Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Vibration Review
Vibration Review
Periodic motion refers to any movement of an object that is repeated in a given length of
time. Whatever the motion may be, the period of time it takes to get back to where it
Frequency for the motion is measured in hertz, which is the number of complete cycles
per second.
There is a lot of examples of periodic motion in our everyday lives because so many
actions and movements are repetitive. The following are some of the examples
a rocking chair
a swing swinging
1
Figure-2-Vibration of tuning fork
Figure-3-Swining of a pendulum
The periodic time (T) is the time taken for one complete revolution which is equal to the
But since v = ωr
2 πr 2 π
t p= =
Then T= ωr ω seconds
and phase.
Frequency is the time for one complete cycle of vibration and is expressed in Hertz
Phase is a measure of the instant at which a vibration passes through the central or
equilibrium position.
Free vibration occurs when there is no external force causing the motion, and the
vibration of the system is caused by the initial displacement of the system from the
equilibrium position. A plucked guitar string is an example of free vibration. When a force
is applied to the string initially and then removed, the vibration that persists on the string
is called free vibration. The frequency with which the system vibrates is called natural
frequency.
Machines with moving parts generate forces which cause other parts within the machines
to vibrate. This in itself if not checked may cause damage or malfunctioning and the
vibrations may be transmitted to the grounds and floors causing more general damage.
Thus a mechanical or elastic system will vibrate when its components parts undergo
It can be shown that any system by virtue of its inherent mass and elasticity can be
caused to vibrate by forces applied externally. It is not possible to eliminate all vibrations
but by understanding their nature the worst effects particularly in cases of resonance
3
can be avoided, the lesser effects can be minimal. The duration and severity of the
vibration depends on the relation between the external forces and the mechanics of the
system.
Mixing
Cleaning machines.
Compacting
Separating
They are:
loading.
vibration.
(Passengers in a vehicle.)
Free or natural vibrations occur in an elastic system when a body is acted upon only by
the internal restoring forces of the system. Since these forces are proportional to the
displacement of the body from the equilibrium position, the acceleration of the body is
also proportional to the displacement and is always directed towards the equilibrium
A body moves with S.H.M, if its acceleration is proportional to its displacement from a
4
Figure - 4
Let the line OP, of length a, rotate about a fixed point O, with constant angular velocity ω
rad/s. Then if time is measured from the position OB, the angle turned through by OP in
time t, will be ψ = ωt
If Q is the projection of P on the diameter AB, the displacement Q from its mid-position
x = acosψ. x = acosωt
dx
=
dt
V = - aωsinωt
When x = 0
Vmax = ωa,
P parallel to AB.
dv d 2 x
= = =
dt dt 2
f= - ω2acosωt
5
Hence fmax = ω2a when x = a.
f = - ω2x,
Thus the acceleration of Q is proportional to its displacement from the fixed point O and
is always directed towards O, so that the motion of Q is simple harmonic, that is when f =
- ω2x, we can therefore say that the body moves with simple harmonic motion in that the
acceleration (f) is directly proportional to the displacement (x). The negative sign shows
The periodic time is the time taken for one complete revolution of P,
2π
t p=
ω
ie. sec
f
ω 2=
x
but
hence tp =
2π
√ x
f
6
If a body of mass m controlled by an elastic system is given a displacement x, then the
restoring force = Sx, where S is the stiffness of the system. (i.e. the restoring force per
unit displacement). When released, the acceleration of the body is given by Force = mass
x m
=
f S
Hence
Therefore
t p =2 π
√ m
S
=
t p =2 π
√ δ
g
√
1 S 1
2π m tp
n= since tp =
n=
1 g
√
2π δ
n=
1 g
√
2π δ
=
1
2
√δ
since g is approximately = 2π
Now with aid of the information acquired solve the following problems.
QUESTION 1.
A spring of stiffness 200 N/m has a mass of 0.75 kg. A mass of 5 kg is attached to the
7
Solution
The mass of the spring may therefore be allowed by adding 1/3 of its mass to that of
the
concentrated mass.
√
ms
2 π √ M + m/3 m+
3
√S t p =2 π
b. Allowing for the mass of the spring – t p = S =
√
0 . 75
5+
3
t p =2 π
200
= 1.018 sec
QUESTION 2.
A spring of stiffness 2 KN/m is suspended vertically and the two equal masses of 4 kg
each are attached to the lower end. One of these masses is suddenly removed and the
system oscillates.
Determine:
8
a. the amplitude and the frequency of the vibration
b. the velocity and acceleration of the mass when passing through the half
amplitude position
Solution:
Sδ= mg
Therefore, when one mass is removed, the remaining mass will oscillate about the static
Example 3
If the block shown in Figure 6 is given an initial velocity of 10 m/s at the equilibrium
position, determine:
a. the period
b. frequency in Hz,
c. the amplitude,
24 kN/m
50 kg
9
Solution
ωn=
√ √ S
m
=
24×103
50 ω n =21. 91
rad/s
2π 2π
t n= t = =0 .287 s
ωn n
21. 91
(a) ,
ωn 21 . 91
n n= n n=
2π 2π
(b) , = 3.49 Hz
√( ) √( )
νo 2 2
10
= ( + χ 2] = ( +02 ]
ωn o 21 . 91
(c) A = A = 0.456 m
Now with aid of the knowledge acquired you will be able to solve the following
problems
Question 1
b. Determine:
10
(ii) the maximum value of velocity and acceleration
Question 2
An object is suspended from the end of a vertically suspended spring and oscillates is with
SHM. At equilibrium the static deflection of the spring is 0.10 m. What is the frequency
of the oscillation?
Let’s go through this exercise since some strings are connected in series and some in
parallel
The total restoring force is the sum of the forces acting on each
mf = 2Sx
x m
=
Hence f 2S
But tp =
2π
√ x
f
Hence tp =
2π
√ m
2S
11
Springs connected in series
second spring. Thus for the extension x1 of the first spring with stiffness S1 the
extension x1 will be F/S1 and for the stiffness S2 the extension x2 will be F/S2. The total
extension x is:
F F
x= +
x = x 1 + x2 =
S1 S2
S1 S 2
F= x
S 1 + S2
thus the restoring force
S1 S2
= x
S1 + S 2
but F = mf and so mf
x ( S1 +S 2 ) m
=
f S1 S2
Hence
12
but tp =
2π
√ x
f
Hence tp = 2π
√ m( S 1+S 2)
S1S2
Now with aid of the knowledge acquired you will be able to solve the following
problems
Question 1
An object of mass 2.0kg is supported by two springs, one of stiffness 20kN/m and the
other 30kN/m. What will be the frequency of the oscillation when the springs are
connected:
a. in series
b. in parallel
Question 2
x = acosωt + bsin ωt
Determine:
a. the period
b. amplitude,
c. maximum velocity
13
Torsional vibration is angular vibration that occurs about the axis of a shaft. It is
different than lateral vibration (which occurs in the radial direction) and axial vibration
(which occurs along the shaft length). Torsional vibration involves speed fluctuations of
various components and the twisting of shaft sections while the machinery is rotating.
Excessive torsional vibration can lead to failures of such items as shafts, couplings, fans,
gears, engine dampers, and compressor oil pumps. These failures typically occur at a 45-
degree angle to the shaft axis. Unfortunately, torsional vibration problems may not be
Figure-9-Torsional vibration
Similar equations apply in the case of angular simple harmonic motion. Thus if the
amplitude of the motion is Ø, the angular velocity of the body at any angular displacement,
θ, is given by Ω = ω√Ø 2 – θ2 where ω is the angular speed of the line generating the
S.H.M. and
14
Ωmax = ωØ but the angular acceleration is given by f = ω2θ. Also fmax = ω2Ø. The periodic
displacement θ, then restoring torque = qθ, where q is the torsional stiffness of the
system (ie the restoring torque per unit angular displacement). When released the angular
i.e. qθ=Iα
θ Ι
=
α q = constant
∴ tp = 2π √ Ι
q s
or n=
1 q
√
2 π Ι Hz
Question 1
A uniform bar AB, 2.5 m long and of mass 100 kg, is supported on a hinge at one end and
on a spring support at the other end B, so that it can vibrate in a vertical plane. The
stiffness of the spring is 20 kN/m deflection. The bar may be assumed to be flexurally
rigid. The end B of the bar is depressed and released. Calculate the frequency of the
resulting vibrations.
SOLUTION
2.5 m
A B
15
Figure-10-Uniform beam with support
Question 2
A uniform thin rod, AB shown in the fig below has a mass of 1 kg and carries a
SOLUTION
0 .6 2
Moment of inertia of system about A = I x 3 + 2.5 x 0.62
I A = 1.02 kgm2
Let the rod be given a small angular displacement θ rad and then released.
α 162
=159
∴ θ = 1. 02
16
1 1
n = 2 π √α/√θ = 2 π √ 159 = 2.01 Hz
perpendicular
Apparatus
1. Stop watch,
2. Slotted masses,
3. Weight hanger,
5. Spring
With the aid of the given apparatus follow the following procedures:
Procedure
(Free vibration)
Taking reading
17
4. Place 5 N weight on the weight hanger.
5. Set the spring to oscillate by pressing the hanging weight downward and releasing
it.
6. With the timer, record the time (period ‘T’ for 20 oscillation) taken for the
8. Repeat this three times and find the average of your total time (the period of the
9. Repeat cycle for 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30N and record the time.
10. With the knowledge acquired in the calculations of free vibration, plot the
graph m against T² (this mass consisting of the hanging mass and 1/3 of the
11. Determine the slope of the best fit line which is the spring constant, K
12. With this constant K you will be able to determine the period, frequency and
Figure-11
18
T1 T2 T3 ) sec (sec²)
1 5 0.5
1 5 0.5
19
6
Checklist Table 3
No Ye No
s
1 Were you provided with all the apparatus
needed
2 Were you able to take all the readings
3 Could you plot the graph of m against T2
4 Were you able to determine the value of the
constant K
5 Were you able to determine the time period,
the frequency and amplitude of the free
vibration
20
After performing the experiment, the following procedure should be used to present the
work.
i. Title
ii. Objective
iii. Sketches and description of apparatus
iv. Theory
v. Procedure
vi. Observed tables for the experiment
vii. Sample calculation
viii. Derived tables for the experiment
ix. Graph of m, against T² for the experiment
x. Precautionary measures taken to successfully complete the experiment
xi. Recommendation
Conclusion; interpret the graphs and comment on the value of the frequency of the
experiment
21
Solve free vibration problems with two degrees of freedom
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF MOTION
Before you start solving problems on free vibration with two degrees of freedom you will be
d2 x
dt 2 ± ω2x = c, where ω and c are constants
d2 x
This equation may be written as dt 2 ± ω2x = 0 + c and the solution consists of two parts
d2 x
2
a) The value of x which satisfies the equation dt ± ω2x = 0 this being called
COMPLEMENTARY FUNCTION.
d2 x
2
b) The value of x which satisfies the equation dt ± ω2x = c this is being called the
PARTICULAR INTEGRAL.
COMPLEMENTARY FUNCTION
d2 x
dt 2 ± ω2x = 0 becomes
m2cemt ± ω2cemt = 0
d2 x
If dt 2 - ω2x = 0
22
d2 x
Assuming dt 2 + ω2x = 0,
Then m = ± iω
PARTICULAR INTEGRAL
d2 x
dt 2 ± ω2x = c becomes
0 ± ω2k = c
c
2
∴ k = ±ω
d2 x
Thus the complete solution of the equation dt 2 - ω2x = c is
c
2
X = Acos ωt + Bsinωt - ω
d2 x
and the complete solution of the equation dt 2 + ω2x = c is
c
2
X = Acos ωt + Bsinωt + ω
With this knowledge at hand lets go ahead and solve the following problems on two
degrees of freedom
Question 1
If a body of mass m is acted upon by a restoring force S per unit displacement from an
d2 x
2
equilibrium position the equation of motion is m dt =- Sx
Show that this equation represent on oscillatory motion of the form x = acost.
23
The negative sign arises because the restoring force Sx is opposite in direction of the
displacement X.
Solution
d2 x S
dt 2 + ω2x = 0 where ω2 = m
d
Let D represent dt then (D2 + ω2)X = 0
so that D= ± iω
Hence X = c1e iωt + c2e -iωt = 0
X = Acos ωt + Bsinωt
the constants A and B are determined by the initial conditions of the motion.
Thus X = a when t = 0,
dx
=0
dt , when t = 0
Then A = a and B = 0,
so that x = acosωt.
We have now been able to prove that the equation is simple harmonic motion
vibration which the system may possess. A system possesses two degrees of freedom if two
distinct modes of vibration are possible. If each part of the system is given a displacement
from its equilibrium position, the restoring force or moment on each is a function not only of
its own displacement but also of the displacement of the other parts. This equations of
motion obtained must be solved as simultaneous differential equations, but it must always be
24
found that the motions of each are simple harmonic and of the same frequency. The
equations of motion may therefore be greatly simplified by assuming that X 1 = a1cosωt and X
= a2cosωt or θ1 = Ø1cosωt and θ2 = Ø2cosωt in the case of angular motion, which leads to a
quadratic equation in ω2 from which the two natural frequencies of vibration may be obtained.
Question 1
A mass m1 3 kg is suspended from a spring of stiffness 600 N/m and to the underside of the
mass m1 another spring of stiffness 500 N/m is attached. This second spring carries a mass
Assuming that the movements of the two masses x1 and x2 are of the form
x1 = a1sinωt and x2 = a2sinωt respectively. Find the natural frequencies of the motion
25
Figure-13-Two degrees of freedom
SOLUTION
d2 x2
2
m2 dt = - S2 (x2- x1) -------------------------------- (2)
Now if x1 = a1sinωt and x2 = a2 sinωt
.
d2 x1 d2 x2
dt 2 = a1ωcosωt and dt 2 = a2ωcosωt
d2 x1 d2 x2
dt 2 = - a1ω2sinωt and dt 2 = -a2ω2sinωt
Substituting into equation (1)
a1 S 1 +S2 −m1 ω 2
Hence
a2 = S2 --------------------------------------------------(9)
--
From equation (8)
a2(-m2ω2 + S2) = -S2a1
a2 S2
2
Hence a1 = m2 ω −S2 --------------------------------------------------------(10)
S 1 +S2 −m1 ω 2 S2
S2 m ω2 −S2
= 2
But
m1 = 3 kg
m2 =2 kg
S1 = 60 N /m
S2 = 50 N/m
ω4 – 66.7ω2 + 500 = 0
Let y = ω2
Hence y2 – 66.7y + 500 = 0
Y1 = 58 and y2 =8.6
Question 2
If m1 and m2 are each 225 kg and S1 and S2 are 120 KN and 240 KN respectively, find the
frequencies of oscillation.
ω4 - 2667ω2 + 568888 = 0
Let y =ω2
29
ω2 = 2433 and ω2 = 234
Question 3
Figure 14 shows a system consisting of two bodies and two springs that may be set
into free vertical vibrations. Determine the frequencies of this system.
S 2 = 120 N/m
m2 = 60 kg
x1
S 1 = 90 N/m
m1 = 10 kg
x2
Figure-14- Two degrees of freedom
d2 x1
2
m2 dt = - S2x2 +S1(x1- x2) ---------------------------------- (1)
30
Substituting into equation (1)
ω4 – 15.5ω2 + 18 = 0,
Let y =ω2
31
Hence y2 – 15.5y + 18 = 0
Now with the aid of the knowledge acquired you will be able to solve the following
problem
Question 1
x=a cosωt +b sin ωt . Show that this motion is simple harmonic motion
Assuming that the movements of the two masses x 1 and x2 are of the form x1 = a1cosωt
32
Differentiate between Viscous damping and Coulomb damping
Damped vibration
There are different mechanisms of damping by which energy is dissipated so that undesired
vibrations can be attenuated. Some types include viscous damping, coulomb damping.
There are some means by which vibration energy is reduced in all mechanical systems. Thus
without any external stimulus any system will eventually come to rest. All vibrations are
damped to some degree by friction. Damping forces are defined as those that will result in a
dissipation of energy from a vibrating system. They exit in many forms, for example dry
friction, or coulomb friction (damping) arising at the any rubbing surfaces. Fluid friction that
forces, or by internal friction between the molecules of an elastic system. Damping may be
inherent in the system or may be added where essential to the functioning (as the vehicle
Figure-15-Damped vibration
33
Viscous Damping
Viscous damping is influenced by energy losses such as those that arise in liquid lubrication
among moving components or in a fluid that is pushed into a narrow piston opening, such as in
automotive shock absorbers. The viscous damping force is directly proportional to the
If a body moving in a straight line and acted upon by a force directed to a fixed point in the
line and proportional to its distance, the S.H.M is said to be damped. The simplest case is
when the resistance is proportional to the velocity of the body. This type of damping is
viscous damping.
34
Damped vibration
Figure-16b-Shock Absorber
Viscous friction (as obtained with a dash-pot) in which the resistance is assumed to be
proportional to the velocity. That is, the faster the mass is moving, the more damping force
is resisting that motion. Fluids like air or water generate viscous drag forces.
35
Figure-17-damped vibration
The diagram in figure 16 shows the basic mechanism in a viscous damper. As the system
(mass) attached to the loop at the top vibrates up and down, the damper will resist motion in
Figure-18-Viscous damper
Coulomb Damping
36
Coulomb damping is a form of continuous mechanical damping where energy is consumed by
sliding friction. The friction produced by the relative motion of the two surfaces, which are
pressed against each other, is a source of energy dissipation. Damping is the dissipation of
energy from a vibrating mechanism where the kinetic energy is transformed into heat by
friction. Coulomb damping is a rising damping system that usually occurs in machines
Figure-19-Coulomb damping
Coulomb friction (as obtained between two dry surfaces) in which the resistance is assumed
-ve +ve
x
m
37
Linear vibrations with viscous damping
If a body of mass m, is acted upon by a restoring force S per unit displacement from the
equilibrium position and also by a damping force c per unit velocity, the equation of motion is
md 2 x dx
2
=−Sx −c
dt dt
d 2 x cdx S
¿ 2 + + x=0
dt mdt m
dx
c
The quantity c is called the damping coefficient and the force dt is negative since its
dx
direction is opposite to that of the velocity dt
d 2 x 2 μ dx
2
+ +ω 2 x =0
dt dt
Where 2μ = c/m and ω2 = S/m
But D2 + 2μD + ω2 = 0
Solving for D
∴ D = -μ ±√ μ2 –ω2
The coefficient of t is negative in each term, so that X is the sum of two vanishing
exponential terms. the motion is non- oscillatory and the mass when disturbed from rest,
will slowly return to its equilibrium position. the damping is described as heavy and the
2. If μ = ω x =C1e-μ t + C2e-μt
∴ X = (C1 + C2)e-μt
38
The motion is again aperiodic but the damping coefficient has the least value which will
produce such motion. The damping in this case is said to be critical. The damping coefficient
which makes the damping critical is denoted by c o and the ratio c/ co is called the damping
ratio.
3. If μ < ω
A = C 1 + C2 B = i ( C1 – C2)
When μ < ω, the damping is described as light. This is the case which most commonly arises in
engineering problems and usually µ is so small in comparison with ω that the periodic time
the amplitude decreases exponentially as shown on the exponential curve that is figure 21.
39
Figure-21-Exponential curve
2π
√( ω2−μ2 )
The periodic time for damped vibration is tp = and the frequency is given by the
√ ω2−μ2
2π
term f =
If a1 and ar are the first and the r th amplitudes on the same side of the equilibrium position,
then, measuring the time from the point a so that t = 0 when x = a 1 and t = (r-1)tp when x = ar
a1 e o { A cos 0 + B sin 0 }
= − μ ( r −1 )t p
¿¿
ar e ¿¿
40
Thus the ratio of successive amplitudes is eµtp
a1 2 πμ
=μt p =
a2 √( ω2 −μ2 )
or loge =
a1 2 πμ
=μt p =
a2 √( ω2 −μ2 )
The term loge = is referred to as the logarithmic decrement.
Let a body of mass m rest on a horizontal plane, which exerts a constant friction force R
upon it and be connected by a spring of stiffness S to a fixed point A. then, if O is the point
at which there is no force in the spring, the restoring force Sx is opposite in direction to the
displacement x and the friction force R is opposite in the direction to the velocity dx/dt.
-ve +ve
x
m
41
O R
Figure-22-Coulomb damping
dx d2 x
m 2 =−S(+ x )−R
When x is +ve and dt is +ve, dt
dx d2 x
m =−S(+ x )+ R
dt dt 2
When x is +ve and is –ve,
dx d2 x
m 2 =+ S(−x )+ R
When x is -ve and dt is –ve, dt
dx d2 x
m 2 =+ S(−x )+ R
When x is -ve and dt is –ve, dt
It will be observed that, the four equations are identical and may be written as:
d2 x R
2
+ω 2 x=−
dt m
d2 x R
2
+ω 2 x =+
Also, dt m
s
ω 2=
where m
R
x= A cos wt + B sin wt−
The solution is: S
respectively, the constant A and B being difference for the two cases.
Thus there are different equations of motion for each half-period. One for motion to the
2π
right and another for motion to the left. The period time, tp = ω as in undamped vibration.
42
let successive amplitudes of the motion at each half-period be a o, a1, a2…………ar
π R
0≤t≤ x= A cos wt + B sin wt +
then, for ω, S
dx
=0
when t = 0, x = ao and dt
R
a o =A +
Therefore, B = 0 and S
so that A = ao –R/S,
(
x= a o−
R
S )
cos wt +
R
S
(
−a 1= a o −
R
S )
cos π +
R
S
2R
∴ a1 =a1 −
S
π 2π
For ≤t≤
ω ω
R
x= A cos wt +B sin wt−
S
π
t=
ω
∴ B=0
R
−a 1=− A−
X= -a1 and dx/dt = 0 S
R R
A=a1 − =ao −
S S
so that,
∴ x= a1 −(3R
S
cos wt−)R
S
2π
t=
when ω ,X = a2
43
(
∴ a2 = ao −
3R
S )
cos2 π−
R
S
4R
a 2=ao −
S Thus the amplitudes of successive half-periods are decreasing at the uniform
R R
2 a r =a o−r×2
rate of S so that S
ao 4R/S
a2 R/S
a1
tp
44
R
ar≤
S
Motion ceases when since the restoring force exerted by the spring is then equal to
or less than R. The number of half- periods which elapse before motion cease is therefore
R
ao −
S
r≥
R R R
a−r×2 ≤ , 2
S S S
given by ie.
Motion ceases at the first extreme position when the amplitude of the body becomes less
R
S
than
its static equilibrium position and released. There is a frictional resistance which is
Write down the differential equation of the motion, and its solution evaluating the constants.
45
Solution
md 2 x dx
2
=−Sx −c
dt dt
d 2 x cdx S
¿ + + x=0
dt 2 mdt m
d2 x dx
=6 2 +36 +1000 x=0
dt dt
d 2 x dx
+6 +166 . 7 x=0
dt 2 dt
when t = 0, x = 25 mm
46
∴
when t = 0 dx/dt = 0 -3A +12.56B = 0 but A = 0.05
∴
B = 0.01195
X = 0.05(0.0488 + 0.0026)
X = 0.00257 mm
Question 2
a) Obtain an equation of motion and its solution for the vibration of a body of mass m when
acted on by a restoring force of s per unit displacement from the position static
Write down the differential equation of the motion and its solutions evaluating the
47
constants at x (0) = 25 mm
Determine:
Solution
a)
md 2 x dx
2
=−Sx −c
dt dt
d 2 x cdx S
¿ + + x=0
dt 2 mdt m
dx
c
dt
The quantity c is called the damping coefficient and the force is negative since its
dx
dt
direction is opposite to that of the velocity
d 2 x 2 μ dx
2
+ +ω 2 x =0
dt dt
But D2 + 2μD + ω2 = 0
Solving for D
48
∴
D = -μ ±√ μ2 –ω2
. If μ < ω
A = C 1 + C2 B = i ( C1 – C2)
b)
49
x = e-7.5t (25cos28.2t + 6.7sin28.2t)
i. When t = 1 sec.
x =5.53(220.25 + 31.69)
x = 0.1394 mm
Question 3
A mass of 5 kg hangs from a spring and makes damped oscillations. The time of 50 complete
oscillations is found to be 20 s, and the ratio of the first downward displacement to the sixth
is found to be 2.25. Find the stiffness of the spring and the damping force.
Solution
20
50
tp = = 0.4 s
a1
a6
= e5µt
µ = 0.4055 rad/s
2π
√( ω2−μ2 )
But tp =
2π
√(ω2−0 . 40552 )
Hence 0.4 =
50
S
∴ m
ω2 = 249.96
c
2m
But µ =
Question 4
Given that m = 25 kg and S = 15 KN/m, and that the amplitude of the vibration diminishes to
one-fifth of its original value in 2 complete vibrations, find the frequency of vibration and
the value of the damping force C.
SOLUTION
a1/ar = 5= e2µtp
Hence 5 = e2µ x tp
2µtp = loge5
∴
tp = loge5/2µ
∴
tp = loge5/2µ = 2л/√ (600 - µ2)
(0.699/2µ)2 = 6.282/600 - µ2
51
157.75µ2 = 293.16 – 0.699µ2
158.449µ2 = 293.16
∴
µ2 = 1.85 µ = 1.36
But µ = c/2m
Now with the aid of the knowledge acquired you will be able to solve the following
problems.
Question 1
A machine of 20 kg mass is mounted on springs and dampers. The total stiffness of the
springs is 8 KN/m and the total damping force is 130N S/m. If the system is initially at
i. Write down the differential equation of the motion and its solutions evaluating the
constants.
Question 2
a) A mass of 100 kg is suspended from a vertical coil spring of stiffness 20 kN/m. Find
The frequency of free vibration.
b) The system is now damped. The mass is pulled downwards a definite distance, and when
released, the vibration amplitude is reduced to 0.10 of the original 0f the original in
four complete oscillations.
Determine the frequency of the damped oscillation and the value of
the damping force.
52
A vertical spring of stiffness 8.5 kN/m supports a mass of 32 kg. There is a friction force of
45N which always resists the vertical motion whether upwards or downwards. The mass is
released from a position which the total extension of the spring is 125 mm
Determine;
(a) the time which elapses before the mass comes finally to rest,
(b) the final extension of the spring
SOLUTION
δxS=mxg
R
ao −
S
r≥
R
2
S
.
45
0 . 0881−
8 .5×103
r≥ ≥7 . 81
45
2×
8 . 5×103
tp =
2π
√ m
S
=2 π
√32
8 . 5×103
=0 .385 s
2×45
=0. 0034 m
8 .5×103
After 8 half-cycles, a = 0.0881 – 8 x
53
Now with the aid of the knowledge acquired you will be able to solve the following
problem.
Question 1.
Determine;
(a) the time which elapses before the mass comes finally to rest,
system
In order to determine practically the natural frequency of damped vibration you will be
Apparatus
1. Stop watch,
2. Slotted masses,
3. Weight hanger,
5. Spring
6. Bucket of water
With the aid of the given apparatus follow the following procedures:
Procedure
Dumped vibration
1. Place 5 N weight on the weight hanger and slowly lower it into the water in the rubber
bucket.
54
2. Set the spring to oscillate by pulling the hanging weight down and releasing it in the
water.
3. With the timer, record the time (period ‘T’ for 20 oscillation) taken for the apparatus
to complete the oscillation in Table 3
4. Repeat this three times and find the average of your total time. The period of the
oscillator is then the average time measured divided by 20 (i.e the amount of time for
one oscillation)
5. Repeat cycle with increment of 5N weight until 30N weight is reached.
6. Plot the graph m Vs T² (this mass consisting of the hanging mass plus 1/3 of the mass
of the spring.
7. Determine the slope of the best fit line which is the spring constant, K
Observed table for dumped vibration
8. With this constant K you will be able to determine the natural frequency of the
damped vibration
Figure-24-Damp vibration
55
Damped vibration
56
Table 3 Observed table for damped vibration
1 5 0.5
57
Table 4 Derived table for damped vibration
1 5 0.5
Checklist Table 5
No Yes No
1 Were you provided with all the apparatus needed
2 Were you able to take all the readings
3 Could you plot the graph of m against T2
4 Were you able to determine the value of the
constant K
5 Were you able to determine the natural frequency
of the damped vibration
58
After performing the experiment, the following procedure should be used to present the
work.
i. Title
ii. Objective
iii. Sketches and description of apparatus
iv. Theory
v. Procedure
vi. Observed tables for the experiment
vii. Sample calculation
viii. Derived tables for the experiment
ix. Graph of m, against T² for the experiment
x. Precautionary measures taken to successfully complete the experiment
xi. Recommendation
Conclusion; interpret the graphs and comment on the value of the frequency of the
experiment
59
Discuss forced vibration of a mechanical system
Forced vibration
Forced vibrations also occur when a system is elastically connected to a support which has an
alternating motion.
There are many engineering situations in which a system is forced to vibrate through contact
with an adjacent system which is vibrating. As long as the disturbing force is present, the
The most important vibrations from the point of view of engineering applications are the
Familiar examples of forced vibrations are vibrations caused in the seat, panels and windows
of an automobile due to the vibrating engine, particularly at idling speed, gear level rattle in a
motor car, vibrations of suspension bridge due to the rumble of traffic over it. Other
examples are rotating or reciprocating machinery which cause forced vibration upon
Figure-25-Forced vibration
60
Derive the equation of motion of forced vibration of a mechanical
system
Forced Linear Vibration
If a body of mass m, is acted upon by a restoring force S per unit displacement from
the equilibrium position and also by an external harmonic force Pcospt, the equation
of motion is
Pcospt
Figure-26
d2 x
m =−Sx+ P cos pt
dt 2
------------------- (1)
d2 x P
2
+ω 2 x+ cos pt
dt m
-----------------------(2)
S
m
where ω2 =
61
d 2x
dt 2 + ω2x = 0 is
X= Acosωt + Bsinωt
1 P P cos pt
∴ X= 2 2 m
cos pt X=
( D +ω ) m( ω2 −p 2 )
=
P cos pt
2 2
X = Acosωt + Bsinωt + m(ω − p )
The first two terms represent the free vibration of the body, which dies out due to
damping effects, leaving
P cos pt
X=
m( ω2 −p 2 )
P p
a=
m(ω2 − p2 ) 2π
and f = Hz
In cases where p > ω, x becomes negative, showing that the body is 180 0 out of phase
with the disturbing force. The actual amplitude is, in all cases, the numerical value
P P
m(ω2 − p2 ) m(ω2 − p2 )
only of regardless of sign, i.e.
62
Solve problems relating to forced vibration of mechanical system
Question 1
Find the amplitude of the forced vibration if there is no damping. Work from first principles
Solution
Pcospt
Figure-27
d2 x
m =−Sx+ P cos pt
dt 2
------------------- (1)
d2 x P
2
+ω 2 x+ cos pt
dt m
-----------------------(2)
S
m
where ω2 =
63
d 2x
dt 2 + ω2x = 0 is
X= Acosωt + Bsinωt
1 P P cos pt
∴ X= 2 2 m
cos pt X=
( D +ω ) m( ω2 −p 2 )
=
P cos pt
2 2
X = Acosωt + Bsinωt + m(ω − p )
P
a=
m(ω2 − p2 )
Data
m = 35 kg
P = 40 N
f = 5 Hz
p
2π
But n =
64
S
m
Also ω2 =
25000
35
ω2 = = 714.29 (rad)2
40
35(714 ,29−987 . 22)
Hence a = │ │
a = 4.20 x 103 m
Question 2
A mass is supported by a vertical spring, with no damping, and acted on by a sinusoidal force
the mass is found to be 20 mm and this continuously decreases to 2.0 mm as the frequency is
Solution:
P
a=
m(ω2 − p2 )
when n = 10 Hz, ω = 62.8 rad/s
P
20=
m(62 . 82− p 2 )
when n = 20 Hz, ω = 125.6 rad/s
P
2=
m(1252 − p2 )
2 P m(62. 82 − p2 )
= ×
Therefore
20 m(125 2− p2 ) P
65
p 51 . 496
Therefore, the resonant frequency n = 2 π = 2 π
nres = 8.2 Hz
Now with the aid of the knowledge acquired you will be able to solve the following
problem
Question 1
Question 2
Find the amplitude of the forced vibration if there is no damping. Work from first principles
Periodic movement of the support is when the body may be subjected to a disturbing force
due to the movement of the spring support rather than by a force applied directly to the
body. Also it may be due to the vibration of the foundation and it is assumed that the base
This type of vibration occurs in many situations ranging from the vibration of a spring
In many cases, the excitation is not due to a directly applied force, instead it can be caused
by disturbance of the base (causing the spring length to change). Examples of this are
66
earthquakes that shake a structure, structure borne vibration from adjacent equipment
y = hcospt.
67
Fiqure-29-Periodic movement of the support
d 2 x1
m1 =
dt 2 - S(x-y)
d2 x1
2
+ ω2 x=ω2 h cos pt
dt
d2 x1
2
+ ω2 x=ω2 h cos pt
The equation of motion is dt
S
where ω2 = m
d 2x
2
The complementary function that is the solution of this equation dt + ω2x = 0
is X = Acosωt + Bsinωt
2
(D2 +ω2)X =ω h cos pt where D represents d/dt
ω2 h cos pt
X=
( D2−ω2 )
68
ω2 h cos pt
X=
But (ω 2− p 2 )
ω2 h sin pt
X =A cosωt +B sin ωt + 2 2
The solution is therefore becomes ω −p
ω2 h
| 2 2|
The amplitude of the motion is a = ω −p
having a stiffness 800 N/m. The floor to which the springs are attached is subjected to a
periodic displacement of amplitude 10mm and angular frequency 8 rad/s. The total mass of
the instrument plus platform is 29 kg and the instrument is constrained to move only
vertically. Determine the maximum vertical steady state displacement of the platform from
Solution
ω= √
S
√m
The natural circular frequency is given by
4×800
=160 rad 2 /s 2
20
from which ω2 =
69
ω2 h 160×0 . 010
a= = =0. 0167 m
ω − p 160−82
2 2
∴ a=16 . 7 mm
Question 2
The time of free vibration of a mass hung from the end of a helical spring
is 0.8 s. When the mass is stationary the upper end is made to move
upward with a displacement y mm such that y =45sin 2t, where t is the time in
Neglecting the mass of the spring and any damping effects, determine the vertical
distance through which the mass is moved in the first 0.3 sec.
Solution
2π 2π
tp 0 .8
ω= = = 2.5 rad/
S
m
where ω2 =
ω2 h sin pt
X =A cosωt +B sin ωt +
ω 2− p2
when t = 0, X = 0, hence A = 0
Differentiating
dx 2 ω 2 h cos pt
=−ωA sin ωt+ω B cosωt + 2 2
dt ω −p
70
dx pωh
=−
dt (ω2 − p2 )
when t = 0, = 0 hence B
X = - 100sin2.5πt + 125sin2πt
When t = 0.3 s,
Question 3
a) Show that for a vibrating body which is subjected to a disturbing force due to the
movement of the spring support rather than by a force applied directly to the body
ω2 h
| 2 2|
the amplitude: a = ω − p
b) The time of free vibration of a mass hung from the end of a helical spring
is 1 sec. When the mass is stationary the upper end is made to move
seconds measured from the beginning of the motion. Neglecting the mass of the
spring and any damping effects determine the vertical distance through which the
Solution
You might have noticed that section (a) of the equation have been proved already.
71
b. ω = 2π/tp = 2π/1 = 2π rad/s
The solution is
ω2 h cos pt
X =A cos ωt +B sin ωt + 2 2
ω −p
when t = 0, x = 0, hence A = 0
and
dx ω 2 h sin pt
=−ωA sin ωt+ω2 B cosωt + 2 2
dt ω −p
when t = 0, dx/dt = 0
hence B = 0
Therefore x= ω2hcospt
ω 2 – p2
x = (2π)2 x 45cos2t
(2π)2 – (2)2
x = 50cos2t
When t = 0.2 s, x = 50cos0.4 = 50 m
Now with the aid of the knowledge acquired you will be able to solve the following
problem
Question 1
The time of free vibration of a mass hung from the end of a helical spring is 0.5 s. When the
mass is stationary the upper end is made to move upward with a displacement y mm such that
y = 30cost, where t is the time in seconds measured from the beginning of the motion
Neglecting the mass of the spring and any damping effects, determine the vertical
distance through which the mass is moved in the first 0.1 sec.
72
Discuss forced damped vibration of a mechanical system
Forced Damped Motion Real systems do not exhibit idealized harmonic motion, because
damping occurs. A watch balance wheel submerged in oil is a key example. Frictional forces
due to the viscosity of the oil will cause the wheel to stop after a short time. The same wheel
submerged in air will appear to display harmonic motion, but indeed there is friction present,
however small, which slows the motion. Consider a spring–mass system consisting of a mass m
piston inside a cylinder attached to the mass. A useful physical model, for purposes of
intuition, is a screen door with door–closer: the closer has a spring and an adjustable piston–
Cafe door Restaurant waiters and waitresses are familiar with the cafe door, which partially
blocks the view of onlookers, but allows rapid, collision-free trips to the kitchen, see figure
32. The door is equipped with a spring which tries to restore the door to the equilibrium
position x = 0, which is the plane of the door frame. There is a dampener attached, to keep
the number of oscillations low. The equilibrium position is the plane of the door frame.
73
Figure-32-A cafe door on three hinges with dampener in the lower hinge.
Pet door designed for dogs and cats, the small door in figure 33 allows animals to enter
and exit the house freely. A pet door might have a weather seal and a security lock. The
equilibrium position is the plane of the door frame. The pet door swings freely from
hinges along the top edge. One hinge is spring–loaded with dampener. Like the cafe door,
the spring restores the door to the equilibrium position while the dampener acts to
eventually stop the oscillations. However, there is one fundamental difference, if the
Figure-33-Pet door
74
Derive the equation of forced damped vibration of a mechanical
system
Forced damped linear vibrations
If a body of mass m, as shown in the fig below is acted by a restoring force S per unit
displacement, a damping force c per unit velocity and also by an external harmonic force
Pcospt
md 2 x dx
2
+ c + Sx=P cos pt
dt dt
2
d x cdx S
or 2 + + x=P cos pt
dt mdt m
d 2 x 2 μ dx 2 p
2
+ +ω x = cos pt
dt dt m
Where 2μ = c/m and ω2 = S/m
75
The complementary function, i.e. the solution of
d 2 x 2 μ dx 2
+ +ω x =0
dt 2 dt
2. If μ = ω x =C1e-μ t + C2e-μt
∴ X = (C1 + C2)e-μt
3. If μ < ω
X = e-μt{Acos√(ω2-μ2)t + Bsin√(ω2-μ2)t}
where
A = C 1 + C2 B = i (C1 – C2)
x=
( D +2 1μD+ ω ) mP cos pt
2 2
x=
( ( )) 1
2 μD+ ω −P2 2
P
m
cos pt
x=
( 2 μD−( ω2 − p2 )
4 μ D −( ω −p )
2 2 2 22 ) P
m
cos pt
76
P
x=
m
( −2 μp sin pt−( ω 2− p2 ) cos pt
−4 μ2 p2 −( ω 2− p 2 )
2 )
x=
P √[ 4 μ 2
p2 + ( ω 2− p2 ) ] cos ( pt −α )
2
m [ 4 μ p + ( ω −p ) ]
2 2 2 2 2
where
2 μp
α =tan−1
ω2 − p2
i.e.
P √ cos ( pt −α )
x=
m √ [ 4 μ 2 p 2 + ( ω2 − p2 ) ]
2
The complementary function (or transient solution) represents the damped free vibration of
P √ cos ( pt −α )
x=
m √ [ 4 μ 2 p 2 + ( ω2 − p2 ) ]
2
to represent the steady-state vibration. this is a harmonic motion of frequency p/2π Hz and
amplitude
P
a=
m √ [ 4 μ 2 p 2 + ( ω 2 −p 2 ) ]
2
P
When p = ω, the amplitude is 2 μ mp instead of infinity, as in the case of undamped motion.
da
=0
The maximum amplitude occurs when dp
77
If P is constant, then p= √( ω2 −2 μ 2 ) for maximum amplitude. When µ is small, the maximum
amplitude occurs when p ≈ ω, but as µ increases, the maximum amplitude occurs at lower
ω
values of p, reaching the limiting value of p = 0 when µ = √2 .
ω2
p=
If P α p2, then √ ( ω2−2 μ2 ) for maximum amplitude. When µ is small, the maximum
amplitude occurs when p ≈ ω, but as µ increases, the maximum amplitude occurs at higher
ω
values of p, reaching the limiting value of p = ∞ when µ = √2
180o
µ/ω = 0
µ/ω = 0.15
µ/ω = 0.25 µ/ω = 0.4 µ/ω = 1/√2
o
90
O
ω p
Figure-35- (α) varies with (p) for the same values of µ/ω.
When µ is small, the effect upon the amplitude and phase angle is small, except near the
resonant frequency.
78
Solve problems involving forced damped vibration of a mechanical
system
Question 1
A simple vibrating system with one degree of freedom is under spring control and the motion
is subjected to a damping force which is proportional to the velocity. The equivalent mass is
30kg, the stiffness of the spring is 4.5KN/m, and the damping force is 240N at 1m/s. Find
the amplitude of the forced vibration produced when a periodic force of 40cos10t N acts on
the mass.
Solution
P
a=
m √ [ 4 μ 2 p 2 + ( ω 2 −p 2 ) ]
2
40 40
a= =
30 √ [ 4×0 .0137×100+ ( 150−100 ) ] 30 √ 54 . 4+ √2500
2
a = 40/1516.2 = 0.026m
Question 2
A simple vibrating system with one degree of freedom is under spring control and the
79
equivalent mass is 40 kg, the stiffness of the spring is 2.5 KN/m, and the damping force is
480 N at 2 m/s. Find the amplitude of the forced vibration produced when a periodic
P
a=
m √ [ 4 μ 2 p 2 + ( ω 2 −p 2 ) ]
2
Therefore, P = 40, p = 10
μ = 240/80 = 3 hence μ2 = 9
80
40 40
a= =
40 √ [ 4×9×100+ ( 62 .50−100 )2 ] 40|3600+1406 .25
Now with the aid of the knowledge acquired you will be able to solve the following
problems
exercises.
Example1
A simple vibration system with one degree of freedom is under spring control and the motion
is subjected to a damping force, which is directly proportional to the velocity. The equivalent
mass is 30 kg. The stiffness of the spring is 4.5 KN/m and the damping force is 7 N at 1m/s.
Find the amplitude of the forced vibrations produced when a periodic force of 40cos19t acts
on the mass.
Example 2
A simple vibration system with one degree of freedom is under spring control and the motion
is subjected to a damping force, which is directly proportional to the velocity. The equivalent
mass is 2 kg, the stiffness of the spring is 15 KN/m and the damping force is 7 N at 1m/s.
Find the amplitude of the forced vibrations produced when a periodic force of 25cos100t
81
Discuss periodic movement of the support of forced damped vibration
Periodic movement of the support
Periodic movement of the support is when the body may be subjected to a disturbing force
due to the movement of the spring support rather than by a force applied directly to the
body. Also it may be due to the vibration of the foundation and it is assumed that the base
This type of vibration occurs in many situations ranging from the vibration of a spring
In many cases, the excitation is not due to a directly applied force, instead it can be caused
by disturbance of the base (causing the spring length to change). Examples of this are
earthquakes that shake a structure, structure borne vibration from adjacent equipment
shaking a machine sitting on a pedestal or vehicle suspensions hitting a speed bump. In this
case the body may have been damped, and the vibration on the body will lessened
such that the displacement of the support, y = hcospt, the equation of motion is
m
x
82
C
d2 x dx
m 2
+ c + S ( x− y )=0
dt dt
d2 x dx
2
+2 μ +ω 2 x =ω2 hcos pt
ie dt dt
ω2 h
figure 38 below, the damping is proportional to the relative velocity between the mass and
Y y
S
v
S
m
b mx
x 83
Figure-38-Periodic Movement of the support
m
d2 x
dt 2
+c (
dx dy
dt dt )
− +S ( x− y )=0−−−−1
If the relative displacement between the mass and the support is z, then
x–y=z
dx dy dz
− =
dt dt dt
d2 x d2 y d2 z
− =
and dt 2 dt 2 dt 2
Equation 1 can therefore be written as
m
( d2 z d2 y
dt 2
dt ) dz
+ 2 + c Sz =0
dt
d 2 z dz d2 y
m 2 +c +Sx=−m 2 =mp 2 h cos pt
or dt dt dt
d2 z dz 2 2
∴ 2
+2 μ + ω z =p cos pt
dt dt
small that the exciting frequency coincides with a natural frequency, the vibration grows to a
When a light or a sound wave strikes an object that is already vibrating at some particular
frequency, and if that frequency happens to match the resonant frequency of the object it’s
hitting; then you’ll get what’s called resonance. Objects, mechanical systems and charged
particles tend to vibrate at a specific frequency. We call this frequency the resonant
84
frequency or the natural frequency. Resonance occurs when the matching vibrations of
Musical Instruments
Whenever a person hits, strikes, strums, drums or tweaks any musical instrument, the
instrument is set into oscillation or vibration at the natural frequency of vibration of the
instrument. A unique standing wave pattern defines each frequency of vibration as a specific
instrument. These natural frequencies of a musical instrument are known widely as the
instrument vibrates or oscillates at that specified frequency. In that case, the first object
can be forced to vibrate at a frequency higher than its natural harmonic frequency. This
phenomenon is known as resonance, i.e. one object vibrating or oscillating at the natural
frequency of another object forces the other object to vibrate at a frequency higher than
Bridge
Group of soldiers marching on the bridge are often asked to break their steps because their
rhythmic marching can set extreme vibrations at the bridge’s natural frequency. The bridge
can break apart if the synchronized footsteps resonate with the natural frequency of the
bridge. One of the examples of the above is the Tacoma Bridge Collapse, where the
frequency of the air matched with the frequency of the bridge, which then led to its
destruction.
Swing
85
The swing moves forward and backwards when pushed. If a series of regular pushes are given
to the swing, its motion can be built. The person pushing the swing has to sync with the
swing’s timing, which results in the swing’s motion having increased amplitude to reach higher.
Once the swing reaches its natural oscillation frequency, a gentle push helps maintain its
amplitude due to resonance. But, if the push given is irregular, the swing will hardly vibrate,
and this out-of-sync motion will never lead to resonance, and the swing will not go higher.
Mechanical Resonance
greater amplitude when the frequency of its oscillations matches the system’s natural
frequency of vibration (its resonance frequency or resonant frequency) than it does at other
frequencies.
Acoustic Resonance
Acoustic resonance is a phenomenon in which an acoustic system amplifies sound waves whose
frequency matches one of its own natural frequencies of vibration. Acoustic resonance is an
important consideration for instrument builders as most acoustic instruments such as the
length of tube in a flute, the strings and body of a violin and the shape of a drum membrane
Electrical Resonance
In a circuit when the inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance are equal in magnitude
86
Some Effects of Resonance
Resonance may lead to intolerable vibration or the generation of excessive noise in the
system
Three examples of self-exited vibrations, which might occur at one of the natural
In other to solve vibration problems the first step is to determine either analytically or
1. What is resonance
Swing moves forward and backwards when pushed. If a series of regular pushes are given to
the swing, its motion can be built. The person pushing the swing has to sync with the swing’s
timing, which results in the motion of the swing having increased amplitude to reach higher.
Once the swing reaches its natural frequency of oscillation, a gentle push to the swing helps
Resonance occurs when the matching vibrations of another object increase the amplitude of
an object’s oscillations
The resonant frequency is the natural frequency where a medium vibrates at the highest
amplitude.
87
Group of soldiers marching on the bridge are often asked to break their steps because their
rhythmic marching can set extreme vibrations at the bridge’s natural frequency. The bridge
can break apart if the synchronized footsteps resonate with the natural frequency of the
bridge.
structure. The force caused by vibration or a change in motion (acceleration) causes the mass
proportional to the force exerted upon it. Since the charge is proportional to the force, and
the mass is a constant, then the charge is also proportional to the acceleration
acceleration in meters per second squared (m/s 2). Vibration exposure direction is also
exposure are also determined. How hard a person grips a tool affects the amount of
vibrational energy entering the hands; therefore, hand-grip force is another important
The amount of exposure is determined by measuring acceleration in the units of m/s 2. Most
Several types of instruments are available for measuring acceleration, the rate of
change of velocity in speed or direction per unit time (e.g., per second).
Measuring acceleration can also give information about velocity and amplitude of
vibration.
Health research data tells us that the degree of harm is related to the magnitude of
acceleration.
88
Fiqure-39a-accelerometer
Vibration may influence the durability and reliability of machinery systems or structures and
To develop and design more reliable products, vibration measurement and shock
To solve the problems caused by vibration and improve the quality of products, vibration
89
To prevent the breakdown and trouble from machinery, vibration is measured periodically
and compared to the vibration at initial condition or at normal condition after the
Vibration measurement is used not only when the problem occurs but also when the daily
appropriate tool selection, the use of appropriate vibration-absorbing materials (in gloves, for
Anti-Vibration Tools
Tools can be designed or mounted in ways that help reduce the vibration level. For example,
using anti-vibration chain saws reduces acceleration levels by a factor of about 10. These
types of chain saws must be well maintained. Maintenance must include periodic replacement
of shock absorbers. Some pneumatic tool companies manufacture anti-vibration tools such as
Anti-Vibration Gloves
Conventional protective gloves (e.g., cotton, leather), commonly used by workers, do not
reduce the vibration that is transferred to workers' hands when they are using vibrating
tools or equipment. Anti-vibration gloves are made using a layer of viscoelastic material.
Actual measurements have shown that such gloves have limited effectiveness in absorbing
90
low-frequency vibration, the major contributor to vibration-related disorders. Therefore,
they offer little protection against developing vibration-induced white finger syndrome. It is
vibrating hand-held machinery. It is a disorder that affects the blood vessels, nerves,
muscles, and joints, of the hand, wrist and arm. Injury can occur at frequencies between 5
and 2000Hz but the greatest risk for fingers is between 50 and 300Hz.
Do check the pictures of the induce white finger syndromes on your smart phone
However, gloves do provide protection from typical industrial hazards (e.g., cuts, abrasions)
and from cold temperatures that, in turn, may reduce the initial sensation of white finger
attacks.
Along with using anti-vibration tools and gloves, workers can reduce the risk of hand-arm
Employ a minimum hand grip consistent with safe operation of the tool or process.
Consult a doctor at the first sign of vibration disease and ask about the possibility of
Employee Education
Training programs are an effective means of heightening the awareness of HAVS in the
workplace. Training should include proper use and maintain vibrating tools to avoid
unnecessary exposure to vibration. Vibrating machines and equipment often produce loud
noise as well. Therefore, training and education in controlling vibration should also address
Whole-Body Vibration
Most machines involve rotary mechanisms. Motors, pumps, compressors, fans, belt conveyors,
gearboxes, all involve rotary mechanisms and are frequently used in machines.
Most rotary mechanisms in turn have bearings that support the weight of rotating parts and
bear the forces associated with rotary motion and vibration. In general, large amounts of
force are borne by bearings. It is not surprising that bearings are often the place where
Figure-40
Since conclusions regarding machine condition - and hence whether or not money and human
safety are risked - depend on the accuracy of measurements, we must be very careful how
measurements are taken. It is important to always remember that the way in which we mount
How should accelerometers be mounted to ensure measurements are accurate and how can we
Imagine a doctor who listened to your heart through thick clothing and placed the
stethoscope closer to your kidney than to your heart. You would likely doubt his diagnosis as
he would be basing it on sounds distorted by undue obstruction and noise from other organs.
Figure-41
93
When measuring vibration, we must always attach the accelerometer as close as possible to
the bearing. More specifically, we must attach it as close as possible to the centerline of the
Figure-42
For the accelerometer to detect true vibration behavior, it needs to undergo exactly the
attached firmly to the vibrating component so that it does not rock or move independently of
the component. A loosely mounted accelerometer produces signals distorted by its own
Various mounting methods exist, but mounting by means of a magnet is the most popular as it
offers a balance between measurement reliability and convenience to the user. The magnetic
mounting supplied in the Commtest vb kit can be attached very firmly, while allowing the user
to measure multiple machines using the same accelerometer, with minimum time spent on
94
To ensure that the accelerometer is firmly attached, it must be stuck to a magnetic mounting
surface this is even. The magnetic mount must sit securely on the surface with the
Figure-43
For the surface to be even, it must be free of debris, rust, and flaking paint.
Figure-44
The mounting surface must be truly magnetic (iron, nickel, or cobalt alloys). The magnetic
mounting must not, for example, be attached to an aluminum surface by virtue of iron
Figure-45
95
To avoid loss of magnetism, the magnetic mounting must not be dropped or heated. Care must
also be taken not to strip the screw thread on the accelerometer and magnetic mounting.
Figure-46
detect parallel misalignment the accelerometer is usually mounted in the radial direction of
the bearings, but to detect angular misalignment the accelerometer needs to be mounted in
The signal produced by the accelerometer is dependent on the orientation in which the
directions.
96
Figure-47
For a particular measurement point it is important to always mount the accelerometer at the
same location to minimize measurement inconsistencies that may lead to wrong conclusions.
Where possible, always use the same accelerometer for a particular measurement point.
Figure-48
97
(e) Mount the Accelerometer on Something Substantial
The accelerometer must never be mounted on a very flexible part of the machine as the
The accelerometer must never be used on structures that are very light as the weight of the
accelerometer and magnetic mounting will distort the vibration behavior of the structure. In
general, the combined weight of the accelerometer and magnetic mounting should be less
Figure-49
If the accelerometer is treated roughly it may produce unreliable signals. Because of the
strength of the magnetic mount, you must take care when attaching the accelerometer to a
mounting surface. You can achieve this by approaching the mounting surface with the
magnetic mounting tilted at an angle. When detaching the magnetic mounting, you must not
use the accelerometer as a lever for breaking contact. Instead, the magnetic mounting should
98
Figure-50
The accelerometer cable should never be twisted acutely, but must be anchored in a manner
that prevents it from being damaged. Twisted or freely swinging cables can distort the
measured spectrum.
Figure-51
You must manage hazards at all times. When taking vibration measurements, three kinds of
hazards stand out in likelihood or severity: injury by moving parts, electrical shock, and
Firstly, when mounting the accelerometer, you must take care to prevent the cable from
becoming entangled with moving machinery. While the quick-release connector minimizes this
99
Other things that could tangle with moving machinery include loose clothing, long hair, data
Figure-52
Secondly, you must never attach the accelerometer to any high voltage surface as this may
Thirdly, you must never bring the magnetic mounting near any magnet-sensitive objects such
as pacemakers, credit cards, floppy disks, video tapes, cassette tapes and watches since
There are other possible hazards. You should read and thoroughly understand the vb Series
Instrument Reference Guide before using the instrument or its accompanying accessories.
An accelerometer
100
Figure-53
Figure-54
101
Make Sure the Accelerometer is Oriented Correctly
Figure-55
Figure-56
102
Take Care of the Accelerometer
Because of the strength of the magnetic mount, you must take care when attaching the
accelerometer to a mounting surface. You can achieve this by approaching the mounting
surface with the magnetic mounting tilted at an angle. When detaching the magnetic
mounting, you must not use the accelerometer as a lever for breaking contact. Instead, the
magnetic mounting should be gripped tightly and then tilted sideways to break the contact.
The accelerometer cable should never be twisted acutely, but must be anchored in a manner
Figure-57
Firstly, when mounting the accelerometer, you must take care to prevent the cable from
becoming entangled with moving machinery. While the quick-release connector minimizes this
Other things that could tangle with moving machinery include loose clothing, long hair, data
Figure-58
Secondly, you must never attach the accelerometer to any high voltage surface as this may
103
Thirdly, you must never bring the magnetic mounting near any magnet-sensitive objects such
as pacemakers, credit cards, floppy disks, video tapes, cassette tapes and watches since
Interpret reading
Checklist Table 7
No Yes No
1
Were you provided with all the accelerometer?
2
Did you get access to an electric motor?
3
Did you Mount as Close as Possible to the Bearing?
4
Did you make sure Make Sure the Accelerometer is
firmly Attached?
5 Did you Make Sure the Accelerometer is Oriented
Correctly?
104
9 Could you interpret the readings
105
Describe vibration isolation.
Vibration isolation is a commonly used technique for reducing or suppressing unwanted
vibrations in structures and machines. With this technique, the device or system of interest
is isolated from the source of vibration through insertion of a resilient member or isolator.
There are various types of isolators, including metal springs, rubber mounts, and pneumatic
The foundation of a vibrating system is protected from large transmitted forces due
The vibrating system, which may be a delicate device or instrument, is protected from
Vibration isolation
Vibration isolation system is that setting of isolation devices between the upper structure
and the foundation, as shown in Figure 59 and this will reduce the transmission of vibration
energy. The methods of vibration isolation usually include rubber isolation, sliding isolation,
106
Figure-59-Structure vibration isolation
Rubber isolation
Rubber bearing, also known as sandwich (or laminated/multi) rubber isolation pad, consists of
rubber and steel plane alternately. Rubber bearings are the most mature and widely used
isolation devices, as shown in Figure 60. In order to meet the damping requirements of the
isolation system, lead plug or high damping rubber is adopted in rubber bearings. The rubber
bearing is an ideal device not only having the advantages of strong vertical bearing capacity,
small horizontal stiffness and large horizontal allowable displacement, but also withstanding
the vertical earthquake excitations with certain strength. However, the device has poor
tension properties and the effect of vertical isolation is not obvious. In the recent years,
some multi-dimensional earthquake isolation devices are proposed based on the ordinary
rubber bearing
Figure-60-Rubber isolator
107
Figure-60-Rubber isolator
Sliding isolation
Sliding isolation relies on sliding support elements installed between the basement and the
upper structure. Sliding support elements can reduce transmission of vibration energy
effectively due to energy consumption by relative sliding motion and friction. Theoretical and
practical studies show that the sliding isolation system has excellent capacity for vibration
isolation. The main advantage of the sliding isolation system is that its isolation effect is
affected by the frequency of slight ground motion, and resonance phenomenon does not occur
easily. At the same time, the construction of the sliding isolation system is simple and the
cost is lower. The sliding isolation system has some drawbacks, such as bad restoring capacity
Hybrid isolation
The hybrid isolation system is constituted by two or more isolation systems in a certain way
(series, parallel, and series-parallel, etc.) for better vibration isolation effect. A hybrid
108
isolation system makes full use of the advantages of different isolation systems and
overcomes shortcomings of different components. For example, when the sliding isolation
system and the rubber isolation system are connected in parallel, the former has better load-
carrying capacity and can decrease the number of rubber bearings, and the latter can provide
restoring force. Hybrid isolation systems have complex hysteresis characteristics due to
Kinetics spring vibration isolators are used to reduce the transmission of noise, shock, and
structure.
Pumps
Fans
Cooling Towers
Rooftop Units
Chillers
Boilers
Compressors
109
Figure-61-Spring vibration isolator
Without good vibration control, expensive equipment may fail faster, produce inaccurate
results, and even make noise. In addition to vibration caused by motors, fans, and other
equipment, some installations may suffer from seismic activity that can create acute and
damaging levels of vibration. If frequencies of vibration are allowed to pass into the
structure, they may cause significant damage to the building and surrounding systems.
Reduction of vibration does more than just eliminate a nuisance; it can also help prevent a
Loosening of bolts, screws, and other fixtures: Facilities that neglect vibration control
110
Disruption of or damage to sensitive equipment: Sensitive equipment may produce
Production losses and energy inefficiencies: Equipment subject to vibrations may have
to work harder and may fail more rapidly, resulting in more energy consumption and
extra downtime.
Vibration Dampers are made up of rubber and metal components; the rubber within the
metal absorbs excessive vibrations that are leaked from the engine. These vibrations,
if transmitted, can damage surrounding components causing them to fail prematurely. Having
failing parts within the engine can cause significant damage to the vehicle.
If the driver starts to hear excessive noise coming from the engine or the vehicle
is vibrating excessively, then the following steps must be followed to rectify it.
To start with the job, you will need the following tools:
111
Torque wrench
Hammer
Screwdrivers
Wrenches
Pliers
Allen Wrenches
Step 1
The belt routing can be quite complex, so we advise that you take a picture or draw a
quick sketch of this.
Step 2
Next, remove the tensioner from the belt, which can easily be done by rotating the pulley.
Step 3
To remove the torsional vibration damper from the crankshaft, you need to loosen the
mounting bolts. As we know, not everything is as straight forward and some torsional
vibration damper are different.
If the torsional vibration damper you are replacing has a central expansion bolt, then you will
need to block the flywheel. Like most repairs on a vehicle, all the parts need to be replaced,
and this includes the central bolt.
Step 4
Step 5
Now that the new torsional vibration damper is on, we need to tighten the mounting bolts. If
there are several bolts, we recommend tightening alternate bolts and working them in a
star pattern. Torque the mounting bolts to a third of the installation torque.
112
Step 6
Before fully tightening the bolts, I recommend you torque the mounting bolts to two-thirds,
and then continue to tighten them to the full torque as specified by the vehicle manufacturer
in the manual
Inspect the front end auxiliary drive for wear and to replace any parts that are showing
significant signs of stress.
Step 8
The final step to the installation and removal process is reloading the belt onto the
tensioner by rotating the tensioner to the correct position.
As you go through the process of fixing the torsional vibration damper adhere to all
safety precautions.
Checklist Table 8
N Yes No
o
1 Were you provided with all the apparatus needed
2 Were you able to get all tools needed
3 Could you remove the tensioner from the belt
4 Were you able fix the torsional vibration damper
5 Were you able to tighten the bolts correctly
6 Were you able to reload the belt onto the tensioner
113
114