MODALS AND SEMI-MODALS

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

I. MODALS
There are nine central modals in English. (Other terms used for them are ‘modal
verbs’ and ‘modal auxiliaries’ and ‘modal auxiliary verbs’.) They are used to add meaning to
a main verb, for example to indicate how certain, possible, probable, necessary, obligatory
something is, or how frequently something happens, or whether a course of action is
recommended or allowed.
Can/ could; may/might;must; shall/should; will/would
Note: Need to, dare to, ought to are marginal modals. However, one semimodal which is
frequently used is have (got)to.

CAN
FORM
a. Affirmative: can
b. Negative: cannot, can’t (used only in spoken and informal written English)
c. Interrogative: can + subject + infinitive

USES
a. Can expresses permission
Can he stay a little longer?
They can’t have lunch at 12.
b. Can expresses ability (can=be able to)
 physical power/capacity: Can you lift this piece of furniture?
 knowledge/skill: Can they solve this problem?
 circumstances: Can Susan come to our meeting on Wednesday? ( it may be
paraphrased by be in position to: Is Susan free to do so? Is Susan in a position to do
so?
c. Can expresses negative deduction:
Jane can’t be working so long.
Jane can’t have much experience in teaching.
Jane can’t have taken your money.
(in my opinion it’s impossible)
d. In questions, in conversation, can is used:
 to make suggestions
 to offer to do something or to make polite requests by either asking people to do
things or asking for things.
What can I do around here?
Hello Paul. What can we do for you?

COULD
FORM
a.Affirmative: could
b. Negative: could not; couldn’t (used only in spoken and informal written
English)
c.Interrogative: could + subject + infinitive
USES
a. Could expresses ability (be able to)
Tom could run ten miles when he was young. (=was able to)
b. Could expresses condition:
I could buy you a book. (if I want)
Couldn’t he fiind a better job? (if he wanted)
c. Could have done expresses:
i. an action which is not performed:
He could have helped you (but he didn’t)
ii. an action which in our opinion has not taken place
She couldn’t have overslept (it my opinion it isn’t possible)
They couldn’t have waited for two hours. (It’s out of the question)
The patterns could + bare infinitive and could + have + past participle are used to talk about
possibility in the past.
I remember how it could snow in the mountains even in summer.
‘I can’t find my keys anywhere.’ ‘You could have left them in your office.’
d. In conversation, could is used to mark a present or future possibility. .
‘Where’s Peter?’ ‘He could be in the study.’ (=Perhaps he is in the study)
Note: with could in this use the degree of possibility is less sure than with ‘may’ or
‘might’.
e. Couldn’t as an extinction of can be used in not-so-polite requests.
Couldn’t you (wouldn’t it be possible for you to) give me your phone number?
Could not and couldn’t are used with comparatives to emphasize that someone or
something has as much as is possible of a particular quality (possibility or impossibility).
Mary couldn’t be happier. (=Mary is very happy indeed)
The news couldn’t have come at a better time.

MAY
FORM
a.Affirmative: may
b. Negative: may not
c.Interrogative: may + subject + infinitive

USES
a. May expresses (a) asking for permission as well as in (b) granting permission.
Excuse me. May I have a look at your newspaper?
‘Could I make a suggestion?’ ‘Of course, you may.’
May also indicates that someone is allowed to do something or has the choice of
doing something, usually because of a rule or law. May not indicates that someone is not
allowed to do something (=prohibition). This second use is chiefly limited to quick responses
to ‘may’.
Any two persons may marry in Scotland provided that both persons are at least 16
years of age on the day of their marriage.
‘’May I join your trip?’ ‘No, you may not!’
b. May expresses possibility in the present and in the future:
Don’t phone at 9.30. I may be watching the documentary film on television.
‘There’s someone at the door.’ ‘It may be Peter.’ (=Perhaps it is Peter)
I haven’t decided yet where to spend my holidays. I may go to Greece. (Perhaps I will
go to Greece)
c. May/might+have+Past Participle expresses posibility about a past action:
 The events may or may not have been connected. (it’s possible that they were
connected)
The chaos may have contributed to the deaths of up to 20 people. (it’s possible that it
has contributed)
d. For offers and polite requests:
May we recommended a weekend on the Black Sea Coast?
Do sit down. And may we offer you something to drink?
May I come with you to the conference?
e. In formal spoken English, may is also used as a polite way of interrupting someone, asking
a question or introducing what the speaker is going to say next.
‘If I may interrupt for a moment,’ John said.
Anyway, may I just ask you one other thing?
f. May is used when the speaker is mentioning the reaction or attitude that he/she thinks
someone is likely to have to something he/she is about to say.
You know, Brian, whatever you may think, I work hard for a living.

MIGHT

FORM
a.Affirmative: might
b. Negative: might not; mightn’t (used only in spoken and informal written
English)
c.Interrogative might + subject + infinitive

USES
a. Might can be used to ask for permission in a less direct way. It is similar to could, when
used as a polite way of interrupting someone, asking a question, making a suggestion, or
introducing what the speaker is going to say next.
Might I make a suggestion?
Might I ask what you’re doing here?
b. In conversation, might is used to talk about present or future possibility.
We aren’t sure what we are going to do next weekend. We might go in the mountains.
(=Perhaps we will go to the mountains.)
c. We can use might + have + past participle to talk about possibility in the past.
‘Betsy is late’. ‘She might have missed her train.’ (=Perhaps she missed / had missed
her train).
d.Might (not) + have + past participle is used to express uncertainty
I suppose I might have been rather critical.
They might not have received our message yet.
e. Might + have + past participle is used to express annoyance at someone’s failure to do
something (See similar pattern with ‘could’ in this emphatical use of expressing the speaker’s
annoyance)
You might have told me before!
f. In conversation, might is used to make a suggestion or to give advice in a very polite way.
They might be wise to stop advertising on television.
It might be a good idea to tell your husband.
g. Might is used in idiomatic expressions such as I might add and I might say in order to
emphasize a statement that the speaker is making.
Relatives ring up constantly, not always for the best motives, I might add.
I didn’t come as a great surprise to me, I might say.
 MUST

FORM
a.Affirmative form: must
b. Negative form: must not, mustn’t (used only in spoken and informal
written English)
c.Interrogative form: must + subject + infinitive

USES
a. Must/have to/have got to express obligation: (trebuie)
I must be there before 2.
I have to be there before 2.
I’ve got to be there before 2. (British English)
Sometimes the context allows the use of either must or have to, depending on whether the
speaker feels that the obligation comes from herself-himself or from elsewhere.
Now I must/have (got) to get your clothes ready for packing.
I see you’re got only three decent shirts; your must/’ll have to buy some more when
you get there.
b. Must not expresses prohibition: (nu trebuie)
You must not come late to lectures
c. Must expresses deduction:
She must be rich (=I’m sure she is rich)
The past form of this construction is:
She must have been rich when she was young. (=I’m sure she was rich)
d. Must in conversation is used most of the time to mark logical necessity.
Ann’s mum must not care.
Your feet must feel wet now.
e. Must + bare infinitive refers to the speaker’s certainty about a present action.
It’s not very warm and you’re not wearing a coat. You must be cold. (=I am sure that
you are cold).
f. Must expresses the speaker’s intention to do something
I must be getting back.
g. Must is used to make suggestions or invitations very forcefully.
You must see the painting George has given me as a wedding present.
You must visit me. Come to dinner.
h. Must is used in remarks and comments where the speaker is expressing sympathy.
This must be a very difficult job for you.
You must be very worried by now.
i. Must is used in exclamations to express surprise or shock.
‘Go! Please go.’ ‘You must be joking!’
I really must be quite mad!
You must have gone out of your mind!

SHALL
FORM
a.Affirmative: shall
b. Negative: shall not
c.Interrogative:shall + subject + infinitive?
USES
a. Shall can be used with all persons to emphasize something which the speaker feels is
certain to happen or wants to happen.
I shall definitely help him to finish his work. (conversation).
I shall try to show that our political practices accept integrity as a distinct virtue
(academic prose)
b. In conversation, shall is typically used as a volitional modal in questions acting as offers or
suggestions. (Note that shall is associated with I and we in questions.)
Shall we post this letter for you?
Shall we play tennis tomorrow?

WILL
FORM
a.Affirmative: will
b. Negative: will not, won’t (only in spoken English and informal written
English)
c.Interrogative:will + subject + infinitive

USES
a. Will expresses prediction of events or states not involving personal agents.
In conversation, will is commonly used to mark logical prediction as well as personal volition
(and prediction of one’s own future actions).
I will say no more on these matters, important though they are.
He will be devoting more time to writing, broadcasting and lecturing.
I won’t be here early enough to show you before school.
b. Will marking assumption
It won’t be that difficult to do.
c. Will is used in questions in order to make polite invitations or offers
Will you stay for dinner?
Won’t you sit down?
d. Will is also used in questions in order to ask or tell someone to do something (volition).
Will you drive me home?
Wipe the jam off my mouth, will you?
(Would can be used as a less definite, more polite form of will in this meaning; see would in
this use).
e. Will (related to the present) refers to activities or events that are repeated and which we
notice, such as people’s habits or characteristics of things
Kate is very kind. She’ll always help people if she can.
Art thieves will often hide an important work for years after it has been stolen.
In the Western Isles it’ll rain for days on end.

WOULD

FORM
a.Affirmative: would; ‘d (in spoken and informal written english often abbreviated)
b. Negative: would not; wouldn’t (used only in spoken and informal written
English)
c.Interrogative: would + subject + infinitive

USES
a. Would expresses prediction. of events or states not involving personal agents. The meaning
is past of hypothetical.
Cheap money would have the same effect by increasing private investment.
I would just read the book as well.
b. Would marking assumption
She would just feel better if she went out.
c.Would is used in questions in order to make polite invitations, offers or requests:
Would you like a drink?
Would you prefer to stay in or go out this evening?
d. Would not may expresses refusal in the past. It may also express refusal in inanimate
objects.
I knew Trevor wouldn’t come with me.
The paint wouldn’t stick to the wallpaper.
e. Would is used in sentences expressing certainty, where the sentence is a suppressed
conditional sentence.
Nobody would agree with that idea. (if we asked them)

SHOULD

FORM
a.Affirmative: should (note that should as a modal is never contracted to ‘d, unlike
conditional ‘should’)
b. Negative: should not, shouldn’t (used only in spoken and informal written
English)
c.Interrogative: should + subject + infinitive

USES
a. Should is related to expectation
(Where* should appears, ought to is also possible. Should and ought to are very similar in
meaning, but we often prefer ought to to talk about authority which comes from outside the
speaker e.g. from laws.)
This restaurant* should really be very expensive.
2. Should + have + past participle is used to refer to something which was supposed to
happen.
It should have rained. (but it didn’t)
3. Should is used for duty and advisability.
People* should let one know before failing to keep an appointment. (duty)
I think you* should check to see if our Austrian partners are coming (advisability)
4. Should + have + past participle is used to express the non-fulfilment of a duty.
They* should have let us know that they weren’t coming.
5. In conversation, in questions should is used when the speaker is asking someone for
advice, permission, or information. (The speaker’s questions involve a degree of uncertainty)
Should I or shouldn’t I go to university?
What should I do?
Should we tell her about it?
6.. In writing, should can be used to express a strong obligation politely.
Guests should vacate their rooms by midday.

NEED
FORM
a.Affirmative: need
b. Negative: need not, needn’t ;do/does/did not need to, don’t/doesn’t/didn’t need to
c.Interrogative:need + subject + infinitive; do/does/did+ subject + need to+
infinitive

USES
a. needn’t/don’t need to express absence of obligation
You needn’t do it now. (It’s not necessary-according to the speaker)
You don’t need to do it now. (It’s not necessary-external circumstances do not require
the action to be performed)
Interrogative forms are the following:
Need I go there? No, you needn’t. Yes, you must.
Does he need to go there? Yes, he does/No, he doesn’t.
b. didn’t need to expresses absence of obligation in the past:
I didn’t need to wait (And so I didn’t wait) N-a fost nevoie sa astept.
They didn’t need to do anything (And so they didn’t do anything) N-a fost nevoie ca ei
sa faca ceva.
c. needn’t +have+ Past Participle expresses an unnecessary action which was performed:
I needn’t have waited. (but I did) Nu era nevoie sa astept.
He needn’t have taken a taxi. (but he did) Nu era nevoie sa ia un taxi.

HAVE TO
FORM
a.Affirmative: has/have/had to
b. Negative: doesn’t/don’t/didn’t have to
c.Interrogative: does/do/did + subject + have to+infinitive?

USES
a. Have to expresses the ‘external’ obligation that has its origin in circumstance (necessity) or
in a person other than the speaker or writer.
I have to be home by 10 o’clock. (My parents insist.)
We have to drive on the left in Britain. (That is the law.)
Note: that have to is used to replace must where the modal does not have
corresponding forms.
b. We normally use have to, not have got to, for things that happen repeatedly, especially
when we use one word adverb of frequency (always, often).
I always have to work late on Tuesdays evenings.
I’ve got to work late this evening.
c. Have to + bare infinitive refers to a past obligation. (Note: have got to is not used to talk
about the past, we normally use had to.)
We had to go to Germany.
d. Don’t have to and won’t have to are used to express absence of obligation in the present
and future.
I don’t have to leave for another conference.
I hope the plane leaves on time and that I won’t have to wait at the airport.
e. Didn’t have to expresses the absence of obligation in the past when the speaker did not do
anything because it was not necessary. (Note: needn’t have is used when the speaker did do
something although it was not necessary.)
They didn’t have to pay tax.
 ‘The last time you went you took Hong Kong dollars with you.’ ‘Yes, but I needn’t
have; it’s easy to change money when you get there.’

II. There are a number of fixed idiomatic phrases with functions similar to those of modals.
be able to; be bound to; would rathe; be supposed;would do well to;had best;be going
to;be liable to; would just as soon;be sure to;had better;be meant to; would sooner;be unable
to;

HAD BETTER
FORM
a. Affirmative: had better; ‚d better
b. Negative: had better not
c. Interrogative: had+S+better+inginitive?

USES
a. Had better + bare infinitive expresses a strong recommendation in a particular situation.
I’m going to an interview tomorrow. I’d better iron my shirt.
It’s going to be cold tonight. We’d better turn on the heating.
Note: that we always use had (not ‘have’) with better in this structure, but the meaning is
present or future, not past.
b. Had better often suggests a kind of threat or warning, and is stronger than should or ought
to.

B. EXERCISES

I. Replace the words in italics with a construction using a modal verb related to ability/
inability, permission/ prohibition or possibility/ impossibility.
1. I was able to speak German quite well as a child.
2. Did you hear that sharp noise? I think it’s possible that one of the book shelves has
broken in the study next door.
3. The company say they’re able to keep pricing competitive.
4. It’s possible to fool all the people some of the time and some of the people all the
time, but it’s impossible to fool all the people all of the time. (Abraham Lincoln in
this, his famous saying, used you, not one).
5. Would you allow me to use your laptop computer for a moment? It’s possible that my
computer has a bug in the software.
6. They were able to work together very efficiently.
7. ‘Would you allow me to make one small suggestion?’ she said.
8. It was impossible for anyone to get in because no one knew the password.
9. The children are not allowed to watch violent TV programmes.
10. Later, at a news conference, Mr. Peel was able to convince the competition that it
would be possible for them to become partners in that huge long-term project.

II. Read the situations and make sentences from the words in brackets. Use may or
might.
a. Why didn’t Tim answer the phone? I’m sure he was in the house at the time.
1. (he/ be/ in the bath)……….
2. (he/ not/ hear/ the telephone)……….
 b. I can’t find Helen anywhere. I wonder where she is.
1. (she/ go/ shopping)……….
2. (she/ play/ tennis)……….
c. I can’t find my umbrella. Have you seen it?
1. (it/ be/ in the car)……….
2. (you/ leave/ in the office)……….
d. I’m looking for Bob. Do you know where he is?
1. (he/ watch/ TV/ in his room)……….
2. (she/go/ out )……….

III. Read the situations and use the words in brackets to write sentences with must have
and can’t have.
1. I was woken up in the middle of the night by the noise next door. (the neighbours/
have/ a party)
………….
2. Fiona did the opposite of what I asked her to do. (she/ understand/ what I said)
…………
3. Ben passed the exam without studying for it. (the exam/ very difficult).
…………
3. They knew everything about our plans. (they / listen/ to our conversation).
…………
4. When he woke up this morning, the light was on. (he/ forget/ to turn it off)
…………
5. The jacket you bought is very good quality.(it/ very expensive)
…………
6. The phone rang but I didn’t hear it. (I / asleep)
…………
7. I haven’t seen the people next door for ages. (they/ go away)
…………
8. Peter can’t find his umbrella. (He/ leave/ it in the restaurant last night).
…………
9. The lights were red but the car didn’t stop. (the driver/ see/ the red light)
…………

IV. Fill the gaps in the sentences with must (n’t), needn’t or should( n’t).
1. We’ve run out of paperclips. I … get some in the morning.
2. You … finish that report tonight if you’re too tired. Midday tomorrow is the deadline.
3. What are you doing here? … you be at the meeting downtown?
4. He really … have told his brother about this deal. It was supposed to be absolutely
confidential.
5. You … clean the office because we haven’t been using it today, but could you tidy the
shelves in the storeroom, please?
6. You … make so much noise. We’ll be asked to leave otherwise.
7. I’m going to be in trouble. I … have posted these yesterday afternoon and I
completely forgot.
8. You … have typed this – a handwritten note would have been quite adequate.
9. The meeting’s finished. We … find out what’s been decided any moment now.
10. The diet … be maintained unchanged for about a year.

V. Complete these sentences using don’t/ doesn’t/ didn’t have to + one of these verbs:
 arrive, be, climb, cook, get up, go, go, pay, shave, tell, wait, wear, work, work
1. I’m not particularly busy. I’ve got a few things to do but I … them now.
2. Catherine isn’t working tomorrow, so she … early.
3. We’ve got plenty of time. We … yet.
4. A man was slightly injured in the accident but he … to hospital.
5. The car park is free – you … to park your car there.
6. I went to the bank this morning. There was no queue, so I …
7. Amy is extremely rich. She …
8. Paul has got a beard, so he …
9. You can tell me if you want but you … me.
10. William … a suit to work but he usually does.
11. There’s a lift in the building, so we … the stairs.
12. Sue … at work so early. She arrives early because she wants to.
13. You … a good player to enjoy a game of tennis.
14. Karen … on Sundays.
15. We aren’t spending our weekend at home, so we … our meals.

VI. Complete the sentences using must or a form of have to. Sometimes two answers are
possible.
1. I couldn’t go to the party last night because I … babysit for my sister.
2. You … get a visa to visit the United States.
3. Jane will … do her homework tomorrow.
4. It’s getting very late. We … go now.
5. I … stay in bed yesterday because I wasn’t very well.
6. Mr. Mason … wear glasses since he was a child.
7. I don’t like … work at weekends.
8. The doctor gave me some medicine. I … take it three times a day after meals.
9. … (you/ work) home last night?
10. John … hurry. He’s plenty of time.

VII. Put the verbs in brackets into a modal construction using will or would.
1. The Prime Minister is now 65 years old and in all probability this … (be) the last
election that he is likely to contest.
2. The holiday … (do) him the world of good.
3. Within ten weeks of the introduction, 34 million people … (reach) by our television
commercials.
4. I … (imagine) that you can’t grow seeds actually in these big plastic bags.
5. If you … (let) me pay for a taxi, then at least allow me to lend you something.
6. She … (like) to ask questions, but he had moved on to another topic.
7. He kept trying to start the car and the battery got flatter and flatter, until it … (turn)
the engine at all.
8. He has insisted that his organisation … (negotiate) with the government.
9. It … (cost) very much more for the four of us to come from Italy.
10. He expressed the hope that on Monday elementary school … (reopen).

VIII. Complete the sentences with should (have) + the verb in brackets.
1. Margaret … the exam. She’s been studying very hard. (pass)
2. You missed a great party last night. You … (come)
3. We don’t see you enough. You … and see us more often. (come)
4. I’m in a difficult position. What do you think I … ? (do)
 5. I’m sorry that I didn’t take your advice. I … what you said. (do)
6. I’m playing tennis with Jill tomorrow. She … she’s much better than me. (win)
7. We lost the match but we … . We were the better team. (win)
8. ‘Is John here yet?’ ‘Not yet, but he … here soon?’ (be)
9. I posted the letter three days ago, so it … by now. (arrive)
10. I … this morning but I was feeling a bit ill. (go)

THE SUBJUNCTIVE

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The Subjunctive is a grammatical mood used in (in)dependent sentences in order to
refer “to events which are not certain to happen – which we hope will happen, or imagine
might happen, or want to happen.” (Swan, 1990: 580)
I wish I were younger. (unfortunately I am not)
From a formal point of view, there are 2 types of Subjunctive:
a. the Synthetic Subjunctive
b. the Analytical Subjunctive.

a. THE SYNTHETIC SUBJUNCTIVE

I. FORM AND USES

- The Old Subjunctive (the Present Subjunctive) resembles the form of the Short Infinitive
of the verb for all tenses and persons and is used to express supposition, purpose, fear,
suggestion, request, wish, necessity etc.
It is important that he come/ be invited to the party.
From a semantic point of view, the Old Subjunctive can be classified into:
● The Formulaic Subjunctive – in the formal and old-fashioned style, it is used in
independent/ main clauses that contain certain idioms to express wishes, prayers or protests
(often involving supernatural powers).
God save the Queen!
Be that as it may, she will carry on with her plan!
●The Mandative Subjunctive is used in subordinate 'That–clauses' to express desire,
demand, requirement, obligation, necessity, suggest, command etc.
He made the suggestion that the thief come and explain everything.
- The Modern Subjunctive (the Past and Past Perfect Subjunctive) conveys the idea of
unreality, regret about a situation, improbability, and doubt. The Past Subjunctive is used
when the action referred to is simultaneous with or posterior to the reference time (usually
used for present and future time). The Past Perfect Subjunctive resembles the form of the
Indicative Mood, Past Perfect for all tenses and persons and it is used when the action
referred to is anterior to the reference time (used only for past time).
If I were you, I wouldn’t wait for him any longer.
I wish I had known the truth about this matter.

II. Ways of translating the Synthetic Subjunctive

a. conjunctiv prezent:
God bless the King! (Dumnezeu să-l binecuvânteze pe rege!)
I wish he were us. (Aş vrea să fie aici.)
b. imperativ: Expenses be hanged! (Dă-le încolo de cheltuieli!)
c. indicativ prezent:
 Suffice it to say that he was caught stealing the pearls! (E de ajuns să spunem ca a
fost prins furând perlele!)
d. conjunctiv perfect: He wishes he had been there. (Ar dori să fi fost aici.)
e. condiţional optativ:
He looked at me as if he had seen a ghost. (S-a uitat la mine de parcă ar fi văzut o
stafie.)

b. THE ANALYTICAL SUBJUNCTIVE

I. FORM AND USES

- The Subjunctive Equivalents (or modal auxiliaries) are often used to replace the Old
Subjunctive in informal English.
His uncle urged that he should sit down and wait.
No matter how pretty she might be, she can’t be your girl friend.

II. Ways of translating the Analytical Subjunctive

a. conjunctiv prezent:
It is necessary that your father should sign the application. (Este necesar ca tatăl tău
să semneze formularul.)
b. conjunctiv perfect:
It is impossible (that) he should have failed the exam. (Este imposibil ca el să fi picat
examenul.)
c. condiţional optativ:
However disgraceful it may be, you must give him a hand. (Oricât de dezonorant ar fi,
trebuie să-l ajuţi.)
d. condiţional optativ/ indicativ:
I wish you would call me earlier! (Tare aş dori să mă suni mai devreme!/ De
ce nu mă suni mai devreme?)

B. EXERCISES

I. Build up sentences with the following words using the Subjunctive:

1. He recommended that (I, some money, to lend, to his friend).
2. She orders that (to see, the vet, at once, her dog ).
3. I suggest that (immediately, to return, all of you, in the classroom).
4. The Prime Minister demanded that (to house, from USA, the delegates, at the best
hotel).
5. They insist that (John, to resign, tomorrow).
6. He urged that (to work, the employees, more efficiently).
7. I propose that (in the morning, to be, at six, in my office, you).
8. Mary required that (the diploma, the schoolmaster, her, to give).
9. The doctor insisted that (to take, before meals, the pills, every day, he).
10. The mayor demands that (to keep, all the citizens, clean, the town).

II. Rephrase the following sentences using 'wish' to express regret for a present action
(the meaning must stay the same):
1. It’s a pity you leave so soon.
2. I regret he doesn’t know how to start the engine.
3. I’m sorry the delivery comes come so late.
 4. It’s a pity you get only poor marks at the exams.
5. I regret the girls don’t pay attention to the explanations.
6. It’s pity I can’t fix the car.
7. I’m sorry they are fighting every day.
8. It’s a pity you don’t speak to each other.
9. I regret our teacher drinks so much coffee.
10. It’s a pity you don’t try to improve your pronunciation.

III. Rephrase the following sentences using 'wish' to express regret for a past action (the
meaning must stay the same):
1. I didn’t meet her yesterday.
2. It was time for us to leave.
3. Mike failed all his exams.
4. He didn’t bring the money for the dictionary.
5. We didn’t study semantics last term.
6. They didn’t know how to act under such circumstances.
7. She wasn’t there at the right moment.
8. We didn’t spend much time together.
9. They didn’t have any children.
10. I didn’t understand her real problems.

IV. Use the past tense and the past perfect forms of the Subjunctive after: as if / though,
suppose, even if/ though according to the meaning:
1. He looked as if he (see) a ghost.
2. He wouldn’t solve the exercise even if he (try).
3. Suppose you (be) there, what would you have done?
4. The criminal behaved as though he (not know) anything about the murder.
5. He smiled friendly as if he (recognize) her.
6. I wouldn’t sell my honesty even though he (give) thousands of dollars.
7. You treated those people as if you (not meet) them before.
8. You treated the girl as if you (not know) her.
9. Suppose you (have) a flat of your own, would you put me up?
10. I wouldn’t invite him even if you (ask) me to.

V. Rephrase the following sentences using it’s impossible/ normal/ natural/ unbelievable
with should according to the model:
Example: She can’t be here at this hour. It’s impossible (that) she should be here…
She can’t have been there at that hour. It’s impossible (that) she should have been
there…
1. This can’t happen again.
2. Allan can’t have lied to his parents.
3. You can’t leave her alone after all she has done for you.
4. Your best friend can’t abandon you in the middle of the battle.
5. They can’t have eaten all the food.
6. He can’t go abroad this week.
7. You can’t have done such terrible mistakes.
8. Peter can’t ask Mary to marry him.
9. That wind can’t have destroyed the whole city.
10. You can’t utter such heavy words.
 III.1.3. THE CONDITIONAL MOOD

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

I. Definiton
The Conditional is the grammatical mood expressing suppositions, doubt or different
types of conditions – real, (im)probable, (im)possible/ hypothetical .
The conditional mood can cover two types of structures:
 dependent clauses made up of two parts: the main clause/ MC and the adverbial
clause of condition/ IfC:
I would leave if I had enough money.
 independent clauses where the IfC is rather implied from the context. They can be
part of a dialogue or of free indirect speech/ thought:
‘I told you what had happened to Paul and how he reacted. What would you have
done?’ ‘I would have fired those that had robbed the company.’

II. Conditional Clauses

In English, there are three main types of Conditional Clauses.
“IF”/CONDITIONAL
TYPE CONDITION MAIN CLAUSE IF CLAUSE

I. possible to I will pass the exam if I study harder.

fulfill
Voi trece examenul daca voi invata mai mult.

Future Form (will + Infinitive) Present Form

II. in theory I would pass the exam if I studied harder.

possible to
fulfill As trece examenul daca as invata mai mult.

Present Conditional (would + Inf.) Past Form

III. impossible to I would have passed the exam if I had studied harder.
fulfill
As fi trecut examenul daca as fi invatat mai mult.

Perfect Conditional (would + have Past Perfect Form (had

+ Past Participle) +Past Participle)

III. Mixed conditionals

In addition to all the tense variations that we can use in first, second and third
conditionals, it is also possible to mix conditionals so that, for example, the if clause uses a
verb form used in the first conditional and the main clause uses a verb form used in the
third conditional. The context defines the meaning. The most common mixed
conditional is:

Type III Type II

 if + past perfect would/could/might+ infinitive
If I had worked harder at university, I would have a degree now.

Here are some other examples of mixed conditionals :

Type 1 Type II
If you come to the party tomorrow, I wouldn't bring Mike with you.
Type II Type III
If she loved him, she would have stayed with him.

IV. Conjunctions which can replace IF

 Unless + affirmative verb (If + negative verb) places a negative condition
Unless you come at once, I’ll take it with me. (If you don’t…)
Unless you had a lot of money, you couldn’t buy it.(If you hadn’t…)
Unless he is happy to see me, I won’t come to bother him. (If he is unhappy)
 Providing / provided (that) – used when there is a strong idea of limitation (chiefly
used with permission)
You can borrow her bike provided (that) you bring it back by 10 pm.
 But for + a proper name/a noun/a pronoun = If it were not for/ if it hadn’t been for
My best friend has come to help me. But for him, I wouldn’t get the diploma.
But for his trust, I wouldn’t have succeeded.
 Suppose/supposing = what if/ what…happen if?
Suppose he doesn’t come on time? = What if he doesn’t…? = What will happen if
he…?
Suppose I hadn’t sent you the document? = What if I hadn’t sent…?= What would
have happened if I hadn’t sent…
 In case usually refers to a future condition that may or may not arise:
In case I receive any news, I’ll let you know.
 If so and If not, used instead of complete clauses:
Is anybody feeling cold? If not, let's put the central heating off.
You may have some difficulty operating the machine at first. If so, do not hesitate to
telephone our service department.
 On condition that = if
He will give you the day off on condition that you work on Saturday too.
 As long as = if
Cynthia is welcome to stay with us as long as she shares the rent.

V. Inversion
The sentence must begin with the IfC where an inversion of the subject with the
lexical verb or auxiliary verb is performed.
Were I (If I were) the rector of the University, I wouldn't approve of this. [in written
language, in literary style]
Had she known (If she had known) about it, she would have come home at once. [in
written or spoken language]
Should it be necessary (if it should be necessary), I will leave by the 10 pm train. [in
written or spoken language, to express a polite suggestion]

VI. Ways of translating a Conditional structure

In English there is a dependency between the forms of the verbs in the two clauses;
they express the same kind of action, situated in the same period of time (past, present or
future), and yet, they have different forms (tenses), unlike the Romanian language where we
have the same forms in both the MC and IfC.
Type 1:
 Viitor/prezent & viitor/prezent
I will leave if I have money. [Voi pleca/ Plec dacă voi avea/ am bani]
 prezent/ viitor + cumva & imperativ
If you should run into Paul, tell him he owes me an answer. [Dacă cumva te întâlneşti
cu Paul, spune-i că mi-e dator cu un răspuns.]
 perfect compus & prezent/perfect compus/viitor
If I did that, I apologise. [Dacă am făcut asta, îmi cer scuze.]
If I said that, I was mistaken. [Dacă am spus asta, am greşit.]
If she made a mistake, she will try to correct it. [Dacă a făcut o greşeală, va încerca să
o îndrepte.]
 viitor/ prezent + conjunctiv prezent (verb lexical) & prezentul (unei verb care va reda
sensul modal al lui will: a vrea sau a refuza)
If he won’t do it, we’ll have to do it ourselves. [Dacă refuză să facă asta, va trebui să
facem noi singuri.]
Type 2:
 condiţional optativ prezent
I would leave if I had money. [Aş pleca dacă aş avea bani.]
Type 3:
 condiţional optativ perfect
I would have left if I had had money. [Aş fi plecat dacă aş fi avut bani.]

B. EXERCISES

I. Put the verbs in brackets in the correct form:

1. If he (meet) her, he will invite her to the theatre.
2. If the weather (be) fine, we’ll go for a ride.
3. You (disappoint) your students if you don’t come to the last class.
4. Unless he (study) economy, he will become an accountant.
5. You can make your dreams come true, provided you (work) hard.
6. Unless you have an interpreter, you (can) to understand each other.
7. Suppose she (not admit) she has made the mistake. What will you do?
8. If you take these pills, you (feel) much better.
9. They’ll blame you, if the plan (not to work).
10. Trevor (not to make) his decision, if he doesn’t talk to his lawyer.
11. If you had made a good work, he (congratulate) you.
12. They wouldn’t have lost if they (take) the map with them.
13. If you ( not to threaten) her , she wouldn’t have told the police.
14. He (hurt) him if he hadn’t been a well – educated man.
15. Peter would have walked if he (repair) his car.
16. She (not to expect) so good results if she hadn’t worked so much.
17. I wouldn’t have made up my mind so quickly if it (be) for her.
18. You (have) your hair cut if your father hadn’t asked you to.
19. She wouldn’t have been so relaxed if she (pass) the exam.
20. She (not to expect) so good results if she hadn’t worked so much.
21. I wouldn’t have made up my mind so quickly if it (be) for her.
 22. You (have) your hair cut, if your father hadn’t asked you to.
23. She wouldn’t have been so relaxed, if she (pass) the exam.
24. You would have caught the train, if he hadn’t kept you so much.

II. Choose the most appropriate conjunction (unless, suppose, supposing, provided) and
fill in the blank spaces:
1. I will accept your invitation …you send a car to take me.
2. You can go fishing tomorrow …it rains.
3. I will repeat the requirement…you don’t understand.
4. They will come with us on the trip…we invite them.
5. He can’t pass the exam …he sits for it.
6. What would you do…he doesn’t give you the key?
7. …you admit you were wrong, she won’t forgive you.
8. …Mary were your manager. How would you behave?
9. I’ll buy the furniture…I have enough money.
10. They will never finish their work…somebody help them.

III. Find and correct the mistakes in the following sentences:

1. Had I know the truth, I wouldn’t have asked that silly question.
2. I’ll lend you the dictionary provided you brought it back on time.
3. Suppose you are the president. Would you declare war?
4. She will join you unless you don’t tease her.
5. Were you a soldier, will you die for your country?
6. I wouldn’t have turned down that idea, if I had known it was his.
7. All the runners would be exhausted if the race had taken place on such a hot day.
8. Were he honest to her if he hadn’t trusted her?
9. I’ll retire when I would reach the age of 55.
10. Would the project have been implemented supposing he put it forward?

IV. Rephrase the following sentences using the conjunction if:

1. I didn’t go out yesterday because the weather was so bad.
2. Mary was shy with boys because her father didn’t let her meet them.
3. She was attracted to Tom because he seemed so pleasant.
4. Tom wanted to marry her because she was rich.
5. Her father liked him because he thought Tom was a politician.
6. Mary believed his story because she had so little experience of men.
7. She married him because she thought he really loved her.
8. He treated her badly because he didn’t love her.
9. She shot him because he was so terrible to her.
10. All this happened because her father was so foolish.
V. Complete the following sentences:
1. But for John, your sister………… drowned.
2. If you………….. ……. ,then I’d like it back, please.
3. Unless he…………. ………………………… ..fail the exam.
4. Helen wouldn’t agree with you, even…………
5. Thanks for your encouragement. I………… ……..otherwise.
6. If it hadn’t…………..for a walk.
7. Had your father heard…………...a new car.
8. I won’t ever go shopping, provided…………
9. If you will…………. the whole truth.
 10. I wouldn’t be a teacher, if…………a long time ago.

VI. Match the clauses and write the mixed conditional sentences in your notebook.
A. If you had told me about this problem earlier,
B. If you were a more sensitive person,
C. If they don't contact you soon,
D. If he hadn't died so young,
E. If he didn't work so hard all the time,
F. If the train hadn't been delayed,
G. If he was feeling ill this morning,
H. If you’re coming with us
I. If I really wanted to have children,
J. If you had worked harder last month,

A. he probably won't be at the meeting.

B. you could always ring them up.
C. his wife would never have left him.
D. you wouldn't have said that to her.
E. would have had them by now.
F. everything would be all right now.
G. would you hurry up and get ready?
H. you wouldn't be so busy this month.
I. we would be there by now.
J. I'm sure he'd be a famous musician by now.
Example:
If you had told me about this problem earlier, everything would be all right now.

VII. Rewrite the sentences replacing if with the most appropriate conjunction.
1. Mr Davidson says he'll come and give a talk at the conference if we pay him a
reasonable fee. (supposing that / unless / on condition that)
Example:
Mr Davidson says he'll come and give a talk at the conference on condition
that we pay him a reasonable fee.
2. I won't help him if he doesn't ask me properly. (provided / unless / as long as)
3. If I could get a job, life here would be perfect. (what if / even if / if only)
4. If you had a lot of money, do you think you would give up work? (Supposing that /
Providing that / As long as)
5. If the train arrives on time, they'll be here in a few minutes. (What if / Assuming that /
On condition that)
6. If he doesn't agree to my request, what will I do then? (Imagine / What if / Provided
that)
7. You can go out tonight if you get back by midnight. (as long as / assuming that /
supposing that)
8. If the helicopter hadn't been there to save her, what would have happened then?
(If only / Imagine / Unless)
9. If you'd offered to pay me a thousand pounds, I wouldn't have done it. (If only /
Provided that / Even if)
10. If Rosie gets this new promotion, we'll have enough money for a holiday abroad this
year. (Even if / Provided that / Supposing that)
VIII. Translate into English:
1. Poate să participe la Jocurile Olimpice numai dacă se antreneaza intens.
2. Friptura ar fi bună dacă ar fi caldă.
3. Dacă nu ar fi grădinile şi parcurile, centrul oraşului ar arăta dezolant.
4. Petre ar fi avut necazuri la examene, dacă nu l-ar fi ajutat colegul său.
5. Dacă l-ai vedea cum arăta nu l-ai mai recunoaşte.
6. N-aş fi consimţit niciodată să părăsesc linia frontului, dacă aş fi ştiut ce se va
intâmpla.
7. În cazul în care voi uita , nu ezita să-mi aminteşti de această problemă.
8. Dacă nu ai fi atât de mincinos, n-ai fi acum in situaţia regretabilă ca nimeni să nu aibă
încredere in tine.
9. Ce-ar face directorul dacă s-ar întâmpla să te găsească fumând in curtea şcolii?
10. Oamenii au încredere în tine dacă şi tu ai încredere în ei.
11. Vei avea nevoie de bani în cazul în care renunţi la serviciu.
12. Imaginează-ţi că ţi-ar fi vopsit baia în negru.
13. Dacă n-ar fi fost Maria nu aş fi primit cecul.
14. N-am să pot repara frigiderul decât dacă vine mecanicul.
15. Dacă cumva mă caută Jack, spune-i că sunt la restaurant.
16. Dacă v-ar face plăcere să lucraţi în biroul meu, comunicaţi-mi până mâine seară.
17. Dacă vrei să ne însoţeşti, vom mai lua un cort.
18. Dacă aţi binevoi să aşteptaţi câteva clipe, îl voi chema pe domnul director.
19. Nu ai fi acum aici, dacă nu ai fi cheltuit toţi banii pe cai.
20. Ai fi ştiut răspunsul, dacă ai citi mai mult.

THE PASSIVE VOICE

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Besides mood, aspect, and tense, a verb has another grammatical category,
namely the voice. The voice system in English makes possible for the action of a
sentence to be viewed in two ways:
Her mother ironed the blouse. [active voice]
The blouse was ironed (by her mother). [passive voice]
 The active and passive sentences have the following representations:
ACTIVE VOICE
Her mother ironed the blouse.
Subject Predicate Direct Object

PASSIVE VOICE
The blouse was ironed by her mother.
Subject Predicate Object (by + agent)

I. FORM
The active subject becomes the passive agent; the verb to be in the appropriate tense
(that of the main verb); the main verb is in the Past Participle; the direct object becomes the
passive subject, preceded by by:
a. Affirmative:
John sold the book.
The book was sold by John.
b. Negative: subject + be (the appropriate tense) + not + the past participle
It isn’t known who made the mistake.
c. Interrogative: be (the appropriate tense) + subject + the past participle
Was the problem solved yesterday?
Has a doctor been sent for?

II. Changes form Active to Passive:

Active Passive
Present: writes is written
Present Progressive: is writing is being written
Present Perfect: has written has been written
Past: wrote was written
Past Perfect: had written had been written
Future: will write will be written
Future in the past: would write would be written
Modal verbs: must do must be done
Modal + perfective: might have done might have been done
The Infinitive My sister loves to be admired by everybody.
She hoped her book to have been accepted by the publisher. [perfect
infinitive]
-ing forms While being asked about his whereabouts, he felt a cold shiver running
along his spine. [present participle]
Before having been asked about the robbery, he was taken by t he
police. [perfect participle]
I enjoy being taken out to dinner.
Do you mind her having been arrested? [perfect gerund]

III. Constraints
a. Verb constraints
1. verbs of “being” and “having” – to have ( = to own) to be, to belong, to lack, to
seem , to become, to hold, to resemble, to suit – require only an active construction:
Tom has a new Jeep. - * A new Jeep is had by Tom.
This dress doesn’t suit you. - * You are not suited by this dress.
2. verbs of ‘wanting’ and ‘liking] are used in the active voice:
She wanted me to be there. - * I was wanted to be there.
I like that car. - * That car is liked.
3. the verb to let has no passive form; we use a passive of to allow/ to permit/ to give
permission:
He let me leave early . - * I was let leave
> I was allowed /given permission to leave early.
4. passive only: to be born, to be drowned (when no agent is implied); in Nominative +
Infinitive constructions.
She was born after the war. - * Her mother bore her after the war.
He was thought to be honest. - * People thought him to be honest
5. Phrasal verbs – to look into, to go into, to arrive at – can be used in the passive only
when the subject is an abstract patient, not a concrete one.
This delicate matter had been looked into. – * This bag had been
 looked into. [matter = abstract subject, bag = concrete subject]
b. Agent constraints
The agent by-phrase is generally optional. The omission occurs:
- when the agent is irrelevant or unknown: My car has been stolen.
- when the agent is left out as redundant: He had a cup in his hands a few seconds ago, and
now the cup is broken.
- when the agent is so obvious that there is no need to mention it: The thief will be
arrested.
- in impersonal statements: Passengers are asked not to enter this area.

IV. Causative ‘have’

- The verbs to have and to get can occur in the following construction: have/ get +
direct object + past participle = somebody does something for/ to you.
I will have you arrested!
- These constructions show semantically that the grammatical subject is not the
agent/ doer of the action, on the contrary there is another agent implied, one that is
not mentioned. The direct object is the sufferer:
She has her hair cut. [the auxiliary has is actually a causative verb, simple present
tense – meaning: she will not perform the action of cutting her own hair, but a
hairdresser for example.]

V. Ways of rendering the English Passive into Romanian

a. Active voice into Romanian (+ the appropriate tense of the verb)
People are getting frightened by earthquake. [Oamenilor le este frică de cutremur. –
prezent.]
b. Passive voice into Romanian (+ the appropriate tense of the verb to be)
The letter was written by John. [Scrisoarea a fost scrisă de John. – perfect compus]
They will take good care of her. [Va fi bine îngrijită. – viitor]
c. Reflexive voice into Romanian
A noise was heard. [S-a auzit un zgomot. – perfect compus]
The children will be offered many toys. [Copiilor li se vor oferi multe jucării. – viitor]
A decision was arrived at. [S-a ajuns la o decizie. – perfect compus]
Fish eats with garlic. [Peştele se mănâncă cu mujdei. – prezent]
The window broke. [Geamul s-a spart. – perfect compus]
I’ve had some photos taken this week. (causative ‘have’) [M-am fotografiat
săptămâna aceasta. – perfect compus]
This matter will be dealt with at once. [Ne vom ocupa imediat de această problemă. –
viitor.

B. EXERCISES
I. Turn into Passive Voice:
1. Father did not allow me to go to the party last night.
2. People strongly assume money brings happiness.
3. They are closing down a lot of factories nowadays.
4. Police had to break the meeting immediately.
5. No one talked about this at the meeting.
6. People don`t pay babysitters a lot of money.
7. The President denied access to the affected area.
8. Social workers were doing valuable work.
 9. You should meet them at the airport tonight.
10. He has used this apparatus only once since that day.

II. Turn into Active Voice:

1. The murderer was arrested in less than two hours.
2. A speech to the nation was made by the Prime minister.
3. The building was being guarded by the police.
4. Both drivers will be taken to the hospital by the ambulance.
5. The watch has been repaired skilfully.
6. Someone will have to be found to take my place.
7. The goods had been sent to the required address.
8. The accident had been seen by a crowd of people.
9. My car was just being repaired by Tom when I arrived.
10. He is expected to be back at the end of the week.

III. Finish the sentences:

1. All the people know the President well. The President…..
2. They are just lengthening the road. The road…..
3. He admitted this on very few occasions. On very few occasions…..
4. She has proved that all his statements are lies. All his statements…..
5. The man had never before made such a firm promise. Never…..
6. I will never tell them the truth about the accident. They…..
7. Everyone knows that gym exercises are good for health. Gym exercises…..
8. They didn`t find out about the results until later. Not until later…..
9. They were trying a new check-out system in the library. A new…..
10. Someone should give him the required information. He….

IV. Rewrite each sentence using the words in capitals. Make sure the
sentences are passive.
1. They have found some very old coins in a churchyard. DISCOVER
2. I am sorry, I don’t know his name. INTRODUCE
3. Police had not found out the identity of the victim. IDENTIFY
4. The satellite will give us new pictures of the planet Mars. RECEIVE
5. At this time yesterday, the mechanic was repairing my bike. REPAIR
6. The building is thought to date from the 10th century. IT
7. The author has included key answers at the end of the book .BEEN
8. Chinese people inhabit this beautiful island. BY
9. They are looking into the files very carefully. EXAMINE
10. As soon as he finishes his report, he will take me for a walk. FINISHED

V. Use tenses of the Passive Voice as required:

1. They (invite) to Bucharest this week. (Present Tense)
2. About 100 new flats(build) by the end of the year. (Future Tense)
3. The yesterday newspaper (buy) by many people. (Past Tense)
4. She now believes she (take in) by all his lies. (Past Simple)
5. I think he is the very person that can (ask) about it. (Infinitive)
6. The announcement (make) immediately after midnight. (Past Perfect)
7. A new meeting on this problem (arrange) by the Commonwealth Prime Minister.
(Present Continuous)
8. The new proposals (discuss) when he entered the meeting hall. (Past Continuous)
 9. Traffic rules must (obey). (Infinitive)
10. I can’t believe she (recognize) by her uncle. (Present Perfect)

VI. Translate into English:

1. Toate acele case au fost distruse de recentul cutremur.
2. Mi s-a spus că s-au discutat multe aspecte interesante la conferinţa de ieri.
3. Se ştie că telefonul a fost inventat de A. G. Bell în 1876.
4. Ţi se va permite să vizitezi tot muzeul cu condiţia să nu atingi exponatele.
5. Acest material este foarte bun, se calcă uşor.
6. Se insistă foarte mult asupra învăţării asistate de calculator.
7. După toate datele primite, casa va fi demolată mâine.
8. Se observă că ştiinţa a evoluat foarte mult în ultimii ani.
9. Progresele tehnice sunt analizate cu atenţie în toate centrele de ştiinţă din lume.