain measurements. A
The higher the ratio of oil to pressboard, the more dominating is transformation is applied to the time domain measurement and the
this effect. Finally, the moisture effects within the cellulose appear
again at the frequencies below 0.5 mHz [1].
The Power Factor Tip-Up method monitors the behavior
of insulation as a function of test voltage. The test voltage is
generally increased at predetermined levels and the power
factor is recorded. Healthy insulation systems in transformers
and bushings should not produce the “Tip-Up effect”, whereby
the percent power factor increases with an increase in voltage.
Sensitivity to Tip-Up can be caused by aging, localized defects
that result in partial discharges, and defective connections in
series with a given insulation path.
For practical purposes the “value” of Tip-Up is the difference
between the 10 kV Power Factor and the 2 kV Power Factor for
insulation systems rated at 15 kV and above. It is not the terminal
Figure 4: Dielectric Behavior for Cellulose and Oil as a

Function of Frequency
stress across a narrow gap in the insulation will be much higher
than that across larger gaps. The gap size observation indicates
that Tip-Up is a stronger diagnostic for bushing insulation
Combining the polarization current measurement method in time
systems as compared to large power transformers.
reduce the testing time compared to existing techniques. Figure 6a shows Tip-Up tests on 2 similar bushings. These
Essentially, time domain measurements can be accomplished in a are 500 kV 1975 Westinghouse Type O bushings. Figure 6b is
short time but are limited to low frequencies. In contrast, frequency a follow-up frequency sweep test that was also used to rule out
domain measurements are feasible for high frequencies but take a moisture.
very long time to complete at low frequencies. Figure 5 illustrates
Figure 6a: Power Factor Tip-Up Figure 7: Superposition of Cellulose and Oil
Figure 8: Polarization and Conductive Losses Near 60 Hz

Figure 6b: Variable Frequency Power Factor
The Tip-Up measurement in red is voltage sensitive, and the

measurement begins to noticeably Tip-Up at 6 kV.
The way transformer insulation is tested greatly depends on
test protocols exist. Table 1, shown below, lists a few common types.
Table 1: Main Insulation Components
Figure 9 illustrates typical 2-winding transformer measurements,

which include CH, CL, CHL.
With regards to moisture, the diagnostics should focus on the

inter-winding insulation (CHL, CHT, CLT, and CAutoT). The inter-
winding insulation isolates the bulk cellulose. The bulk cellulose
Hz; however this measurement is very sensitive to the conductive

losses in this range due to the conductivity of the oil. Figure 7
illustrates the superposition effects of the oil and cellulose. Figure
Figure 9: Typical 2-Winding Transformer Measurements
(CH, CL, CHL)
Figure 10 shows inter-winding measurements from 4 different CONCLUSION

transformers with various levels of moisture present. The 60 Hz
Advanced diagnostic methods for analyzing moisture and
power factor measurements were 0.23%, 0.46%, 0.68%, and
the dielectric properties of power transformers and bushings are
2.16% at 20°C, see Table 2. The Extreme and Wet units measured
useful and pertinent tools with which to determine the insulation
3.7 % and 4.6% moisture content by weight, respectively.
health of the subject apparatus. As an asset manager reviewing the
life expectancy of the equipment or a power system operations
manager responsible for determining the loading capabilities of
the equipment, it is important to know the conditions and degree of
moisture in transformers and bushings. In summary, the following
points can be concluded from this paper:
1. Dielectric diagnostic methods deduce moisture in the solid
insulation from dielectric properties like polarization and
depolarization currents and dissipation factor vs. frequency [6].
response of transformers, and therefore this must be compensated

for when attempting to determine the moisture content of the
solid insulation.
Figure 10: Inter-winding Measurements with Various Levels
of Moisture Present 3. When performing a measurement at an arbitrary frequency
(60Hz) it is not possible to separate the resistive (conduction
losses) and the dielectric (polarization) losses [7].
Table 2: Power Factor and Moisture Measurements
4. Moisture predominately resides in the paper insulation, in lieu
of the oil.
5. The Dielectric Frequency Response method provides a
comprehensive approach to determining the moisture content in the
solid insulation.
REFERENCES
[1] M. Koch, M. Krueger, M. Puetter. “Advanced Insulation Diagnostic
Figure 11, shown below, illustrates the CHL power factor
behavior from two similar transformers. The 60 Hz power factors [2] E. Nemeth. “Measuring the Voltage Response, a Diagnostic
are identical (0.22%); however the overall responses are different. Test Method of Insulation.” Proceedings of the VII International
These results would be an indication that T2 has a slightly higher Symposium on High Voltage Engineering, ISH, Dresden, 1991;
moisture content. [3] M. Koch, M. Kruger, S. Tenbohlen. “Comparing Various Moisture
Determination Methods for Power Transformers.” South Africa
Regional Conference, CIGRE 2009;
[4] V.D. Houhanessian. “Measurement and Analysis of Dielectric
Response in Oil-Paper Insulation Systems.” Ph.D. Dissertation, Swiss
Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, ETHZ, 1998;
[5] R. Niemanis, T.K. Saha, R. Eriksson. “Determination of Moisture
Content in Mass Impregnated Cable Insulation Using Low Frequency
Dielectric Spectroscopy.” IEEE Power Engineering Society Summer
Meetings, p 463-468, vol. 1, Seattle, USA, July 16-20, 2000;
[6] M. Koch, M. Krüger. “Moisture Determination by Improved
[7] S.M. Gubanski, P. Boss, G. Csepes, V. Der Houhanessian,

Figure 11: Typical 2-Winding Transformer Measurements
J. Filippini, P. Guuinic, U. Gafvert, V. Karius, J. Lapworth, G. Urbani,
from similar transformers at 20°C.
P. Werelius, W. Zaengl. “Dielectric Response Methods for Diagnostic
of Power Transformers.” Preport of the TF D1.01.09 , CIGRE 2002.
ANCILLARY DEVICES NEED TESTING TOO
PowerTest 2012
by Rick Youngblood, Doble Engineering
It is common knowledge that transformer cost comprises any- the failure modes must be known and tested for on a regular basis.
where from 40-60% of the price of a substation. The cost has spi- -
raled out of control, up 40% from last year. These price increases ing categories: mechanical, electrical and dielectric. Each of these
have dried up the inventory of the used market and new transform- categories should be further divided into internal and external test-
ers are averaging 50-56 weeks from order to arrival. All rewind ing. The last two divisions are what separate mediocre from the
shops are swamped and their time lines are growing as well. Un- complete testing programs.
fortunately, the majority of the U.S. transformer population is also
at the end of the baby boom era and requires special care and test- EXTERNAL FAILURE MODES
ing if they are to continue to serve until the market can catch up. In Mechanical failures are typically broken into LTC drive systems
some of the more progressive industries and utilities, transformer and cooling.
testing is nothing more than a walk around to look for leaks, nitro- It is imperative the LTC make a full tap change at a speed where
gen and oil levels, LTC count, and the temperature recorded by the
internal arcing damage is minimized. Items such as weak motor
hot spot and top oil gages. Some company maintenance and test starting capacitors (Pictures 1 and 2) and low source voltage will
personnel have implemented DGA testing but many still have no cause the motor to labor; pull abnormally high currents, and even-
clue of its value. tually burn up if not protected by a safety of some sort. Motor
The companies that do regularly test transformers are many voltage should not drop more than 10% during tap change from 1
times still guilty of only testing what is inside the tank and totally L to 1 R. Low voltage means high current and overheating. Bad
overlook many of the obvious other transformer failure producing source wiring or corroded connections to the LTC can also be a
indicators on the outside. To truly test a transformer 100%, all of culprit of low voltage.
Picture 1: Motor mounted Required Torque = Source Voltage X Current Picture 2: Externally mounted
capacitor Voltage Down = Current Up capacitor
Stiff rusty chains (Picture 3), weak drive springs, dry gear boxes
and poor shaft alignment all contribute to tap changer and trans-
former failure and have nothing to do with the internal workings
of LTC or windings. Many transformer failures can be attributed
to the failure of the dynamic braking system that stops the LTC on
tap rather than partially on tap as can be seen below in (Picture 4.)
Dry “All Thread” 33 cam switch activators and rusty bear-

ings cause timing errors, out of sequence stepping or failure
in the end of stroke limit switches.
True maintenance of these items does not mean spraying
Picture 3: Rusty chains on a Federal Pacific TC-525 them with WD-40 or any other solvent based penatrent. The
only correct solution is to disassemble clean and repack the
bearing or gear box with compatible grease or replace the de-
fective parts.
COOLING
Cooling is essential for long transformer life. Most trans-
formers are designed for 55C or 65C rise. Using newer in-
sulations such as Nomex®, temperatures of 95C and higher
can be achieved. These temperatures can only be maintained if
the transformer operating conditions do not exceed the design
limitations.
Unfortunately in today’s operating environment, most end
users are pushing loads well past nameplate design limitations
resulting in increased winding temperatures. These tempera-
tures are primarily due to increased losses such as I2R. In-
creased heating plays a major effect on the degradation of in-
sulation quality and drastically diminishes its life expectancy.
Here the standard 10 rule of thumb still applies for insulation
Picture 4: Contact failure due to faulty drive mechanism on half life.
a 550B
Transformers are either self cooled through natural oil convec-

tion and rated ONAN (Picture 5) or fan cooled and rated ONAF
(Pictures 6 and 7). In most extreme cases, forced oil or forced
oil over water cooling with a rating of OFAF or OFWF (Picture
11) are used.
In each case, it is extremely important that proper temperature
transfer takes place. The design of the transformer relies on a
or cooler for heat extraction. Any increase in heat generation or

any heat transfer reduction results in higher winding tempera-
is degraded and will be covered in a later section.
Picture 6: ONAF cooling provided by fans used to increase

using natural oil convection (bottom mount up draft)
Picture 7: ONAF cooling provide by fans used to increase

cooling using natural oil convection. (Side mount)
Bottom mount fans blow air across the total length of the
cooler or radiator but have higher motor failure due to water
entrance around the shaft seal. The use of totally enclosed, non
vented motors with high quality shaft seals do however in-
crease motor life. Inspection of these motors should be made
Picture 5: ONAN naturally cooled through oil convection monthly. Side mounted fans have a longer life expectancy but
cooling no external fans tend to blow only across the section of the cooler or radia-
tor where placed. Side mounted fans are also very susceptible
to prevalent wind direction which can help or defeat the air
movement across the heat transfer surface. Open frame motors
are not recommended in any case due to higher failure rates
due to environmental considerations.
Typically one fan failure does not cause serious problems,

but does result in an overall temperature increase for the
transformer especially if overloaded to begin with as can
be seen in infrared picture 8. Fans typically fail in batches.
They are manufactured at the same time and operate in the
same environment. Observation of one failure should be an
indicator that others may be ready to fail as well leaving the
transformer in danger of over temp.
Picture 8
Picture 9 is loss of cooling in some radiators due to con-

crete pad settling tilting the transformer. This can in some
cases be corrected by increasing the oil level in the main
expansion that takes place during overheating.
Picture 9
In picture 10 all of the oil valves to the radiators are higher

than the oil preventing oil circulation. Low oil level can be
serviced. One last issue causing the same consequence hap-
off during maintenance and not turned back on preventing oil
problem.
Picture 10
Pump flow rate is hard to measure and typically
uses a small vane gage located in the piping
indicating pump ON or OFF activity. Flow
indicators are not always accurate. Many times
48
during maintenance a gage isTransformers found to be Handbook
stuck
and not truly indicate flow. A simple test can be
Forced oil pumping systems FOA/ FOW (Picture 11) provide
performed by turning the pump off and look at
the indicators
maximum to determine if they read correctly.
heat transfer.
Pumps, themselves create their own set of failure
#11 modes in located
a transformer;
vane gage in the piping built to pump
indicating tightONtolerances
or OFF ac-
dotivity.
notFlow
tolerate loose
indicators bearings
are not or bushings.
always accurate. Many timesAs dur-
ing maintenance a gage is found to be
they age, bearings, bushings or thrust washers stuck and not truly indicate
wear and can cause impeller drag on the pump
look at the indicators to determine if they read correctly. Pumps,
housings
themselves (Pictures 12set
create their own &of13).
failureThis
modescauses large
in a transformer;
deposits oftolerances
built to tight metal filings to beloose
do not tolerate deposited
bearings orin the
bushings.
transformer windings and eventually causes can
As they age, bearings, bushings or thrust washers wear and
cause impeller
insulation drag onas
failure thethey
pumpvibrate
housings (Pictures 12 and 13).
at operating
frequency and wear in.
transformer windings and eventually causes insulation failure as
Ultrasonic
they vibrate atinspection for bearing
operating frequency wear
and wear in. is aninspec-
Ultrasonic
Picture 11 excellent
tion for bearing wear is an excellent test and can be performed atas
test and can be performed at anytime
long
anytimeas as
the
longpump is running
as the pump is runningasas shown below.
shown below.
#12
Stages of thrust washer wear New/Failed
Picture 12: Stages of thrust washer wear New/Failed
#13 ELECTRICAL TESTING

Ball bearing failure leading to transformer Electrical testing is normally thought of as tests such as TTR,
failure insulation resistance, core ground and power factor. All are in tank
tests! External testing is just as important to maintain transformer
health and prevent unwanted failures.
As previously discussed, transformer temperature is extremely
important. Most end users take for granted the Hot Spot and Top
Oil gages to be accurate and their alarms functional. Regular cali-
bration of these indicators should be performed and many can be
done without removing the transformer from service.
Picture 13: Ball bearing failure leading to transformer failure

transformer off safely or transformer
failure. (Picture #15)
Be sure to check on the integrity of the

plug and cable, a known trouble area as
(#14) Well Probe Calibrator 49
Transformers Handbook seen below in picture (#16)
(#15) Standard Picture 16
Oil level gagesBe sure(seen

to checkleft)
on thecan
integrity of the plug
become and cable,
stuck in onea known
trouble area as seen below in picture (Picture16)
position after many years without movement. Most are
magnetically coupled through the tank wall and can fail
without notice. Oil leaks and multiple oil samples can all
Picture 14: “Jofa” Hot Well Probe Calibrator
lead to low oil levels. Care should be taken to insure these
The use of a temperature well calibrator, as seen in the picture
gages work properly and if connected to alarms or trip
14., in combination with a continuity tester can both determine
circuits,
set and trip points but also determine if the micro switches used to provide the correct outputs. Magnetically
sound alarms or trip the transformer actually work andcoupled
trigger at gages can be removed without the loss of oil and
the temperatures desired. Switch activation may mean the candiffer-
be tested using a continuity check and rotating the
ence in tripping the transformer off safely or transformer failure.
(Picture 15.)
gage to indicate low oil level.
Picture 17
Oil level gages (seen above) can become stuck in one position
after many years without movement. Most are magnetically cou-
pled through the tank wall and can fail without notice. Oil leaks
and multiple oil samples can all lead to low oil levels. Care should
be taken to insure these gages work properly and if connected to
alarms or trip circuits, provide the correct outputs. Magnetically
coupled gages can be removed without the loss of oil and can be
tested using a continuity check and rotating the gage to indicate
low oil level.
BUSHINGS
Picture 15: Standard winding temperature gage made
by “Orto”. Bushing integrity is paramount. Bushings should be tested dur-
such as thermography can be performed during non outage periods

providing valuable information as to transformer health.
Overheating of the test tap as seen in Picture 20 can be caused by

a poor connection in the grounding cap. Partial discharge or an open
thermography, this test can be performed at anytime while the unit is

energized and can provide the important data to determine if a forced
outage needs to occur to correct failure causing problems.
DIELECTRIC MAINTENANCE
Oil and insulation maintenance is paramount to transformer life
expectancy. Paper insulation is designed to be pliable and give with
fault current winding distortion. The addition of heat damages pa-
per insulation irreversibly. Paper becomes brittle and no longer gives
with winding distortion. Once the pliability of the paper is lost, the
insulation will begin to crack under fault conditions providing a path
for turn to turn shorts and eventual winding and transformer failure.
Picture 18: Top connection overheating Oil is designed to provide maximum cooling and insulating strength.
Addition of water and oxygen decreases dielectric strength and be-
gins acid formation. Loss of dielectric strength leads to partial dis-
required to determine both insulating oil and paper health. Typical oil
tests are Dissolved Gas Analysis Dielectric Breakdown, Power Fac-
tor, Acidity, IFT, Color, and Karl Fisher. Other tests such as Degree
of Polymerization and Furnanic Compounds can be useful in deter-
mining the condition and remaining life of the insulation and should
be done sparingly as the transformer ages or in cases of overloaded,
overheated units. All can be done with the transformer in service.
CONCLUSIONS
Transformer testing whether internal or external is paramount
in providing the maximum life expectancy of our equipment
-
ure modes are addressed can we be certain to provide our custom-
Picture 19: Internal overheating due to overload
ers with a level of certainty that we have done everything pos-
High resistance on top connection to a bushing (Picture 18) can sible to insure the integrity of their transformers. There is nothing
cause conductor failure and/or internal bushing pressurization and worse to a test technician than a call form a customer asking why
ultimately bushing failure. Complete overheating (Picture 19) oc-
curs due to high resistance internal to the bushing or in many cases caught the problem and prevented the failure. It is the difference
today, overloading of the bushing beyond design limits. between a mediocre and an excellent testing program.
Are you missing the test point?
Picture 20: Test Tap Overheating

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Fresno, CA 93722 (303) 621-2776 Fax: (303) 621-2573 4436 Parkway Commerce Blvd.
(559) 275-2171 x15 glenn@precisiontestinggroup.com Orlando, FL 32808
Fax: (559) 275-6556 Glenn Stuckey (407) 578-6424 Fax: (407) 578-6408
dave@pstcpower.com www.eps-international.com
www.powersystemstesting.com CONNECTICUT 36 Electrical Reliability Services
David Huffman
29 Advanced Testing Systems 11000 Metro Pkwy., Suite 30
21 Power Systems Testing Co. 15 Trowbridge Dr. Ft. Myers, FL 33966
6736 Preston Ave., Suite E Bethel, CT 06801 (239) 693-7100 Fax: (239) 693-7772
Livermore, CA 94551 (203) 743-2001 Fax: (203) 743-2325 www.electricalreliability.com
(510) 783-5096 Fax: (510) 732-9287 pmaccarthy@advtest.com
www.powersystemstesting.com www.advtest.com
37 Industrial Electric Testing, Inc.
Pat MacCarthy 201 NW 1st Ave.
22 Power Systems Testing Co. Hallandale, FL 33009-4029
600 S. Grand Ave., Suite 113 American Electrical Testing Co., Inc. (954) 456-7020
30
Santa Ana, CA 92705-4152 34 Clover Dr. www.industrialelectrictesting.com
(714) 542-6089 Fax: (714) 542-0737 South Windsor, CT 06074
www.powersystemstesting.com 38 Industrial Electric Testing, Inc.
(860) 648-1013 Fax: (781) 821-0771
11321 West Distribution Ave.
jpoulin@aetco.us
23 POWER Testing and Jacksonville, FL 32256
www.99aetco.com
Energization, Inc. (904) 260-8378 Fax: (904) 260-0737
Gerald Poulin
731 E. Ball Rd., Suite 100 gbenzenberg@bellsouth.net
Anaheim, CA 92805 www.industrialelectrictesting.com
31 EPS Technology Gary Benzenberg
(714) 507-2702 29 N. Plains Hwy., Suite 12
www.powerte.com Wallingford, CT 06492 39 Industrial Electronics Group
(203) 679-0145 850369 Highway 17 South
24 Tony Demaria Electric, Inc. www.eps-technology.com PO Box 1870
131 West F St.
Yulee, FL 32041
Wilmington, CA 90744 32 High Voltage Maintenance Corp. (904) 225-9529 Fax: (904) 225-0834
(310) 816-3130 x111 150 North Plains Industrial Rd. butch@industrialgroups.com
Fax: (310) 549-9747 Wallingford, CT 06492 www.industrialgroups.com
tde@tdeinc.com (203) 949-2650 Fax: (203) 949-2646 Butch E. Teal
www.tdeinc.com www.hvmcorp.com
Anthony Demaria GEORGIA
33 Southern New England Electrical
Electrical Equipment Upgrading, Inc.
COLORADO
40
Testing, LLC
21 Telfair Pl.
Electric Power Systems, Inc. 3 Buel St., Suite 4
25 Savannah, GA 31415
6753 E. 47th Avenue Dr., Unit D Wallingford, CT 06492
(912) 232-7402 Fax: (912) 233-4355
Denver, CO 80216 (203) 269-8778 Fax: (203) 269-8775 kmiller@eeu-inc.com
(720) 857-7273 Fax: (303) 928-8020 dave.asplund@sneet.org www.eeu-inc.com
www.eps-international.com www.sneet.org Kevin Miller
David Asplund, Sr.
26 Electrical Reliability Services 41 Electrical Reliability Services
7100 Broadway, Suite 7E 2275 Northwest Pkwy. SE, Suite 180
Denver, CO 80221-2915 Marietta, GA 30067
(303) 427-8809 Fax: (303) 427-4080 (770) 541-6600 Fax: (770) 541-6501
www.electricalreliability.com www.electricalreliability.com

54
42 Electrical Testing, Inc. 49 Electrical Maintenance & Testing Inc. 57 Tidal Power Services, LLC
2671 Cedartown Hwy. 12342 Hancock St. 8184 Hwy. 44, Suite 105
Rome, GA 3016-6791 Carmel, IN 46032 Gonzales, LA 70737
(706) 234-7623 Fax: (706) 236-9028 (317) 853-6795 Fax: (317) 853-6799 (225) 644-8170 Fax: (225) 644-8215
info@emtesting.com darryn.kimbrough@tidalpowerservices.com
steve@electricaltestinginc.com www.emtesting.com
www.electricaltestinginc.com www.tidalpowerservices.com
Brian K. Borst Darryn Kimbrough
43 Nationwide Electrical Testing, Inc. 50 High Voltage Maintenance Corp. 58 Tidal Power Services, LLC
6050 Southard Trace 8320 Brookville Rd., #E
1056 Mosswood Dr.
Cumming, GA 30040 Indianapolis, IN 46239
Sulphur, LA 70663
(770) 667-1875 Fax: (770) 667-6578 (317) 322-2055 Fax: (317) 322-2056
(337) 558-5457 Fax: (337) 558-5305
shashi@n-e-t-inc.com www.hvmcorp.com steve.drake@tidalpowerservices.com
www.n-e-t-inc.com www.tidalpowerservices.com
Shashikant B. Bagle IOWA Steve Drake
Shermco Industries
ILLINOIS 51
2100 Dixon St., Suite C
MAINE
44 Dude Electrical Testing, LLC Des Moines, IA 50316 59 Electric Power Systems, Inc.
145 Tower Dr., Suite 9 (515) 263-8482 56 Bibber Pkwy., #1
Burr Ridge, IL 60527 lhamrick@shermco.com Brunswick, ME 04011
(815) 293-3388 Fax: (815) 293-3386 www.shermco.com (207) 837-6527
Lynn Hamrick www.eps-international.com
scott.dude@dudetesting.com
www.dudetesting.com 52 Shermco Industries 60 Three-C Electrical Co., Inc.
Scott Dude
796 11th St. 72 Sanford Drive
Marion, IA 52302 Gorham, ME 04038
(319) 377-3377 Fax: (319) 377-3399 (800) 649-6314 Fax: (207) 782-0162
23823 Andrew Rd.
lhamrick@shermco.com jim@three-c.com
Plainfield, IL 60585
www.shermco.com www.three-c.com
(815) 577-9515 Fax: (815) 577-9516
Lynn Hamrick Jim Cialdea
www.eps-international.com
46 High Voltage Maintenance Corp. LOUISIANA MARYLAND

941 Busse Rd. 53 Electric Power Systems, Inc. 61 ABM Electrical Power Solutions
Elk Grove Village, IL 60007 1129 East Hwy. 30 3700 Commerce Dr., #901- 903
(847) 640-0005 Gonzalez, LA 70737 Baltimore, MD 21227
www.hvmcorp.com (225) 644-0150 Fax: (225) 644-6249 (410) 247-3300 Fax: (410) 247-0900
www.eps-international.com www.abm.com
47 PRIT Service, Inc. Bill Hartman
112 Industrial Dr. 54 Electrical Reliability Services
PO Box 606 14141 Airline Hwy., 62 ABM Electrical Power Solutions
Minooka, IL 60447 Building 1, Suite X 4390 Parliament Pl., Suite Q
(815) 467-5577 Fax: (815) 467-5883 Baton Rouge, LA 70817 Lanham, MD 20706
rod.hageman@pritserviceinc.com (225) 755-0530 Fax: (225) 751-5055 (301) 967-3500 Fax: (301) 735-8953
www.pritserviceinc.com www.electricalreliability.com www.abm.com
Rod Hageman Frank Ceci
55 Electrical Reliability Services
63 Harford Electrical Testing Co., Inc.
INDIANA 9636 St. Vincent, Unit A
Shreveport, LA 71106 1108 Clayton Rd.
48 American Electrical Testing Co., Inc. (318) 869-4244 Joppa, MD 21085
4032 Park 65 Dr. www.electricalreliabilty.com (410) 679-4477 Fax: (410) 679-0800
Indianapolis, IN 46254 testing@harfordtesting.com
(317) 487-2111 Fax: (781) 821-0771 56 Electrical Reliability Services www.harfordtesting.com
scanale@99aetco.us 121 E. Hwy108 Vincent Biondino
www.99aetco.com Sulphur, LA 70665
Stephen Canale
(337) 583-2411 Fax: (337) 583-2410
www.electricalreliability.com

55
64 High Voltage Maintenance Corp. MICHIGAN MINNESOTA

9305 Gerwig Ln., Suite B
Columbia, MD 21046 71 DYMAX Service Inc. 78 DYMAX Holdings, Inc.
(410) 309-5970 Fax: (410) 309-0220 46918 Liberty Dr. 4751 Mustang Cir.
www.hvmcorp.com Wixom, MI 48393 St. Paul, MN 55112
(248) 313-6868 Fax: (248) 313-6869
(763) 717-3150 Fax: (763) 784-5397
65 Potomac Testing, Inc. www.dymaxservice.com
Bruce Robinson gphilipp@dymaxservice.com
1610 Professional Blvd., Suite A www.dymaxservice.com
Crofton, MD 21114 Gene Philipp
(301) 352-1930 Fax: (301) 352-1936
kbassett@potomactesting.com 11861 Longsdorf St.
Riverview, MI 48193
79 High Voltage Service, Inc.
www.potomactesting.com
Ken Bassett (734) 282-3311 4751 Mustang Cir.
www.eps-international.com St. Paul, MN 55112
66 Reuter & Hanney, Inc. (763) 717-3103 Fax: (763) 784-5397
11620 Crossroads Cir., Suites D - E 73 High Voltage Maintenance Corp. www.hvserviceinc.com
Middle River, MD 21220 24371 Catherine Industrial Dr., Suite 207 Mike Mavetz
(410) 344-0300 Fax: (410) 335-4389 Novi, MI 48375
www.reuterhanney.com (248) 305-5596 Fax: (248) 305-5579 MISSOURI
Michael Jester www.hvmcorp.com
Northern Electrical Testing, Inc. 6141 Connecticut Ave.
MASSACHUSETTS 74
1991 Woodslee Dr. Kansas City, MO 64120
67 American Electrical Testing Co., Inc. Troy, MI 48083-2236 (816) 241-9990 Fax: (816) 241-9992
480 Neponset St., Bldg. 6 (248) 689-8980 Fax: (248) 689-3418 www.eps-international.com
Canton, MA 02021-1970 ldetterman@northerntesting.com
(781) 821- 0121 Fax: (781) 821-0771 www.northerntesting.com 81 Electric Power Systems, Inc.
sblizard@aetco.us Lyle Detterman 21 Millpark Ct.
www.99aetco.com Maryland Heights, MO 63043-3536
Scott A. Blizard 75 POWER PLUS Engineering, Inc. (314) 890-9999 Fax:(314) 890-9998
46575 Magallan Dr. www.eps-international.com
68 High Voltage Maintenance Corp. Novi, MI 48377
24 Walpole Park South Dr. (248) 344-0200 Fax: (248) 305-9105 82 Electrical Reliability Services
Walpole, MA 02081 smancuso@epowerplus.com 348 N.W. Capital Dr.
(508) 668-9205 www.epowerplus.com Lees Summit, MO 64086
www.hvmcorp.com Salvatore Mancuso (816) 525-7156 Fax: (816) 524-3274
69 Infra-Red Building and 76 Powertech Services, Inc.
Power Service 4095 South Dye Rd. NEVADA
152 Centre St. Swartz Creek, MI 48473-1570
Holbrook, MA 02343-1011 (810) 720-2280 Fax: (810) 720-2283 83 ABM Electrical Power Solutions
(781) 767-0888 Fax: (781) 767-3462 kirkd@powertechservices.com 6280 South Valley View Blvd., Suite 618
tom.mcdonald@infraredbps.net www.powertechservices.com Las Vegas, NV 89118
www.infraredbps.com Kirk Dyszlewski (702) 216-0982 Fax: (702) 216-0983
Thomas McDonald Sr. www.abm.com
77 Utilities Instrumentation Service, Inc. Jeff Militello
70 Three-C Electrical Co., Inc. 2290 Bishop Circle East
40 Washington Street Dexter, MI 48130 84
Control Power Concepts
Westborough, MA 01581 (734) 424-1200 353 Pilot Rd, Suite B
(508) 881-3911 Fax: (508) 881-4814 Fax: (734) 424-0031 Las Vegas, NV 89119
jim@three-c.com gewalls@uiscorp.com zfettig@ctrlpwr.com
www.three-c.com www.uiscorp.com www.controlpowerconcepts.com
Jim Cialdea Gary E. Walls Zeb Fettig
6351 Hinson St., Suite B
Las Vegas, NV 89118
(702) 597-0020 Fax: (702) 597-0095

56
86 Electrical Reliability Services 93 Longo Electrical-Mechanical, Inc. 100 A&F Electrical Testing, Inc.
1380 Greg St., Suite 217 One Harry Shupe Blvd., Box 511 80 Broad St., 5th Floor
Sparks, NV 89431 Wharton, NJ 07855 New York, NY 10004
(775) 746-8484 Fax: (775) 356-5488 (973) 537-0400 Fax: (973) 537-0404 (631) 584-5625 Fax: (631) 584-5720
www.electricalreliability.com jmlongo@elongo.com afelectricaltesting@afelectricaltesting.com
www.elongo.com www.afelectricaltesting.com
87 Hampton Tedder Technical Services Joe Longo Florence Chilton
4920 Alto Ave.
Las Vegas, NV 89115 94 M&L Power Systems, Inc. 101 American Electrical Testing Co., Inc.
(702) 452-9200 Fax: (702) 453-5412 109 White Oak Ln., Suite 82 76 Cain Dr.
www.hamptontedder.com Old Bridge, NJ 08857 Brentwood, NY 11717
Roger Cates (732) 679-1800 Fax: (732) 679-9326 (631) 617-5330 Fax: (631) 630-2292
milind@mlpower.com mschacker@aetco.us
NEW HAMPSHIRE www.mlpower.com www.99aetco.com
Milind Bagle Michael Schacker
915 Holt Ave., Unit 9 95 Scott Testing Inc. 102 Elemco Services, Inc.
Manchester, NH 03109 1698 5th St. 228 Merrick Rd.
(603) 657-7371 Fax: (603) 657-7370 Ewing, NJ 08638 Lynbrook, NY 11563
www.eps-international.com (609) 882-2400 Fax: (609) 882-5660 (631) 589-6343 Fax: (631) 589-6670
rsorbello@scotttesting.com courtney@elemco.com
NEW JERSEY www.scotttesting.com
Russ Sorbello
www.elemco.com
Courtney O’Brien
American Electrical Testing Co., Inc.
89
Trace Electrical Services 103 High Voltage Maintenance Corp.
50 Intervale Rd., Suite 1 96
Boonton, NJ 07005 & Testing, LLC 1250 Broadway, Suite 2300
(973) 316-1180 Fax: (781) 316-1181 293 Whitehead Rd. New York, NY 10001
jsomol@aetco.us Hamilton, NJ 08619 (718) 239-0359
www.99aetco.com (609) 588-8666 Fax: (609) 588-8667 www.hvmcorp.com
Jeff Somol jvasta@tracetesting.com
www.tracetesting.com 104 HMT, Inc.
Joseph Vasta 6268 Route 31
90
Eastern High Voltage Cicero, NY 13039
11A South Gold Dr. (315) 699-5563 Fax: (315) 699-5911
Robbinsville, NJ 08691-1606 NEW MEXICO jpertgen@hmt-electric.com
(609) 890-8300 Fax: (609) 588-8090 www.hmt-electric.com
joewilson@easternhighvoltage.com 97 Electric Power Systems, Inc.
8515 Cella Alameda NE, Suite A John Pertgen
www.easternhighvoltage.com
Joseph Wilson Albuquerque, NM 87113
(505) 792-7761 NORTH CAROLINA
High Energy Electrical Testing, Inc. www.eps-international.com ABM Electrical Power Solutions
91 105
515 S. Ocean Ave. 3600 Woodpark Blvd., Suite G
Seaside Park, NJ 08752
98 Electrical Reliability Services Charlotte, NC 28206
(732) 938-2275 Fax: (732) 938-2277 8500 Washington Pl. NE, Suite A-6 (704) 273-6257 Fax: (704) 598-9812
hinrg@comcast.net Albuquerque, NM 87113 ernest.goins@abm.com
www.highenergyelectric.com (505) 822-0237 Fax: (505) 822-0217 www.abm.com
Charles Blanchard www.electricalreliability.com Ernest Goins
92 Longo Electrical-Mechanical, Inc. NEW YORK 106 ABM Electrical Power Solutions
1625 Pennsylvania Ave. 5805 G Departure Dr.
Linden, NJ 07036 99 A&F Electrical Testing, Inc. Raleigh, NC 27616
(908) 925-2900 Fax: (908) 925-9427 80 Lake Ave. S., Suite 10 (919) 877-1008 Fax: (919) 501-7492
jmlongo@elongo.com Nesconset, NY 11767 www.abm.com
www.elongo.com (631) 584-5625 Fax: (631) 584-5720 Rob Parton
Joe Longo kchilton@afelectricaltesting.com
www.afelectricaltesting.com
Kevin Chilton

57
107 ELECT, P.C. 115 Electrical Reliability Services 123 Taurus Power & Controls, Inc.
7400-G Siemens Rd. 610 Executive Campus Dr. 9999 SW Avery St.
PO Box 2080 Westerville, OH 43082 Tualatin, OR 97062-9517
Wendell, NC 27591 (877) 468-6384 Fax: (614) 410-8420 (503) 692-9004 Fax: (503) 692-9273
(919) 365-9775 Fax: (919) 365-9789 info@electricalreliability.com robtaurus@tauruspower.com
btyndall@elect-pc.com www.electricalreliability.com www.tauruspower.com
www.elect-pc.com Rob Bulfinch
Barry W. Tyndall 116 High Voltage Maintenance Corp.
5100 Energy Dr. PENNSYLVANIA
108 Electric Power Systems, Inc. Dayton, OH 45414
(937) 278-0811 Fax: (937) 278-7791 124 ABM Electrical Power Solutions
319 US Hwy. 70 E, Unit E
www.hvmcorp.com 710 Thomson Park Dr.
Garner, NC 27529
Cranberry Township, PA 16066-6427
(919) 322-2670 (724) 772-4638 Fax: (724) 772-6003
www.eps-international.com 117 High Voltage Maintenance Corp.
7200 Industrial Park Blvd. william.mckenzie@abm.com
www.abm.com
109 Electrical Reliability Services Mentor, OH 44060
William (Pete) McKenzie
6135 Lakeview Road, Suite 500 (440) 951-2706 Fax: (440) 951-6798
Charlotte, NC 28269 www.hvmcorp.com 125 American Electrical Testing Co., Inc.
(704) 441-1497 Green Hills Commerce Center
118 Power Services, LLC 5925 Tilghman St., Suite 200
998 Dimco Way, PO Box 750066 Allentown, PA 18104
110 Power Products & Solutions, Inc. Centerville, OH 45475 (215) 219-6800
12465 Grey Commercial Rd. (937) 439-9660 Fax: (937) 439-9611 jmunley@aetco.us
Midland, NC 28107 mkbeucler@aol.com www.99aetco.com
(704) 573-0420 x12 Mark Beucler Jonathan Munley
Fax: (704) 573-3693
119 Power Solutions Group, Ltd. 126 Burlington Electrical Testing Co., Inc.
ralph.patterson@powerproducts.biz 300 Cedar Ave.
670 Lakeview Plaza Blvd.
www.powerproducts.biz Croydon, PA 19021-6051
Columbus, OH 43085
Ralph Patterson (215) 826-9400 x221
(614) 310-8018
sspohn@powersolutionsgroup.com Fax: (215) 826-0964
111 Power Test, Inc. waltc@betest.com
2200 Hwy. 49 www.powersolutionsgroup.com
www.betest.com
Harrisburg, NC 28075 Stuart Spohn
Walter P. Cleary
(704) 200-8311 Fax: (704) 455-7909
rich@powertestinc.com 120 Power Solutions Group, Ltd. 127 Electric Power Systems, Inc.
425 W. Kerr Rd. 1090 Montour West Industrial Blvd.
www.powertestinc.com
Richard Walker Tipp City, OH 45371 Coraopolis, PA 15108
(937) 506-8444 Fax: (937) 506-8434 (412) 276-4559
bwilloughby@powersolutionsgroup.com
OHIO www.powersolutionsgroup.com
www.eps-international.com
112 CE Power Solutions, LLC Barry Willoughby 128 Electric Power Systems, Inc.
4500 W. Mitchell Ave. 2495 Boulevard of the Generals
Cincinnati, OH 45232 OKLAHOMA Norristown, PA 19403
(513) 563-6150 Fax: (513) 563-6120 (610) 630-0286
121 Shermco Industries
info@cepowersol.net www.eps-international.com
1357 N. 108th E. Ave.
Rhonda Harris
Tulsa, OK 74116 EnerG Test
129
(918) 234-2300
113 DYMAX Service, Inc. 204 Gale Lane, Bldg. 2 – 2nd Floor
jharrison@shermco.com Kennett Square, PA 19348
4213 Kropf Ave.
www.shermco.com
Canton, OH 44706 (484) 731-0200 Fax: (484) 713-0209
Jim Harrison
(330) 484-6801 Fax: (740) 333-1271 kbleiler@energtest.com
www.dymaxservice.com www.energtest.com
Gary Swank OREGON Katie Bleiler
114 Electric Power Systems, Inc. 130 High Voltage Maintenance Corp.
4099 SE International Way, Suite 201
2601 Center Rd., #101 355 Vista Park Dr.
Milwaukie, OR 97222-8853
Hinckley, OH 44233 Pittsburgh, PA 15205-1206
(503) 653-6781 Fax: (503) 659-9733
(330) 460-3706 Fax: (330) 460-3708 (412) 747-0550 Fax: (412) 747-0554
www.eps-international.com www.hvmcorp.com

58
131 Longo Electrical-Mechanical, Inc. 138 Power & Generation Testing, Inc. 146 Saber Power Systems
1400 F Adams Road 480 Cave Rd. 9841 Saber Power Lane
Bensalem, PA 19020 Nashville, TN 37210 Rosharon, TX 77583
(215) 638-1333 Fax: (215) 638-1366 (615) 882-9455 Fax: (615) 882-9591 (713) 222-9102
jmlongo@elongo.com mose@pgti.net info@saberpower.com
www.elongo.com www.pgti.net www.saberpower.com
Joe Longo Mose Ramieh Ron Taylor
132 North Central Electric, Inc. TEXAS 147 Shermco Industries

69 Midway Ave. 33002 FM 2004
139 Absolute Testing Services, Inc. Angleton, TX 77515
Hulmeville, PA 19047-5827 6829 Guhn Rd.
(215) 945-7632 Fax: (215) 945-6362 (979) 848-1406 Fax: (979) 848-0012
Houston, TX 77040 mfrederick@shermco.com
ncetest@aol.com (832) 467-4446 Fax: (713) 849-3885
Robert Messina www.shermco.com
rgamble@absolutetesting.com Malcom Frederick
www.texasats.com
133 Reuter & Hanney, Inc. Richard Gamble
149 Railroad Dr. 148 Shermco Industries
1705 Hur Industrial Blvd.
Northampton Industrial Park Electric Power Systems, Inc.
140 Cedar Park, TX 78613
Ivyland, PA 18974 4100 Greenbriar Dr., Suite 160 (512) 267-4800 Fax: (512) 258-5571
(215) 364-5333 Fax: (215) 364-5365 Stafford, TX 77477 kewing@shermco.com
mikereuter@reuterhanney.com (713) 644-5400 www.shermco.com
www.reuterhanney.com www.eps-international.com Kevin Ewing
Michael Reuter
141 Electrical Reliability Services 149 Shermco Industries
SOUTH CAROLINA 1057 Doniphan Park Cir., Suite A 2425 E. Pioneer Dr.
El Paso, TX 79922 Irving, TX 75061
134 Power Products & Solutions, Inc. (915) 587-9440 Fax: (915) 587-9010 (972) 793-5523 Fax: (972) 793-5542
13 Jenkins Ct. www.electricalreliability.com rwidup@shermco.com
Mauldin, SC 29662 www.shermco.com
(800) 328-7382 142 Electrical Reliability Services Ron Widup
ralph.patterson@powerproducts.biz 1426 Sens Rd., Suite 5
www.powerproducts.biz Houston, TX 77571 150 Shermco Industries
Raymond Pesaturo (281) 241-2800 Fax: (281) 241-2801 12000 Network Blvd., Bldg. D, Suite 410
www.electricalreliability.com San Antonio, TX 78249
135 Power Solutions Group, Ltd. (512) 267-4800 Fax: (512) 267-4808
135 Old School House Rd. 143 Grubb Engineering, Inc. kewing@shermco.com
Piedmont, SC 29673 3128 Sidney Brooks www.shermco.com
(864) 845-1084 Fax: (864) 845-1085 San Antonio, TX 78235 Kevin Ewing
fcrawford@powersolutionsgroup.com (210) 658-7250 Fax: (210) 658-9805
www.powersolutionsgroup.com 151 Tidal Power Services, LLC
bobby@grubbengineering.com
Frank Crawford 4202 Chance Ln.
www.grubbengineering.com
Rosharon, TX 77583
Robert D. Grubb Jr.
TENNESEE (281) 710-9150 Fax: (713) 583-1216
monty.janak@tidalpowerservices.com
136 Electric Power Systems, Inc. 144 National Field Services www.tidalpowerservices.com
146 Space Park Dr. 649 Franklin St. Monty C. Janak
Nashville, TN 37211 Lewisville,TX 75057
(972) 420-0157
(615) 834-0999 Fax: (615) 834-0129
www.eps-international.com www.natlfield.com UTAH
Eric Beckman 152 Electrical Reliability Services
137 Electrical & Electronic Controls 3412 South 1400 West, Unit A
6149 Hunter Rd. 145 Power Engineering Services, Inc. West Valley City, UT 84119
Ooltewah, TN 37363 9179 Shadow Creek Ln. (801) 975-6461
(423) 344-7666 x23 Converse,TX 78109 www.electricalreliability.com
Fax: (423) 344-4494 (210) 590-4936 Fax: (210) 590-6214
engelke@pe-svcs.com 153 Western Electrical Services, Inc.
eecontrols@comcast.net
Michael Hughes www.pe-svcs.com 3676 W. California Ave.,#C-106
Miles R. Engelke Salt Lake City, UT 84104
rcoomes@westernelectricalservices.com
www.westernelectricalservices.com
Rob Coomes

59
VIRGINIA 162 Taurus Power & Controls, Inc. 168 Energis High Voltage
6617 S. 193rd Pl., Suite P104 Resources, Inc.
154 ABM Electrical Power Solutions Kent, WA 98032 1361 Glory Rd.
814 Greenbrier Cir., Suite E (425) 656-4170 Fax: (425) 656-4172 Green Bay, WI 54304
Chesapeake, VA 23320 jiml@tauruspower.com (920) 632-7929 Fax: (920) 632-7928
(757) 548-5690 Fax: (757) 548-5417 www.tauruspower.com info@energisinc.com
www.abm.com Jim Lightner www.energisinc.com
Mark Anthony Gaughan, III Mick Petzold
163 Western Electrical Services, Inc.
155 Electric Power Systems, Inc. 14311 29th St. East 169 High Voltage Maintenance Corp.
827 Union St. Sumner, WA 98390 3000 S. Calhoun Rd.
Salem, VA 24153 (253) 891-1995 Fax: (253) 891-1511 New Berlin, WI 53151
(540) 375-0084 Fax: (540) 375-0094 dhook@westernelectricalservices.com (262) 784-3660 Fax: (262) 784-5124
www.eps-international.com www.westernelectricalservices.com www.hvmcorp.com
156 Potomac Testing, Inc. Dan Hook
11179 Hopson Rd., Suite 5
Ashland, VA 23005 164 Western Electrical Services, Inc.
(804) 798-7334 Fax: (804) 798-7456 4510 NE 68th Dr., Suite 122
www.potomactesting.com Vancouver, WA 98661
(888) 395-2021 Fax: (253) 891-1511
157 Reuter & Hanney, Inc. tasciutto@westernelectricalservices.com
4270-I Henninger Ct. www.westernelectricalservices.com
Chantilly, VA 20151 Tony Asciutto
(703) 263-7163 Fax: (703) 263-1478
www.reuterhanney.com WISCONSIN
WASHINGTON 165 CE Power Solutions of
Wisconsin, LLC
158 Electrical Reliability Services 3100 East Enterprise Ave.
2222 West Valley Hwy. N., Suite 160 Appleton, WI 54913
Auburn, WA 98001 (920) 968-0281 Fax: (920) 968-0282
(253) 736-6010 Fax: (253) 736-6015 rob.fulton@cepower.net
www.electricalreliability.com Rob Fulton
159 POWER Testing and 166 Electrical Energy Experts, Inc.

Energization, Inc. W129N10818, Washington Dr.
22035 70th Ave. South Germantown,WI 53022
Kent, WA 98032 (262) 255-5222 Fax: (262) 242-2360
(253) 872-7747 bill@electricalenergyexperts.com
www.powerte.com www.electricalenergyexperts.com
William Styer
160 POWER Testing and
Energization, Inc. 167 Electrical Testing Solutions
14006 NW 3rd Ct., Suite 101 2909 Green Hill Ct.
Vancouver, WA 98685 Oshkosh, WI 54904
(360) 597-2800 Fax: (360) 576-7182 (920) 420-2986 Fax: (920) 235-7136
chris.zavadlov@powerte.com tmachado@electricaltestingsolutions.com
www.powerte.com www.electricaltestingsolutions.com
Chris Zavadlov Tito Machado
161 Sigma Six Solutions, Inc.
2200 West Valley Hwy., Suite 100
Auburn, WA 98001
(253) 333-9730 Fax: (253) 859-5382
jwhite@sigmasix.com
www.sigmasix.com
John White

60
CANADA 178 Magna Electric Corporation BRUSSELS

1033 Kearns Crescent, Box 995
170 Magna IV Engineering Regina, SK S4P 3B2 Canada 184 Shermco Industries
200, 688 Heritage Dr. SE (306) 949-8131 Fax: (306) 522-9181 Boulevard Saint-Michel 47
Calgary, AB T2H1M6 Canada kheid@magnaelectric.com 1040 Brussels, Brussels, Belgium
(403) 723-0575 Fax: (403) 723-0580 www.magnaelectric.com +32 (0)2 400 00 54
info.calgary@magnaiv.com Kerry Heid Fax: +32 (0)2 400 00 32
Virginia Balitski pidziak@shermco.com
179 Magna Electric Corporation www.shermco.com
171 Magna IV Engineering 851-58th St. East Paul Idziak
1005 Spinney Dr. Saskatoon, SK S7K 6X5 Canada
Dawson Creek, BC V1G 1K1 Canada (306) 955-8131 x5
(780) 462-3111 Fax: (780) 462-9799
CHILE
Fax: (306) 955-9181 185 Magna IV Engineering
info@magnaiv.com lwilson@magnaelectric.com Avenida del Condor Sur #590
www.magnaelectric.com Officina 601
172 Magna IV Engineering Luis Wilson
1103 Parsons Rd. SW Huechuraba, Santiago 8580676 Chile
Edmonton, AB T6X 0X2 Canada +(56) 9-9-517-4642
180 Magna Electric Corporation info.chile@magnaiv.com
(780) 462-3111 Fax: (780) 450-2994 1375 Church Ave.
info@magnaiv.com Cristian Fuentes
Winnipeg, MB R2X 2T7 Canada
www.magnaiv.com
(204) 925-4022 Fax: (204) 925-4021
Virginia Balitski PUERTO RICO
cbrandt@magnaelectric.com
www.magnaelectric.com 186 Phasor Engineering
173 Magna IV Engineering
Curtis Brandt Sabaneta Industrial Park #216
106, 4268 Lozells Ave
Burnaby, BC VSA 0C6 Mercedita, Puerto Rico 00715
Canada 181 Orbis Engineering Field Services Ltd. (787) 844-9366 Fax: (787) 841-6385
(604) 421-8020 #300, 9404 - 41st Ave. rcastro@phasorinc.com
Edmonton, AB T6E 6G8 Canada Rafael Castro
174 Magna IV Engineering (780) 988-1455 Fax: (780) 988-0191
8219D Fraser Ave. lorne@orbisengineering.net
Fort McMurray, AB T9H 0A2 Canada www.orbisengineering.net
(780) 791-3122 Fax: (780) 791-3159 Lorne Gara
info.fmcmurray@magnaiv.com
Virginia Balitski 182 Pacific Powertech Inc.
#110, 2071 Kingsway Ave.
175 Magna IV Engineering Port Coquitlam, BC V3C 1T2 Canada
1040 Winnipeg St. (604) 944-6697 Fax: (604) 944-1271
Regina, SK S4R 8P8 Canada Jkonkin@pacificpowertech.ca
(306) 585-2100 Fax: (306) 585-2191 www.pacificpowertech.ca
info.regina@magnaiv.com Josh Conkin
Peter Frostad
183 REV Engineering, LTD
Magna Electric Corporation 3236 - 50 Ave. SE
176
3430 25th St. NE Calgary, AB T2B 3A3 Canada
Calgary, AB T1Y 6C1 Canada (403) 287-0156 Fax: (403) 287-0198
(403) 769-9300 Fax: (403) 769-9369 rdavidson@reveng.ca
cgrant@magnaelectric.com www.reveng.ca
www.magnaelectric.com Roland Nicholas Davidson, IV
Cal Grant
177 Magna Electric Corporation

3731-98 Street
Edmonton, AB T6E 5N2 Canada
(780) 436-8831 Fax: (780) 463-9646
fgranacher@magnaelectric.com
www.magnaelectric.com
Franz Granacher
REV 01.14 For additional information on NETA visit netaworld.org

ABOUT THE INTERNATIONAL ELECTRICAL
TESTING ASSOCIATION
The InterNational Electrical Testing Association (NETA) is an accredited standards developer for the American National Standards
-
procedures, testing, and requirements, not only for commissioning new equipment but for testing the reliability and performance of
existing equipment.
CERTIFICATION
serviceability is the prerequisite that individuals performing the tests be capable of conducting the tests in a safe manner and with com-
plete knowledge of the hazards involved. They must also evaluate the test data and make an informed judgment on the continued ser-
recognition of four levels of competency within the electrical testing industry in accordance with ANSI/NETA ETT-2000 Standard for
An independent overview is the only method of determining the long-term usage of electrical apparatus and its suitability for the
intended purpose. NETA Accredited Companies best support the interest of the owner, as the objectivity and competency of the testing
electrical testing associa-tion dedicated to setting world standards in electrical maintenance and acceptance testing. Hiring a NETA Ac-
credited Company assures the customer that:
• The NETA Technician has broad-based knowledge — this person is trained to inspect, test, maintain, and calibrate all types of
electrical equipment in all types of industries.
• NETA Technicians meet stringent educational and experience requirements in accordance with ANSI/NETA ETT-2000 Standard for
• A Registered Professional Engineer will review all engineering reports

•
Institute of Science and Technology (NIST).
•
Setting the Standard

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NOTICE AND DISCLAIMER

Dielectric Response Analysis of Transformers ........................................................ 4

Power Transformer Moisture Assessment using Dielectric Frequency Response ........... 8

Dry-Type Power Transformers: Understanding Transformer .................................... 26

Abnormal Weather Conditions ......................................................................... 29

Importance of Analyzing Excitation Test Results................................................... 33

Modern Methods in Current Transformer Testing ................................................. 37

Advanced Diagnostic Testing Methods for Transformers ....................................... 39

Ancillary Devices Need Testing Too................................................................... 44

NETA Accredited Companies ........................................................................... 51

InterNational Electrical Testing Association

DIELECTRIC RESPONSE ANALYSIS

MOISTURE ESTIMATION IN INSULATION

Even the best efforts to install a transformer properly provide

Figure 1: Moisture Equilibrium Curves

Will Knapek is an Application Engineer

Technician and a former NETA Level IV

Jeff Foley is an Application Engineer

systems testing, maintenance, design and

POWER TRANSFORMER MOISTURE ASSESSMENT

Insulation testing/Dielectric response methods

• Measure Power Factor at multiple frequencies

• Accurate temperature correction

• Isolates live electrical components from ground and other

• Changes in the dielectric material changes the capacitance.

Q= cellulose C V Q= oil C V Q= combined contaminent C V

• The insulation between the HV and LV winding can be modeled

Typically, insulation diagnostics represent insulation impedance

• Note, values are frequency dependant (f)

• Plot P.F. values at each frequency

Primary Insulation Characteristic Parameters of concern:

• Multiple Power Factors plotted against frequency

• Power factors plotted versus varying frequency

• Analysis – where does this come from?

This is entirely a characteristic of oil power factor response over frequency

View multiple curves to illustrate OIL’S

This is entirely a characteristic of CELLU-

View multiple curves to illustrate CELLU-

Typical PF values (0-0.5%) @ 60 Hz

This is entirely a characteristic of Transform-

• Single PF value is not enough to make the

• These values vary with:

Algorithm based on Arrhenius equation for combination of cellulose and oil

• Insulation properties changes with temperature

• Dew Point DFR analysis can:

– Can be measured at any temperature

SFRA: THE BASICS OF SWEPT FREQUENCY

SFRA is usually performed in the factory before shipment, after

While SFRA test results can be useful in isolation, SFRA is

The SFRA measurement is plotted as a voltage ratio that

Figure 2: Typical SFRA Result of HV Open-Circuit Tests on

Figure 4: Typical SFRA Result of HVSC Short-Circuit Tests

This section provides typical test hookups for open-circuit and

Table 1: Open-Circuit Test Configurations for

Figure 3: Typical SFRA Result of LV Open-Circuit Tests on a

CONSISTENT TEST CONFIGURATIONS ARE OF

later performed on the same transformer – in a slightly different

is not recognized, the tester may assume that a deformation exists

Figure 6: With Oil and Actual Bushings H – X Open Circuit

Certain frequency bands indicate different problem conditions: