Republic of Yemen

Sana’a University
Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Department

DESIGN AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM FOR

THE 1ST FLOOR OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY HOSPITAL
Prepared by:

Mohammed Abdulhabeb Mohammed Ahmed 195/2015

Adeb Abdulhafeedh Ali Hasan 11/2015

Mohammed Ali Hassan Al-Gauori 256/2015

Moath Najeeb Mohammed Radman 300/2010

Supervised by:
DR. ABDULJALIL AL-ABIDI

A Final Year Project Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the Degree of Bachelor in
Mechanical Engineering Presented to the Department of Mechanical Engineering
at Sana’a University

September, 2019
Republic of Yemen
Sana’a University
Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Department

DESIGN AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM FOR THE 1ST

FLOOR OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY HOSPITAL

Prepared by:

Mohammed Abdulhabeb Mohammed Ahmed 195/2015

Adeb Abdulhafeedh Ali Hasan 11/2015

Mohammed Ali Hassan Al-Gauori 256/2015

Moath Najeeb Mohammed Radman 300/2010

Supervised by:
DR. ABDULJALIL AL-ABIDI

A Final Year Project Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the Degree of Bachelor in
Mechanical Engineering Presented to the Department of Mechanical Engineering
at Sana’a University

September, 2019
 ABSTRACT
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system is designed to achieve the
environmental requirements of the comfort of occupants and a process. HVAC systems are
more used in different types of buildings such as industrial, commercial, residential and
institutional buildings.
HVAC systems for hospitals and health care facilities have special requirements
because of the inherent nature of their functions and the unique susceptibility of patients.
The design must provide a ventilation system that minimizes exposure hazards for health
care providers and provides a comfortable working environment. HVAC systems must also
provide ventilation that minimizes the hazard exposure of visitors.
Energy demand is increasing worldwide, and the Republic of Yemen is following this
trend. The Middle East and Northern Africa (MENA) region follows the worldwide trend
of a continuously increasing demand of both primary energy and electricity for cooling
purposes. Currently most of this energy demand is mainly covered by the use of fossil fuels
Consequently, conventional energy resources are getting depleted and more greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions are emitted. Using renewable energy as a primary source in solar
cooling sector will help in decreasing the consumption of fossil fuel, thus, reducing GHG
emissions.

The objective of this project is to design the heating ventilation and air conditioning
system (HVAC) by absorption for a 1st floor commercial hospital which built in Sana’a
city with a total cooling coil load of 340.43KW (97.3 TR). The construction of duct work,
and piping network is done by using REVIT MEP software, and other program that aided
in manual method calculations such as duct sizer. The manual method is also utilized in
this research to estimate the cooling load, to size the duct work design, and to size piping
network. Also, a detailed select of the system equipment was done. For absorption HVAC
design system, the air-handling units (AHU) are installed with HEPA filters with a [1.5
m/s] velocity limit in the most important suite such as operation room, (ICU), (CCU), and
sterilization, to minimize infection, maintain staff comfort, and maintain patient comfort.
While Fan coil unit (FCU) are for the other spaces. The pressure drop in the piping network
is 1.695 bar. The pump (50-160/55) LOWARA is selected to overcome maximum head up

I
to 17.3m with 5.5 KW. The total aperture area of evacuated tubes collectors is 502 m2. The
chiller capacity is 369 KW.

II
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
To our parents who have the white hearts that generously have given us whatever we need,
to those who suffered and have been devoted their life to see always in comfort. To our
supervisor, DR. Eng. ABDULJALIL AL-ABIDI, we would like to express my deepest
gratefulness for his enormous guidance and advice during the project, it was great
opportunity for us to do the project under his supervision for his wide experience and his
passion to share his knowledge with the others. We would like to thank all doctors in the
mechanical Engineering Department Sana’a University, who guide and support us during
five years.

III
 DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to everyone supported us during the period of our study.

IV
 Table of Contents

ABSTRACT............................................................................................................... I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................III
DEDICATION ......................................................................................................... IV
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... X
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................. XI
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................ XIII
LIST OF SYMBOLS .............................................................................................. XV
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................1
1.1 Background ................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement ........................................................................................................ 2
1.3 Objective ....................................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Scope and Limitation .................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Structure of the Research .............................................................................................. 3
CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................4
LITUREREVIEW............................................................................................................. 4
2.1 Overview of HVAC System by Absorption ................................................................. 4
2.2 Classification of HVAC systems .................................................................................. 4
2.3 Comfort ......................................................................................................................... 6
2.3.1 Comfort Conditioning ............................................................................................ 6
2.4.1 System selection guidelines ................................................................................... 7
2.5 HVAC system requirements ......................................................................................... 8
2.6 Central HVAC systems ............................................................................................... 10
2.7 Single zone .................................................................................................................. 12
2.8 Air-water systems ....................................................................................................... 14
2.8.1 Fan-coil units ........................................................................................................ 14
2.9 Hospitals ..................................................................................................................... 15
2.10 Sterile Spaces in Hospitals ........................................................................................ 16
2.10.1 Operating Suite ................................................................................................... 16

V
 2.10.1.1Operating Room ........................................................................................... 16
2.10.1.2 Anesthesia Equipment Room ...................................................................... 18
2.10.1.3 Sterile Equipment Rooms ............................................................................ 19
2.10.2 Intensive Care Units ........................................................................................... 19
2.10.3 Central Sterile Services ...................................................................................... 22
2.10.4 Cardiac Care Unite ............................................................................................. 24
2.11 HVAC Design Parameters for Hospital Spaces ........................................................ 24
2.11.1 Temperature ....................................................................................................... 25
2.12.2 Relative Humidity .............................................................................................. 26
2.10.3 Filtration ............................................................................................................. 26
2.10.5 Pressurization ..................................................................................................... 29
2.10.5.1. Volumetric Flow Rate ................................................................................ 29
2.10.5.2 Room Differential Pressure ......................................................................... 30
2.10.6 Total and Fresh Air Changes .............................................................................. 30
2.11 Hospital and Laboratory Equipment ......................................................................... 30
2.12 Basic components of an HVAC system .................................................................... 31
2.12.1 Air filter .............................................................................................................. 31
2.12.1.1 Laminar Flow Unit ...................................................................................... 32
2.12.2 Supply and exhaust fan ...................................................................................... 34
2.12.3 Outdoor air intake............................................................................................... 35
2.12.4 Duct .................................................................................................................... 35
2.12.4.1 Duct components ......................................................................................... 35
2.12.4.2 Ducts can be classified according to their shapes into ................................ 36
2.12.4.3 Material of Air Ducts ................................................................................... 37
2.12.4.4 Duct insulation ............................................................................................. 37
2.12.4.5 Sound Attenuator ......................................................................................... 37
2.12.5 Terminal devices ................................................................................................ 38
2.12.5.1 Ceiling diffuser ............................................................................................ 38
2.12.5.2 Grilles and Registers .................................................................................... 38
2.12.6 Return air system ................................................................................................ 39
2.12.7 cooling coils ....................................................................................................... 39

VI
 2.12.8 Fan-Coil Unit Systems ....................................................................................... 40
2.12.9 Air -Handling .................................................................................................. 42
2.12.10 Volume Control Damper .................................................................................. 42
2.12.11 CONDENSER .................................................................................................. 43
2.12.12 Control.............................................................................................................. 43
2.12.13 Water chiller ..................................................................................................... 44
2.12.14 Humidification and dehumidification equipment ............................................ 44
2.13 Piping System ........................................................................................................... 45
2.13.1 Type of Piping system ........................................................................................ 45
2.13.1.1 Closed system.................................................................................................. 45
2.13.1.2 Two-Pipe Direct Return System .................................................................. 46
2.13.2 Piping Material ................................................................................................... 47
2.13.3 Valves, Pipe Fittings and Accessories................................................................ 47
2.13.3.1 Gate Valves.................................................................................................. 48
2.13.3.2 Globe Valves ............................................................................................... 48
2.13.3.3 Check Valves ............................................................................................... 48
2.13.3.4 Pressure Relief Valves ................................................................................. 48
2.13.3.5 Butterfly Valves:.......................................................................................... 49
2.13.3.6 “Y” valve ..................................................................................................... 49
2.13.3.7 Balance Valves ............................................................................................ 49
2.13.4 Valve Connections and Ratings(joint) ............................................................... 50
2.13.4.1 Threaded ends .............................................................................................. 50
2.13.4.2 Flanged ends ................................................................................................ 50
2.13.4.3 Welded ends ................................................................................................ 50
2.13.4.4 Grooved ends ............................................................................................... 51
2.13.4.5 Soldered ends ............................................................................................... 51
2.13.5 Fitting ................................................................................................................. 51
2.13.6 Accessories ......................................................................................................... 52
2.13.6.1 Expansion tank ............................................................................................ 52
2.13.6.2 Air Separator................................................................................................ 52
2.13.6.3 Makeup Tank. .............................................................................................. 53

VII
 2.13.6.4 Strainer......................................................................................................... 53
2.14 Water treatment ......................................................................................................... 53
2.15 Pump for HVAC system ........................................................................................... 54
2.16 Chilled water pipe insulation .................................................................................... 54
2.16.1 Economic thickness ............................................................................................ 55
12.17 Lithium Bromide-water Absorption Air-Conditioning System .............................. 55
2.18 Solar Thermal Collectors .......................................................................................... 57
2.18.1 Evacuated Tube Collectors................................................................................. 58
CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................ 59
METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................... 59
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 59
3.2 Software program........................................................................................................ 59
3.2.1 REVIT MEP System Design Features ................................................................. 60
3.3 Flow Chart .................................................................................................................. 61
3.4 Building parameters .................................................................................................... 62
3.5 Sizing the HVAC System ........................................................................................... 63
3.5.1 Estimating Total Cooling Load ............................................................................ 63
3.5.1.1 Manual Method Sample................................................................................. 67
3.5.1.2 Technical method .............................................................................................. 68
3.5.2 Duct system Design.............................................................................................. 73
3.5.2.1 Duct Sizing Manually .................................................................................... 73
3.5.2.2Technical method for duct design .................................................................. 78
3.6 Ceiling diffuser ........................................................................................................... 79
3.7 Filters .......................................................................................................................... 80
3.8 Fan............................................................................................................................... 81
3.9 Air Handling Unit and Fan Coil Selection .................................................................. 83
3.10 Pipe sizing ................................................................................................................. 83
3.10.1 Manual Method .................................................................................................. 84
3.10.1.1 Valves and Fittings Losses .............................................................................. 85
3.10.3 Pump Sizing ....................................................................................................... 87
3.11 Chiller Absorption .................................................................................................... 88

VIII
CHAPTER FOUR........................................................................................................... 90
NUMERICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................... 90
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 90
4.2 Manual method ........................................................................................................... 91
4.2.1 Cooling loads........................................................................................................ 91
4.2.2 Ductwork Summery Sample ................................................................................ 93
4.2.3 Piping Network Summary Sample ....................................................................... 94
4.2.4 Pump selection ......................................................................................................... 96
4.3 Technical method ........................................................................................................ 97
4.4 FCUs and AHUs Selection Summary ......................................................................... 99
4.4.1 Total Summary Parameters .................................................................................. 99
4.4.2 Rooftop Supply and Exhaust Fan Units Specification ....................................... 102
4.5 Supply, Return Diffuser, and Exhaust grille ............................................................. 105
4.6 Absorption chiller ..................................................................................................... 107
4.7 Solar Collector Characteristics ................................................................................. 108
CHAPTER 5 .................................................................................................................. 110
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................... 110
REFERENCES.............................................................................................................. 111
APPENDIX A ................................................................................................................ 114
APPENDIX B ................................................................................................................ 116
IMPORTANT TABLES FOR CALCULTIONS ....................................................... 116

IX
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2. 1: Comparison of central and local HVAC systems ............................................. 4

Table 2. 2: System selection factors and considerations..................................................... 7
Table 2. 3: Typical Operating Room (OR) Requirements ................................................ 18
Table 3. 1: General Project Data ....................................................................................... 62
Table 3. 2: Data needed for manual method ..................................................................... 68
Table 3. 3:Friction Chart for Round Duct ......................................................................... 74
Table 3. 4: Circular Equivalents of Rectangular Duct for Equal Friction and Airflow .... 74
Table 3. 5: Typical Initial Pressure Drops for Air Filters ................................................ 81
Table 4. 1: The summaries of the HVAC system sizing................................................... 90
Table 4. 2: Result of heat gain due to solar effects through building ............................... 91
Table 4. 3:Result of Heat gain due to solar transmission through the glass ..................... 92
Table 4. 4: Summary of cooling loads of the sample(OP-Z1) . ........................................ 93
Table 4. 5: Sample Ductwork Summery ........................................................................... 94
Table 4. 6: Piping Network Summery .............................................................................. 94
Table 4. 7: Zone summary -op-z1 ..................................................................................... 97
Table 4. 8: All spaces cooling coil load ............................................................................ 98
Table 4. 9: Summary of FCU Parameters ......................................................................... 99
Table 4. 10: Summary of AHU parameters .................................................................... 101
Table 4. 11: The actual and standard values of the flow rates, pressure drops of the
rooftop fan units .............................................................................................................. 102
Table 4. 12: Fan specifications ..........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 4. 13: technical data for fans ................................................................................ 104
Table 4. 14: Diffuses and Grilles Summary.................................................................... 105
Table 4. 15: Absorption chiller specifications ............................................................... 108
Table 4. 16: Technical specifications of the collector .................................................... 109

X
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2. 1: Horizontal hierarchy representation of HVAC system requirements............ 10

Figure 2. 2: central HVAC systems .................................................................................. 11
Figure 2. 3: Equipment arrangement for central HVAC system....................................... 12
Figure 2. 4: Water-air HVAC system for single zone....................................................... 13
Figure 2. 5: Air-water HVAC system using fan coil units with 4-pipes configuration. ... 14
Figure 2. 6: View from operating room ............................................................................ 17
Figure 2. 7: Intensive Care Unit ........................................................................................ 20
Figure 2. 8: View from central sterile services department sterile storage area ............... 23
Figure 2. 9: View from cardiac care unite ........................................................................ 24
Figure 2. 10: Turbulent air flow distribution .................................................................... 27
Figure 2. 11: Laminar air flow distribution....................................................................... 28
Figure 2. 12: HEPA filter .................................................................................................. 32
Figure 2. 13: Swirl and square diffusers and HEPA filter boxes ...................................... 32
Figure 2. 14: Schematic view of a laminar air flow unit with recirculation air ................ 33
Figure 2. 15: Types of fans .............................................................................................. 34
Figure 2. 16: The basic components of duct system. ........................................................ 35
Figure 2. 17: Various types of air duct.............................................................................. 36
Figure 2. 18: Duct insulation material. ............................................................................. 37
Figure 2. 19: Sound traps or duct silencers. ...................................................................... 38
Figure 2. 20: Lint grille ..................................................................................................... 39
Figure 2. 21: Basic Fan-Coil Unit ..................................................................................... 40
Figure 2. 22: Horizontal Fan-Coil Unit. ............................................................................ 41
Figure 2. 23: Vertical Fan-Coil Unit. ................................................................................ 41
Figure 2. 24: A typical AHU with unhoused plug/plenum return fan. ............................. 42
Figure 2. 25: Volume Control Damper ............................................................................. 43
Figure 2. 26: Basic control loop ........................................................................................ 44
Figure 2. 27: Components of Piping System. ................................................................... 45
Figure 2. 28: Closed-loop of piping system. ..................................................................... 46
Figure 2. 29: Two-Pipe Direct Return System. ................................................................. 47
Figure 2. 30: Types of valves.. .......................................................................................... 49
Figure 2. 31: Types of valves. ........................................................................................... 50
Figure 2. 32: (a) Soldered Joint; (b) Weld and Threaded Joint; (c) Groove Joint. ........... 51
Figure 2. 33: Example of various pipe weld fittings ......................................................... 51
Figure 2. 34: Expansion tank. ........................................................................................... 52
Figure 2. 35: Air Separator. .............................................................................................. 52
Figure 2. 36: Makeup Tank. ............................................................................................. 53
Figure 2. 37: Y Strainer..................................................................................................... 53
Figure 2. 38: The centrifugal pump. ................................................................................. 54
Figure 2. 39: Determination of Economic Thickness of Insulation. ................................. 55
Figure 2. 40: Schematic of a single-effect absorption chiller ........................................... 56
Figure 2. 41: Types of solar thermal energy collectors..................................................... 57
Figure 2. 42: Evacuated tube collector with heat pipe ...................................................... 58

XI
Figure 3. 1: Duct sizer software calculation sample………………..………………........60
Figure 3. 2: Flow chart ...................................................................................................... 61
Figure 3. 3: shown view for (OP-Z1) from rivet program ................................................ 67
Figure 3. 4: Determination of Economic Thickness of Insulation .................................... 77
Figure 3. 5: Filter Pressure Drop versus Air Velocity ...................................................... 81
Figure 3. 6: Friction Loss for Water in Commercial Steel Pipe (Schedule 40) ................ 84
Figure 3. 7: shows head pump………………………………………………………….87
Figure 4. 1: Layout of operation room 1 (OP-Z1) ductwork ............................................ 93
Figure 4. 2: Selected fan performance chart ................................................................... 104

XII
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AIA American Institute of Architects

AHU Air Handling Units
ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning
Engineers
CAV Constant Air Volume
CCU Cardiac Care Unit
CLTD Cooling Load Temperature Difference
COP Coefficient Operation Performance
Co Loss Coefficients
DIN Deutsches Institute for Normung
EF Equal Friction
EPDM Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer
ETC Evacuated tube collector
FCU Fan Coil Unit
GHG Greenhouse gas
HEPA High Efficiency Particulate
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
HVAC Heating Ventilating And Air Conditioning
IAQ Indoor Air Quality
ICU Intensive Care Unit
LiBr Lithium Bromide-water solution
MAU Makeup Air Unit
MENA Middle East and Northern Africa
OR Operation Room
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride
REVIT MEP
RH Relative Humidity
ROI Return on Investment
RTU Rooftop Unit

XIII
SR Static Regain

VAV Variable Air Volume

VDI Virtual Desktop Infrastructure

ULPA Ultra-Low Penetration

USTH University of Science and Technology

XIV
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

𝒎̇ Flow rate [kg/s].

ρ° Specific density of air [kg/m3].

ΔP Pressure drop [Pa].

𝛈solar The Solar system efficiency

𝜂pump Pump efficiency [%].

𝛈moror The motor efficiency

A Area of round duct or water pipe [m2].

Cp Specific heat of [J/kg].

CLF The cooling load factor.

CLTD Cooling load temperature different [ ℃].

f Attic or roof fan factor.

g Acceleration due to gravity [m/s2]

hp Pump horse power [hp].

I Solar radiation [W/ m2].

K Color adjustment factor.

LM Latitude correction factor.

LHG Latent heat gain [W/person].

N Number of people OR equipment

𝐕̇ Volumetric flow rate of air [m3/s]

ρ Fluid density [kg/m3]

Qsolar Heat gain due to solar effects through building [W]

XV
Qglass Heat gain due to solar transmission through the glass [W]

Qlight Heat gain due to light [W]

QHSL Total heat from occupant [W]

QSH Sensible heat gains from occupant [W]

QLH Latent heat gains from occupant [W].

Q equip Heat gain of equipment [W].

Q infil Heat gain of infiltration [W].

Qtotal The total heat gain [W].

𝐐𝐜𝐜 Cooling coil load [W].

Rth The total thermal resistance of a composite wall [K.m2/W].

Ri Inside Thermal resistance [K.m2/W].

RO Outside Thermal resistance [K.m2/W].

SHG Solar heat gain factor [W/m2].

SC Shading coefficient [W/m2. K].

SHG Sensible heat gain [W/person].

T𝑖 Indoor design temperature [℃].

To,m Outdoor design temperature [℃].

Vf Volumetric flow rate of infiltrated air [m3 /s].

V Volume [m3].

Q Water or air flow rate [l/s].

V The flow velocity [m/𝑠].

H Total head [m].

Uw The overall heat transfers coefficient (W/m2 k)

XVI
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
Solar cooling technologies were developed and deployed for practical use since the
1970s. Larger absorption machines (larger than 50 kW) have already reached a significant
market and track record in non-solar applications. In particular, smaller systems are still at
the earlier stage of development. Any thermal cooling system is comprised of several
important elements. One such element is the heat rejection system, which is bigger for
thermal cooling systems than for compression systems and which requires specific
considerations especially in hot climate regions, where heat rejection to the environment is
more difficult to achieve. Another important element is a storage system for thermal energy
to provide cooling in periods without sunshine, given that solar irradiation varies
throughout the year and fluctuates within individual days. An alternative is a back-up
supply of thermal energy via a gas burner, but as the deployment of fossil fuel power
backup system negatively affects the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission profile of the system,
a storage system is preferred wherever feasible [1].
Solar radiation as a sustainable energy resource is one of the most available forms of
energy on the earth surface which could reduce the fossil fuel consumption and CO2
emission to the atmosphere. Solar cooling is a possible technological alternative to
conventional air conditioning systems that has recently attracted a growing interest. A solar
assisted absorption cooling system as a sustainable solution for cooling systems could
provide both heating and cooling of a building. Since the solar energy is available for only
a fraction of the day and its availability depends on several factors such as latitude and sky
clearness [2].
The design of HVAC systems for health care facilities is a unique and challenging art
and science demanding specialized experience and knowledge of the character of these

1
high stakes facilities, the sensitivity and vulnerability of their populations, and the complex
interactions of the HVAC system with the other architectural and engineering elements that
make up the building. The design process requires familiarity with a specialized and
diverse set of criteria, regulations, codes, and design standards, and the ability to weigh
their application in the face of an owner’s economic limitations associated with the
business of health care (addressed in detail in Chapter 9). This manual describes best
practices for the design of HVAC systems for health care facilities. It is not intended as a
code document, and readers should consider that even best practices, unless codified, may
be rejected by the building owner[3].

1.2 Problem Statement

Yemen is the least electrified country in the MENA (Middle East and North Africa)
region with only about 40% of the population having access to electricity [4]. Most of the
commercial and industrial buildings depend on self-generation electrical station. Currently,
most of the commercial and industrial hot water demands in Yemen are met mainly by the
use of fossil fuel. Unfortunately, Yemen is undergoing a political and economic crisis,
which leads to increase oil prices and sometimes to a shortage in the local markets creating
a major problem for the investments especially in the commercial and industrial sectors.
Hospitals are significantly affected from that situation in providing the sufficient
HVAC system. In the case of University of Science and Technology Hospital (USTH) 1st
floor, with a total cooling load of 97.3TR, it will require ductwork, piping network, AHUs,
FCUs, evacuated tubes, and an absorption chiller.

1.3 Objective
The main aim of this research is to design an HVAC system for a USTH 1st floor in
Sana’a. Other objectives of this study can be stated as following:
1- To estimate the cooling load of the 1st floor of the USTH.
2-To construct the duct work and piping network by using REVIT MEP.
3- To determine the main HVAC system components sizing.
4- To determine the total aperture area of the solar collectors.

2
1.4 Scope and Limitation
The scope of the study will be limited to:
1. The study will consider a health care facility.
2. This study will be limited to the summer (from April to September) climate of Yemen
represented by Sana'a city.

1.5 Structure of the Research

The research is presented in five chapters:
In this chapter an overview and background to the area of commercial HVAC systems
is presented. In addition, problem statement, the objectives, scope and limitation, and the
structure of the research are included.
Chapter 2 This chapter presents an overview of HVAC system by absorption. Also, the
chapter outlines the classification of HVAC systems. Then the different types of HVAC
systems and their uses. Finally, the accessories of the system and an overview of the
absorption cycle.
Chapter 3 describes the methodology of the research. It outlines the mathematical
equations, tables and graphs which are used in our research. Also the manual and technical
methods.
Chapter 4 represents the numerical results that were obtained from equation both
manual and technical methods and the proper selecting of the system equipment.
Chapter 5 is the conclusion of the whole research and recommendations are also
included. References and appendices are given at the end of this research.

3
 CHAPTER TWO

LITUREREVIEW

This chapter represents an overview of HVAC system by absorption. Also, the chapter
outlines the classification of HVAC systems, the types of HVAC systems and their uses.
the accessories of the system and an overview of the absorption cycle.

2.1 Overview of HVAC System by Absorption

The sun's energy radiated on the Earth, properly collected and concentrated, can easily
be used not only to produce a hot fluid or superheated steam at different temperatures for
domestic or industrial use, but also to produce a chilled fluid for refrigeration by providing
hot water to the generator of an absorption chiller thereby creating a “solar cooling system”.
Most of the thermally driven cooling systems these days, including solar air conditioning
systems, are based on absorption chillers [26, 27].

2.2 Classification of HVAC systems

The major classification of HVAC systems is central system and decentralized or local
system. Types of a system depend on addressing the primary equipment location to be
centralized as conditioning entire building as a whole unit or decentralized as separately
conditioning a specific zone as part of a building. Therefore, the air and water distribution
system should be designed based on system classification and the location of primary
equipment. The criteria as mentioned above should also be applied in selecting between two
systems. Table2.1 shows the comparison of central and local systems according to the
selection criteria [7, 8].
Table 2. 1: Comparison of central and local HVAC systems
Criteria Central system Decentralized system

Temperature, Fulfilling any or all of the design Fulfilling any or all of the design
humidity, Parameters parameters

4
and space pressure
requirements
Capacity • Considering HVAC diversity factors to • Maximum capacity is required for
requirements reduce the installed equipment capacity. each equipment
• Significant first cost and operating cost • Equipment sizing diversity is
limited
Redundancy Standby equipment is accommodated for No backup or standby equipment
troubleshooting and maintenance

Special requirements • An equipment room is located outside • Possible of no equipment room is

the conditioned area, or adjacent to or needed
remote from the building • Equipment may be located on the
• Installing secondary equipment for roof
the air and water distribution which and the ground adjacent to the
requires additional cost building

First cost • High capital cost • Affordable capital cost

• Considering longer equipment services
life to compensate the high capital cost

Operating cost • More significant energy efficient primary • Less energy efficient primary
equipment equipment
• A proposed operating system which • Various energy peaks due to
saves operating cost occupants’
preference
• Higher operating cost
Maintenance cost Accessible to the equipment room for Accessible to equipment to be
maintenance and saving equipment located in the
in excellent condition, which saves basement or the living space.
maintenance cost However, it is
difficult for roof location due to bad
weather
Reliability Central system equipment can be an Reliable equipment, although the
attractive benefit when considering its long estimated
service life equipment service life may be less

5
 Flexibility Selecting standby equipment to provide an Placed in numerous locations to be
alternative source of HVAC or backup more
Flexible

2.3 Comfort
Comfort is a highly subjective word, reflecting sensations which vary greatly from one
individual to another. Comfort can be defined only in general or statistical terms. Research
by ASHRAE over many years has identified the major factors contributing to comfort:
temperature, relative humidity, air movement, and radiant effects. Attempts have been
made to combine these factors to obtain a single-number index called the effective
temperature1 or comfort index. The type and quantity of clothing and the level of activity
also affect comfort, but these factors vary so greatly that they cannot be quantified.
Typically, the air system is designed to control temperature always and humidity
sometimes. Good control of air movement (from supply grilles and diffusers) is also needed
to improve the comfort index. Most people do not like a draft (local air velocity over about
100ft/min), but in some hot industrial environments, a high rate of airflow at the
workstation may be necessary.
Radiant effects are often beyond the control of the HVAC designer but should be taken
into account in the HVAC design. Typical radiant effects are caused by windows (cold in
winter, hot when exposed to the- sun), by lighting fixtures (especially incandescent), and
by cross-radiation among people in large groups [ 5].

2.3.1 Comfort Conditioning

Across the range of health care facilities, health care practices often expose patients
and staff to conditions that dictate unique environmental requirements. As in any facility,
the comfort of building occupants Is fundamental to overall well-being and productivity.
In the health care facility, a comfortable environment has a significant role in facilitating
healing and recovery. A sick or injured patient in an uncomfortable environment is subject

6
to thermal stress that may hinder the body’s ability to properly regulate body heat, interfere
with rest, and be psychologically harmful. At the same time, a health care provider stressed
by an uncomfortable environment may not function at peak performance levels.
Patients clothed in a simple gown in an examination room, for example, or orthopedic
surgical staff heavily garbed in scrub suits during an hours-long, complex, and stressful
procedure, require special room temperature and humidity levels and controls. Similarly,
room airflow patterns and air change rates influence thermal comfort. For these reasons,
health care codes and criteria establish specific requirements for space temperature, relative
humidity, and total air change rates [3].

2.4 HVAC system selection

System selection depends on three main factors including the building configuration,
the climate conditions, and the owner desire [7]. The design engineer is responsible for
considering various systems and recommending more than one system to meet the goal and
satisfy the owner of a building. Some criteria can be considered such as climate change
(e.g., temperature, humidity, and space pressure), building capacity, spatial requirements,
cost such as capital cost, operating cost, and maintenance cost, life cycle analysis, and
reliability and flexibility.
However, the selection of a system has some constraints that must be determined. These
constraints include the available capacity according to standards, building configuration,
available space, construction budget, the available utility source, heating and cooling load.

2.4.1 System selection guidelines

Each of the following issues as shown in the Table2.2 should be taken into consideration
each time an HVAC system is selected [14].
Table 2. 2: System selection factors and considerations
factor Consideration
Financial factors Initial cost, operating costs, Maintenance and repair cost, Equipment replacement or
upgrading cost, Equipment failure cost, Return on investment (ROI), and Energy costs

7
 Building conditions New or existing building or space, Location, Orientation, Architecture, Climate and
shading, Configuration
Construction, and Codes and standards

Usage Occupancy, and Process equipment

Energy availability Types, and Reliability

Control scheme Zone control, and Individual control

2.5 HVAC system requirements

Four requirements are the bases for any HVAC systems. They need primary
equipment, space requirement, air distribution, and piping, as shown in Figure2.1. Primary
equipment includes heating equipment such as steam boilers and hot water boilers to heat
buildings or spaces, air delivery equipment as packaged equipment to deliver conditioned
ventilation air by using centrifugal fans, axial fans, and plug or plenum fans, and
refrigeration equipment that delivers cooled or conditioned air into space. It includes
cooling coils based on water from water chillers or refrigerants from a refrigeration
process. Space requirement is essential in shaping an HVAC system to be central or local.
It requires five facilities as the following:
a. Equipment rooms: since the total mechanical and electrical space requirements range
between 4 and 9% of the gross building area. It is preferable to be centrally located in
the building to reduce the long duct, pipe, and conduit runs and sizes, to simplify shaft
layouts, and centralized maintenance and operation.
b. HVAC facilities: cooling equipment require many facilities to perform their primary
tasks of cooling the building. The cooling equipment requires water chillers for large
buildings, condenser water pumps, heat exchangers, air-conditioning equipment,
control air compressors, and miscellaneous equipment. The design of equipment rooms
to host both pieces of equipment should consider the size and the weight of equipment,
the installation and maintenance of equipment, and the applicable regulations to
combustion air and ventilation air criteria.
c. Fan rooms contain the HVAC fan equipment and other miscellaneous equipment.

8
The rooms should consider the size of the installation and removal of fan shafts and
coils, the replacement, and maintenance. The size of fans depends on the required air
flow rate to condition the building, and it can be centralized or localized based on the
availability, location, and cost. It is preferable to have easy access to outdoor air.
d. Vertical shaft: provide space for air distribution and water pipe distribution. The air
distribution contains HVAC supply air, exhaust air, and return air ductwork. Pipe
distribution includes chilled water, condenser water, and condenser return.
e. Equipment access: the equipment room must allow the movement of large, heavy
equipment during the installation, replacement, and maintenance. Air distribution
considers ductwork that delivers the conditioned air to the desired area in a direct, quiet,
and economical way as possible. Air distribution includes air terminal unit such as
grilles and diffusers to deliver supply air into a space at low velocity; fan-powered
terminal units, which uses an integral fan to ensure the supply air to the space; variable
air volume terminal units, which deliver variable amount of air into the space and air-
water induction terminal units, which contains a coil in the induction air stream. All the
ductwork and piping should be insulated to prevent heat loss and save building energy.
It is also recommended that buildings should have enough ceiling spaces to host
ductwork in the suspended ceiling and floor slab, and can be used as a return air plenum
to reduce the return ductwork. The piping system is used to deliver cooled water to and
from HVAC equipment in a direct, quiet and affordable way. Piping systems can be
divided into two parts: the piping in the central plant equipment room and the delivery
piping. HVAC piping should be insulated based on existing code criteria [8].

9
 Heating Equipment

Cooling Equipment
Primary Equipment
Air Delivery Equipment

Equipment Rooms

HVAC Facilities

Vertical Shaft
HVAC System Space Requirements
Requirements Fan Rooms

Equipment Access

Air Distribution Terminal Units

Ductwork

System Piping

Piping Delivery Piping

Figure 2. 1: Horizontal hierarchy representation of HVAC system requirements.

2.6 Central HVAC systems

A central HVAC system may serve one or more thermal zones, and its major equipment
is located outside of the served zone(s) in a suitable central location whether inside, on top,
or adjacent to the building [9, 10]. Central systems must condition zones with their
equivalent thermal load. Central HVAC systems will have as several control points such
as thermostats for each zone. The medium used in the control system to provide the thermal
energy sub-classifies the central HVAC system, as shown in Figure 2.2

10
 Single zone

Multizone
All air systems

Dual duct

Variable air volume(VAV)

Terminal reheat

Air water systems

centeral HVAC
systems Fan coil units

All water systems Induction units

Water sourse heat pumps

Fan coil units

Heating and cooling panels

Figure 2. 2: central HVAC systems

The thermal energy transfer medium is air-water system. Also, central systems. Central
HVAC system has combined devices in an air handling unit, as shown in Figure2.3, which
contains supply and return air fans, humidifier, cooling coil, filters, and outdoor air.

11
 Figure 2. 3: Equipment arrangement for central HVAC system.

2.7 Single zone

A single zone system consists of an air handling unit, or fan coil unit, a cooling source,
distribution ductwork, and appropriate delivery devices The air handling units, or fan coil
units can be used where cooling source is detached. The outdoor AHUs is most-commonly
a rooftop unit and connected to ductwork to deliver the conditioned air into several spaces
with the high thermal cooling load zones which need high standard specifications. All the
FCUs are installed in the other zones that need to meet the comfort standard codes. The
main advantage of single zone systems is simplicity in design and maintenance and low
first cost compared to other systems. However, its main disadvantage is serving a single
thermal zone when improperly applied.

12
 Figure 2. 4: Water-air HVAC system for single zone.
In a single zone all-air HVAC system, one control device such as thermostat located in the
zone controls the operation of the system, as shown in Figure 2.4. Control may be either
modulating or on–off to meet the required thermal load of the single zone. This can be
achieved by adjusting the output of cooling source within the unit. Movements of
occupants affect the thermal load of the building, which results in dividing the building
into several single zones to provide the required environmental condition. This can be
observed in larger residences, where two (or more) single zone systems may be used to
provide thermal zoning. In low-rise apartments, each apartment unit may be conditioned
by a separate single zone system. Many sizeable single story buildings such as
supermarkets, discount stores, can be effectively conditioned by a series of single zone
systems. Large office buildings are sometimes conditioned by a series of separate single
zone systems.

13
2.8 Air-water systems
Air-water systems are introduced as a hybrid system to combine both advantages of
all-air and all-water systems [10]. The volume of the combined is reduced, and the outdoor
ventilation is produced to properly condition the desired zone. The water medium is
responsible for carrying the thermal load in a building by 80–90% through heating and
cooling water, while air medium conditions the remainder. There are two main types: fan-
coil units and induction units.

2.8.1 Fan-coil units

Fan-coil units for air-water systems are similar to that of all-water systems except
that the supply air and the conditioned water are provided to the desired zone from a central
air handling unit and central water systems (e.g., boilers or chillers). The ventilation air can
be separately delivered into space or connected to the fan-coil units. The major types of
fan-coil systems, are 2 pipes or 4-pipes systems, as shown in Figure 2.10.

Figure 2. 5: Air-water HVAC system using fan coil units with 4-pipes configuration.

14
2.9 Hospitals
Hospitals are always interesting and challenging for the HVAC designer because of the
wide variety of environmental conditions required in various departments. For example,
the operating suite with heavily-clothed staff, working under hot lights requires a design
temperature of about 65 to 70_F, with the relative humidity held to a range between 50 and
60 percent, and a high percentage of outside air when the suite is in use. To achieve the
clean conditions needed, the supply air must be filtered through high-efficiency filters,
preferably at or near the discharge into the room, and a high airflow rate is needed. These
requirements all have a rational basis in research; 50 to 55 percent relative humidity (RH)
is the value at which bacteria propagate least readily. Public health authorities prescribe
most of these criteria.
Some authorities are allowing reduction of airflow and some recirculation when the
operating rooms are not in use. Nurseries do not require high airflow rates but do require
about 55 percent RH. Offices, public areas, cafeterias, shops, and other support areas have
similar criteria to other types of buildings. Air is often not recirculated from patients’
rooms, so individual fan-coil units are common, combined with a small central ventilation
system which provides makeup air for exhaust. There are criteria for air-pressure
relationships between occupancies to keep air moving from high-quality to lower-quality
environment[5].

2.8.1 Important Design Considerations for Air Conditioning System in

Hospital
The four important air conditioning design considerations for clean room system design
are:
1- Supplying airflow in sufficient volume and cleanliness to support the cleanliness
rating of the room
2- Introducing air in a manner to prevent stagnant areas where particles could
accumulate.
3- Conditioning air to meet clean room temperature, humidity and filtration
Requirements .

15
 4- Ensuring enough conditioned makeup air to maintain the specified positive
pressurization.

2.10 Sterile Spaces in Hospitals

There are many different spaces used for various activities in a hospital. Some of these
spaces require higher hygienic needs than the others. DIN 1946-4 classifies these spaces
into two groups as Class I and Class II as high or very high need of hygiene and normal
levels of hygiene, respectively. The list of most common Class I spaces is given below.
• Operating suite
• Intensive care unit
• Central sterile services
• Cardiac care unit
Additional spaces can be classified as Class I during the design of hospital upon the
decision of hospital hygienist [15].

2.10.1 Operating Suite

An operating suite is a space, complete with its required sub-facilities, that is
designed to perform required surgical operations. The components of an operating suite
are;
• Operating rooms,
• Anesthesia equipment rooms,
• Sterile equipment rooms [15].

2.10.1.1Operating Room
An operating room is the space where the surgical procedures take place and this space
requires high levels of hygiene since the infection risk is high. Because of this reason,
operating room personnel wear protective garments such as gloves, shoe covers, masks,
caps etc. Since operating rooms are one of the most important rooms in operating suite in
terms of patient health, a lot more information and standards on ventilation and air
conditioning systems for operating rooms can be found in literature compared to the other
components of an operating suite.

16
 Figure 2. 6: View from operating room (Source: West Walley Hospital 2005)

The operating rooms are classified into groups according to their hygiene need and the
types of surgical procedures that are executed in the room. As can be seen from the Table
2.3 most of the references classify the operating rooms according to the type of the surgical
procedure. ASHRAE and AIA divide the operating rooms into three groups as Class A, B
and C. Class A operating room serves for minor operations that are performed under local,
topical or regional anesthesia without preoperative sedation. Intravenous, spinal and
epidural operations are excluded and these methods are appropriate for Class B and C
rooms. Class B room provides minor or major surgical procedures performed in
conjunction with oral, parenteral or intravenous sedation or under analgesic or dissociative
drugs. Class C rooms are suitable for major surgical procedures that require general
anesthesia or regional block anesthesia and support of vital bodily functions [16].
Table 2.3 shows characteristics typically desired in different types of operating rooms.
As indicated, orthopedic and cardiac operating room surgeons frequently request very low
temperatures, often as low as 15.6°C [3].

17
 Table 2. 3: Typical Operating Room (OR) Requirements

Several factors complicate unoccupied setback in the OR suite, including the following:
• Maintenance of positive pressurization using supply and return air control device
(most older systems will not have return control)
• Maintenance of adequate ventilation to exhaust fumes from off-hour cleaning
• Control strategies for override (light switch, occupancy sensor, time clock, etc.)
• Rapid transition from unoccupied- to occupied-air-changes while maintaining
desired temperature and humidity, there are two basic mechanisms for maintaining
pressurization: (1) fixed offset between supply and return/exhaust airflows, and (2)
maintenance of a measured pressure differential (usually at least 30% of design
flow) [3].

2.10.1.2 Anesthesia Equipment Room

Anesthesia equipment room is the space where the anesthetic equipment are cleaned,
tested and stored. When needed, the required equipment are transferred to the related space
to be used.

18
2.10.1.3 Sterile Equipment Rooms
Sterile equipment room holds the sterile instruments and medical supplies that are used
during surgical procedures. The level of hygiene in sterile equipment rooms must be equal
or higher than the operating room. These spaces must be positively pressurized with respect
to the neighboring spaces. The direction of airflow must be outwards even it is adjacent to
an operating room. By this way it is ensured to minimize the contamination level in the
room and the risk of contamination of sterile equipment is reduced. Used equipment are
collected and stored in soiled equipment rooms. Disposable and reusable equipment are
separated and reusable equipment are sent for cleaning and sterilization. This room must
be kept under negative pressure with respect to the adjacent spaces in order to keep the
airborne contaminants in the room.

2.10.2 Intensive Care Units

Intensive care units are spaces where extremely ill patients are continuously monitored
and assisted by life-support units in necessary situations. There are special types of
intensive care units each serving for different purposes. The most common types of
intensive care units are surgical intensive care, medical intensive care, cardiac care, post-
anesthesia care, neurological intensive care, burn/wound intensive care and neonatal
intensive care. Whether specialized or generalized, the design considerations for the
intensive care units are similar, except for the neonatal intensive care units. Newborn
nursing operations for infant care are much more focused on the patient’s bedside than
other types and this reason obligates considering different design conditions. According to
the different aims of intensive care units, the expectations from the HVAC systems may
differ. For instance, the burn intensive care units need high level of hygiene while normal
intensive care units do not. In addition, higher relative humidity level is required for burn
intensive care units, compared to the others [16].

19
 Figure 2. 7: Intensive Care Unit
(Source: JSP Health Network 2003)
As higher room temperatures are suggested for newborn intensive care units, when
compared to the other types. Generally, 30-60% or relative humidity ratio is suggested to
be maintained in the units. In addition, higher relative humidity ratios are needed in burn
intensive care units to prevent the excessive drying of the tissues[16].
Another point that needs to be emphasized is the requirement that is suggested by
ASHRAE’s design manual is that, according to this reference, laminar air flow must be
maintained in burn intensive care units [16].

Isolation Rooms
The purpose of an isolation rooms is to protect health care workers, other patients and
visitors from exposure to any airborne infectious agents. To control the transfer of
microorganisms via air, isolation rooms must be implemented. Two types of isolation
rooms exist; negative pressure room (or airborne infection isolation room) and positive
pressure room (or protective environment room)[16].

20
 Both types of rooms aim to control air flow and reduce the number of airborne infectious
agents to a level that ensures infection of other person is unlikely. The implementation aim
of these rooms is to protect the immunosuppressed patients from the environmental
infectious sources. High or very high levels of hygiene are required for protective
environment rooms.

Positive Pressure Rooms

Patients with suppressed immunity due to some reasons such as surgical operation, drug
use and illness are kept in these rooms. The aim is to reduce the risk of transmission of
infection from the environmental sources to the susceptible host via air. This room is a
specialized patient room that has proven to have outward air flow through all its six
surfaces and sustained positive air pressure with respect to all six surfaces, including the
outside wall. High or very high levels of hygiene are required for protective environment
rooms. For this purpose, this room has specific ventilation design features such as HEPA
filtering and specialized air distribution profile, where the air is supplied near the patient
bed and exhausted towards the door of the room[16].
Another key factor for ventilation design is the diluting the contaminants in the room
air, and this is provided by adequate fresh air change rates.
Negative Pressure Rooms
Patients are placed in negative pressure rooms to reduce the risk of transmission of
infection via air from the patient to the other patients and hospital staff. This kind of room
is also known as airborne infection isolation rooms. This room is especially used for
airborne infectious patients in order to be kept, examined and treated. In this patient room,
on contrary with the protective environment room, inward air flow through all six surfaces
is provided and negative air pressure with respect to all adjacent rooms is maintained. High
level of hygiene is not needed for airborne infection isolation rooms. The recommended
practice is to transfer the exhaust air by an independent ductwork system, which is
maintained in negative pressure, and to filter the exhaust air by high efficiency air filters
before releasing it to outdoor. It is not a necessity for the room to have an electronic
pressure monitoring and control system; but a mechanical means of measuring the pressure
relationship is required [16].

21
2.10.3 Central Sterile Services
Central sterile services department cleans and prepares instruments and equipment for
use in surgical procedures, delivery, emergency care and related areas. This department in
the hospital is responsible from various duties. These responsibilities can be listed as
follows.
• Cleanup of surgical case carts; separation of trash, linens and instruments.
• Decontamination of instruments and washing of carts.
• Cleaning of instruments including ultrasonic cleaning, soaking and processing
through a washer/sterilizer.
• Assembly of instrument sets and supplies for surgical packs and packaging.
• Sterilization of packs, labeling and storage.
• Preparation of case carts or sets of packs for scheduled and emergency procedures
• Delivery of case carts or sets of packs to the served departments.
• Receipt and stocking of supplies and linens to be used in packs.
• Inventory control and administration [16]. Central sterile services department is
responsible in some cases for the delivery of sterile equipment to the served departments.
The level of hygiene in sterile equipment storages in central sterile services department
must be equal or higher than the operating room. These spaces must be positively
pressurized with respect to the neighboring spaces. The soiled equipment work areas in
this department must be kept under negative pressurization. Sterilization of medical
instruments is important to maintaining patient health and preventing the spread of diseases
in a hospital. Instrument sterilization can be provided by local electric self-generating
sterilizers or, more commonly, by high- or medium-pressure steam plants, although many
modern sterilizers do not use plant steam in direct contact with instruments. Steam
sterilizers require high-quality steam, 97% quality or better, to prevent excess moisture
from wetting packs or instruments. Sterilization requires that instruments be exposed to
steam at a temperature of 250°F [121°C] or higher for a length of time, so steam pressures
of 50 to 80 psi [345 to 552 kPa] are required. Sterilization is more effective with saturated
steam than superheated steam, so it is important for the designer to minimize superheated
steam. Excessive superheat may result if the sterilizer jacket is maintained at a higher
temperature than the chamber or if there is excessive pressure reduction before the sterilizer

22
connection. Steam condensate comes in direct contact with medical devices during the
sterilizing process is considered contaminated and is not returned for reuse [3].

Figure 2. 8: View from central sterile services department sterile storage area
(Source: WA Country Health Service 2002)
Not all of the studied references have commented on the filtration stages for supply air
except VDI, DIN and ASHRAE standards. Although there is not a concrete comment about
the filtration stages in most of the references, the same level of filtration that is used for the
operating rooms can be implemented since the same level of hygiene is needed. For the
case of the differential pressure of the room, all reviewed references agree on the positive
pressurization of sterilized equipment areas. The soiled equipment room should be
maintained under negative pressure.

23
2.10.4 Cardiac Care Unite

Figure 2. 9: View from cardiac care unite

(Source: Runy.Alicare.Service)

2.11 HVAC Design Parameters for Hospital Spaces

Criteria for HVAC design of sterile rooms involve indoor and outdoor temperature and
humidity, room pressure, filtration stages, total and fresh air change rates. In addition,
economical factors for maintenance and operation, heating and cooling loads, glazing
characteristics etc. must be taken into account. The effects of the mentioned design
parameters on thermal comfort and infection control are discussed below.

24
2.11.1 Temperature
Room temperature directly affects the thermal comfort of both hospital staff and
patients. Especially, the staff wearing protective garments working under highly radiant
lighting can be affected easily in terms of thermal comfort. This uncomfortable feeling
affects the concentration; consequently, the result of the activity being held in the room can
be affected negatively. The thermal comfort feelings of surgeons working under lighting
and in protective garments are different from other operating room personnel. Surgeons
generally feel more comfortable at lower temperatures while nurses and anesthesia
specialists feel comfortable at higher temperatures. Generally, temperatures between 24-
26ºC are suitable for the thermal comfort of patient while temperatures below 21ºC increase
the risk of hypothermia. However, the thermal comfort of surgical staff is greatly reduced
with the room temperatures higher than 23ºC [17]. Not only the thermal comfort is taken
into account to determine design temperature, but the activity being held in the room must
also be considered. Especially in operating rooms, the type of operation must be defined
since different types of operations require different room temperatures. Some examples are
[16].
• 32ºC with a low relative humidity level found beneficial for treating certain kinds of
arthritis.
• High relative humidity with 32ºC is used for burn patients.
• Room temperature around 30ºC is used for pediatric surgery.
• For cardiac surgery, room temperature is set about 15-16ºC and raised up to
temperatures around 25ºC
• Room temperature around 15-16ºC is used for transplant operations. Since the room
temperature depends on the type of operation, the temperature must be individually
controlled for each operating and delivery room. (American Institute of Architects
2006). In spaces where the health of the patients is more important than the thermal
comfort, room temperature must be specified in a range in which the growth of the
microorganisms are affected and/or the immunity system of the patients are not
affected, negatively [16].

25
2.12.2 Relative Humidity
Like the room temperature, the relative humidity ratio is a factor affecting the thermal
comfort of both patients and hospital staff. A high level of relative humidity is a common
thermal disturbance, especially when combined with low room temperature. Consequently,
the concentration of staff may be adversely affected by this disturbance. Humidity control
during cooling of the air is very important to prevent this adverse effect. As in temperature,
relative humidity level of the room must not act as a potent risk for the patient’s health.
Previous studies have shown that average values or relative humidity between 40% and
70% are not suitable for microbial growth. In addition to this fact, low levels of relative
humidity results with the drying or the mucous coating on special tissues in the upper and
lower respiratory tracts which causes the particles in the air to be breathed deeply into the
lungs (American Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers 2003).
Other effect of relative humidity ratio of room air is on the patient’s wounds. Low relative
humidity ratio results with excessive drying of the wound, especially in surgeries. High
relative humidity ratio is needed during eye surgeries or tissue transplant operations for
burn wounds where the drying of the wound is not desired. For example, up to 95% relative
humidity is used for burn patients. In some cases, low relative humidity levels may be
required, such conditions can be experienced in treatment of arthritis, where the relative
humidity level are maintained at around 35% [16].

2.10.3 Filtration
A sterile space in a hospital is generally closed environments. The fresh air need of this
space is provided by mechanical ventilation system. In order to prevent the increment of
particle concentration in a space, the supply air must be filtered appropriately. It is reported
that the microorganisms are transported by the particles suspended in the air; therefore, an
increase in the particle concentration would result with an increase in the microorganism
concentration. The particles present in the supply air is not the only source of particle
concentration. Along with the particles transported into a sterile space by supply air,
articles are also generated in space by the activities. These particles may also carry
microorganisms. The microorganisms that are present in the air may be bacteria, viruses or
originate from molds. The bacteria which are highly infectious and transported via air or
air-water mixture are Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Legionella pneumophila

26
(Legionnaire’s disease). Varicella (chicken pox/shingles), Rubella (German measles), and
Rubella (regular measles) are the examples or viral infections that are transported by air. It
is proved that some molds like Aspergilli’s can be fatal to advanced leukemia, bone marrow
transplant and other seriously immunosuppressed patients. Previous studies have shown
that 99.9% of all bacteria present in a hospital are removed by 90-95% efficient filters. The
main reason of this is that the bacteria exist in colony-forming units that are larger than 1
mm. The use of high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters having filtering efficiencies
of 99.97% in certain areas is recommended. It is proved that many of the airborne viruses
are in sub-micron size, thus, there is no exact method to eliminate 100% of the viable
viruses from air even HEPA and/or ultra-low penetration (ULPA) filters offers the greatest
efficiency. Implementing ultraviolet (UV) lights or chemicals to inactivate the viable
viruses are not proven effective [16].
2.10.4 Air Velocity and Air Distribution
The velocity of air in a sterile space is important due to its influence on the comfort
feeling along with the other effects such as drying of the wounds, especially in surgical
site. There are two types of air distribution profiles for a sterile space which are laminar
and turbulent flow. The velocity of air is a significant factor for air distribution. Turbulent
air distribution is generally used in older operating rooms and in other sterile spaces in an
operating suite such as post-operation or sterile equipment rooms. The particles that are
present in the operating room are considered to be distributed homogeneously for this kind
of air distribution profile (Figure 2.20). Conventionally ventilated operating rooms are
generally used for general surgeries which do not require high level of hygiene. It is
recommended to use laminar flow operation rooms for surgeries requiring high level of
hygiene [16].

Figure 2. 10: Turbulent air flow distribution

27
In laminar flow rooms, a clean space is created in the room and the flow profile prevents
the contaminant from entering this clean space from outside. In this kind of room, the
filtered air with low particle concentration is supplied above the patient and/or the
personnel, and the air flows down to floor level and is exhausted by low level registers
(Figure 2.21). Since the velocity of the air is low, the supply air temperature must always
be 1-2ºK lower than the room temperature in order to provide the flow of the air down to
floor. Supplying cold air above the personnel may reduce the thermal comfort. Also it is
shown that if the operating room staff lacks in required precautions for infection control,
the air moving from the staff to the patient transfers skin squamae’s and particles from the
head of the staff (Owers, James and Bannister 2004). Horizontal laminar flow rooms are
recommended to overcome these problems of vertical laminar flows but it is almost
impossible to protect the horizontal laminar flow of the air because of the medical
equipment, movement of staff…. etc[18].

Figure 2. 11: Laminar air flow distribution

For completing the sweep by the air supplied by the laminar flow unit, only supplying
colder air is not enough. Most of the time, air distribution profile is not complete without
proper exhaust grille arrangements. To complete the distribution profile, it is recommended
to arrange low level exhaust grilles. Another example for complete air distribution is the
recommended profile for airborne infection isolation and protective environment rooms. It
is recommended to supply the filtered air in the region near the door of the room and
exhaust in the region near patient bed for airborne infection isolation room and supply the

28
air from above the patient bed and exhaust from the region near the door [16]. Using low
level exhaust is beneficial in operating rooms because of the precipitation of waste
anesthetic gases. It is more effective by low level exhaust to remove these waste gases [17].

2.10.5 Pressurization
The aim of the pressurization is to protect the cleanliness of room air from the
contaminants that may enter from the neighboring spaces. Since most of the airborne
viruses are in sub-micron size, filtration is not a perfect method to effectively eliminate the
viable particles. Therefore, the best practice to prevent airborne viable particles to spread
is achieved by pressurization. The air can flow from a space to the neighboring spaces
through the openings of the room. The pressure difference between these spaces is the main
factor to specify the flow between them. Positive pressurization means an outwards flow
from the room while negative pressurization refers to an inwards flow. The flow direction
of air between the spaces must be determined by comparing the cleanliness levels of
neighboring rooms. Air must flow from a space with high level of hygienic need to a lower
one. This required air flow can be maintained by the openings of the room like door
perimeters. Furthermore, the transfer grilles with preset spring-loaded dampers can be
employed to maintain required pressure difference. Thus, the excess of supply or exhaust
air can flow from/to the space and the rooms are maintained under a constant pressure even
the doors are kept closed for a long period. In literature, there are two methods to maintain
required air flow, thus the pressurization. These are discussed under relevant headings. It
is not important how the pressure relation between the spaces is maintained, the designed
airflow between the room must be provided 24-hours a day. The ventilation system serving
to these rooms must be operated all day long. For conservation of energy, the systems can
be operated at reduced air flow rates when the rooms are not used.

2.10.5.1. Volumetric Flow Rate

The pressure difference between the room and the adjacent spaces is maintained by
providing differentials in volumetric flow rates of supplied and extracted air. For example,
supply air flow rate of 150 m3/h and exhaust flow rate of 100 m3/h would result with the
positive pressurization of the room while the inverse flow rates would result with negative

29
pressurization. The disadvantage of this method is when the doors of the room are kept
close for a long period; the pressure of the room would become too high/low which would
make high amount of air flow between the rooms at high velocities when the doors are
opened. When the doors are closed, a noise may be generated due to high velocity of air
flow through door perimeter.

2.10.5.2 Room Differential Pressure

Volumetric flow rate method can be used for most hospital rooms. Room differential
pressure method is generally used for high-risk areas[16]. This method involves
maintaining the pressure difference between the sealed room and its neighbors steady. The
required pressure difference which will be kept constant is determined by the standards and
guidelines. The pressure of the room and its neighbors is monitored continuously.

2.10.6 Total and Fresh Air Changes

Total and fresh air change rates are important to maintain the required air quality of the
spaces. The supply of fresh air improves the air quality in terms of increasing the oxygen
amount and diluting the chemical gases and particles that exist in the room air. The
mechanically supplied air can be 100% fresh air or the fresh air can be mixed with filtrated
return air. The decision about supplying 100% fresh air or mixture of fresh and returned
air depends on various factors such as the activity being held in the room, required hygiene
level, energy conservation, operation costs etc.

2.11 Hospital and Laboratory Equipment

Hospital and laboratory equipment items are major sources of sensible and latent heat
gains in conditioned spaces. Care is needed in evaluating the probability and duration of
simultaneous usage when many components are concentrated in one area, such as a
laboratory, an operating room, etc. Commonly, heat gain from equipment in a laboratory
ranges from 50 to 220 W/m2 or, in laboratories with outdoor exposure, as much as four
times the heat gain from all other sources combined. Medical Equipment is more difficult
to provide generalized gain recommendations for medical equipment than for general

30
office equipment because medical equipment is much more varied in type and in
application. Some heat gain testing has been done, but the equipment included represents
only a small sample of the type of equipment that may be encountered. Equipment in
laboratories is similar to medical equipment in that it varies significantly from space to
space. heat gain from equipment, which may range from 50 to 270 W/m2 in highly
automated laboratories. Computers, printers, copiers, etc., can generate very significant
heat gains, sometimes greater than all other gains combined [19].

2.12 Basic components of an HVAC system

The basic components or equipment of an HVAC system that delivers conditioned air
to satisfy thermal comfort of space and occupants and the achieve the indoor air quality
are listed below [7]:

2.12.1 Air filter

The words “HEPA filter” stands for high efficiency particulate air filter. The HEPA
filter (Figure 2.22) is generally used in the terminal unit and located in the sterile space.
Since HEPA filters are easily damaged, a great care must be given during the installation
of HEPA filters. HEPA filters must fit into filter housings tightly to prevent any air leakage.
[28]
HEPA filters use thin dry media (such as paper or glass-fiber mats) with very small
pores that trap superfine particulates down to 0.01 micrometer in diameter. They are
heavily pleated to reduce face velocity but still contribute pressure drops of up to 0.072 psi.
HEPA filters are used mostly for the demanding applications of electronics, hospital
operating rooms, and facilities that generate radioactive particles. HEPA filters should be
coupled with a coarser pre-filter to extend their lifetime. HEPA filters having efficiencies
of 99.97% should be used on air supplies serving rooms for clinical treatment of patients
with a high susceptibility to infection due to leukemia, burns, bone marrow transplant,
organ transplant, or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) [3].

31
 Figure 2. 12: HEPA filter (Source: AAF International 2008)
A HEPA filter is located in a HEPA filter box which consists of ductwork connection,
plenum, seals, tightening mechanism and diffuser. Since the HEPA filter box is a terminal
unit and it is located in the sterile space, it must be made of hygienic materials. The diffuser
may be square or swirl. The types of these diffusers are shown in Figure 2.23. The type of
the selected diffuser depends on the geometrical parameters of space. The turbulent flow
is achieved when a HEPA filter box is used. It is assumed that the contamination in the air
is homogeneous when the clean air is supplied by the HEPA filter boxes.

Figure 2. 13: Swirl and square diffusers and HEPA filter boxes
[Source: ANIL, Mobedi and Özerdem 2007]

2.12.1.1 Laminar Flow Unit

The aim of laminar flow unit is to remove the particles from a critical area by the
horizontal or vertical displacement of the air. The transfer and propagation of particles in
laminar flow is lower than turbulent flow. Generally, a vertical laminar air flow is used in
operating rooms to provide an air curtain between the room personnel and the patient. A

32
laminar air flow must cover the patient, surgery team and the sterile instruments used
during surgery (Kenter 2007). A laminar flow unit consists of ductwork connection, HEPA
filter and filter housings, plenum box and laminator. Similar to the HEPA filter boxes, a
laminar air flow unit must be made of proper materials since it is a terminal unit. It is in
the sterile space and directly supplies clean air to the space.
The new trend in the operating room ventilation is to protect both the patient, surgery
team and the sterile instruments used during the operation. Therefore, the area under the
laminar flow unit is enlarged. Moreover, the operations such as total hip replacement or
other types of orthopedic surgeries require high sterile conditions. In order to attain the
required hygiene level, high ventilation rates are implemented. In order to increase air flow
rate in the operating room, laminar air flow units with recirculation air have been
developed. This kind of laminar flow units contains additional fans and filters with
minimum class F7. The return air extracted from the room flows through filter mounted in
the unit and it is mixed with the fresh air supplied by the air handling unit. A laminar flow
unit assisted with recirculation air is shown in Figure 2.14 schematically.

Figure 2. 14: Schematic view of a laminar air flow unit with recirculation air [source:
ANIL, Mobedi and Özerdem 2007]

33
2.12.2 Supply and exhaust fan
A fan is the prime mover of an air system or ventilation system. It moves the air and
provides continuous airflow so that the conditioned air, space air, exhaust air, or outdoor
air can be transported from one location to another through air ducts or other air passages.
Two types of fans are widely used in air conditioning and ventilation systems: centrifugal
fans and axial fans (Fig. 2.15). Fans can be mounted individually as ventilating equipment
to provide outdoor air or air movement inside a building. They can also transport air
containing dust particles or material from one place to another via air duct systems. In air
conditioning systems, fans are often installed in air-handling units, packaged units, or other
air conditioning equipment [20].

Figure 2. 15: Types of fans: (a) centrifugal; (b) axial.

The backward-curved centrifugal fan with airfoil blades has the highest fan total
efficiency and the lowest specific sound power level, so it is still the most widely used type
of large fan in commercial, institutional, and many industrial applications. The forward-
curved centrifugal fan has a compact size, slower speed, and lighter weight per unit volume
output. It is widely used in room air conditioners, fan coils, small air handling units, and
many packaged units. In recent years, vane-axial fans with controllable pitch, especially
used as return fans, have more applications in commercial air systems than before. For
exhaust systems that require a large volume flow rate and low fan total pressure, a propeller
fan is often the best choice.

34
2.12.3 Outdoor air intake
Designers must carefully consider the location of the outdoor air intake for an AHU.
Intakes must not be located near potential contaminant sources, such as boiler and
generator stacks, laboratory exhaust vents, plumbing vents, cooling towers, ambulance
waiting and vehicle parking areas, loading docks, and helipads [20].

2.12.4 Duct
The outcome of the duct design process will be a duct system (supply and return plenums ducts,
fittings) that:
• Provides conditioned air to all room equal heating or cooling loads.
• is sealed to provide proper air flow and to prevent air contaminant entering.
• Minimizes duct air temperature gains or losses between the supply, return duct and
ambient air.
Typical air temperatures for HVAC applications are 4 to 50°C. Because of the more
moderate temperature ranges associated with HVAC applications, there is a wide range of
insulation materials available.

2.12.4.1 Duct components

The basic components of duct system are shown in the figure2.26

Figure 2. 16: The basic components of duct system.

35
2.12.4.2 Ducts can be classified according to their shapes into
(a) rectangular duct.
For the space available between the structural beam and the ceiling in a building,
rectangular ducts have the greatest cross-sectional area. They are less rigid than round ducts
and are more easily fabricated on-site. The joints of rectangular ducts have a comparatively
greater percentage of air leakage than factory-fabricated spiral-seamed round ducts and flat
oval ducts, as well as fiberglass ducts. Rectangular ducts are usually used in low-pressure
systems.

(b) flexible duct.

Flexible ducts are often used to connect the main duct or the diffusers to the terminal
box. Their flexibility and ease of removal allow allocation and relocation of the terminal
devices. Flexible ducts are usually made of multiple-ply polyester film reinforced by a
helical steel wire core or corrugated aluminum spiral strips. The duct is often insulated by
a fiberglass blanket 1 or 2 in. (25 to 50 mm) thick. The outer surface of the flexible duct is
usually covered with aluminum foil or other types of vapor barriers to prevent the
permeation of water vapor into the insulation layer. The inside diameter of flexible ducts
may range from 2 to 10 in. in 1-in. (50 to 250 mm in 25-mm) increments and from 12 to
20 in. in 2-in. (300 to 500 mm in 50-mm) increments. The flexible duct should be as short
as possible, and its length should be fully extended to minimize flow resistance [20].

Figure 2. 17: Various types of air duct: (a) rectangular duct; (b) flexible duct.
(sources: HANDBOOK OF AIR CONDITIONING AND REFRIGERATION Shan K.
Wang).

36
2.12.4.3 Material of Air Ducts
When a designer chooses the shape (round, rectangular, or flat oval duct) or material
(galvanized sheet, aluminum, fiberglass, or other materials) of an air duct, the choices
depend mainly on the space available, noise, cost, local customs and union agreements,
experience, quality, and the requirements of the project.

2.12.4.4 Duct insulation

Ducts carrying hot or cold air are covered with thermal insulation to reduce heat loss.
In addition, the insulation is covered with a vapor barrier to prevent condensation of water
on cold ducts. Glass fiber/Glass wool or similar material with a high thermal resistance is
used for insulation. The vapor barrier is usually aluminum foil as shown in figure 2.18.
Ducts are frequently lined internally with acoustical insulation to absorb sound. In this
case, the acoustical insulation lining often also serves as thermal insulation. However, care
must be taken that the glass fibers do not flake off in the air stream and get delivered to the
occupied space. There is concern that inhaled glass fibers may cause serious lung diseases.
[25]

Figure 2. 18: Duct insulation material source osama khaiadah handbook.

2.12.4.5 Sound Attenuator
The material of the sound attenuator must not break off easily and contaminate the air.
In addition, the material must not permit the accumulation of dust and infestation of
microorganisms [27].
commercially available sound attenuators (also known as sound traps or duct silencers
figure2.19) can be used. There are three types: dissipative, reactive, and active. The first
two are commonly known as passive attenuators [19].

37
 Figure 2. 19: Sound traps or duct silencers source osama khaiadah handbook.

2.12.5 Terminal devices

Air is supplied to air conditioned spaces through air terminal devices. The objective of
the supply air terminal devices, such as ceiling diffuser and wall grilles and registers, is to
introduce supply air to the conditioned spaces to obtain and maintain the inside design
condition within the occupancy zone. The occupancy zone in a given space extends from
floor to a height of 1.8 to 2 m and within 0.15 m off the walls of the space [21].
Air outlets are important to efficient space comfort conditioning. A wide range of
supply air outlets are suitable for use in health care facilities. Five types of supply outlets
are currently used: grilles and registers, ceiling diffusers, slot diffusers, light troffer
diffusers, and nozzles.

2.12.5.1 Ceiling diffuser

A ceiling diffuser consists of a series of concentric rings or inner cones made up of
vanes arranged in fixed directions and an outer shell or frame. Ceiling diffusers can be
round, square, or rectangular. Square diffusers are most widely used [20].

2.12.5.2 Grilles and Registers

Grilles and Registers: The term grille is commonly applied to any air outlet or intake
that consists of a square or rectangular face and neck and whose facial appearance is made
up of stationary or adjustable louvers which may be used to deflect the air. A register is
simply a grille which incorporates an integral damper for air volume control. Supply grilles

38
and registers usually have adjustable louvers and are available in single or double
deflection models.
Lint grilles (Figure 2.20) are used at the exhaust registers of the operating room. The
aim of their use is to prevent the clogging of the exhaust ductwork system with lint that
originates from the gowns and other fabric used during operating. A lint grille is a cleanable
stainless- steel mesh filter [27].

Figure 2. 20: Lint grille

(Source: ANIL, Mobedi and Özerdem 2007)

2.12.6 Return air system

Return and exhaust air inlets have very little effect on room air diffusion, regardless of
inlet type or location. Return air inlets, however, should be located a sufficient distance
from the supply outlet so that short-circuiting of supply air does not occur. Depending upon
the type of room, the return and exhaust inlets may be located high or low in the room, or
perhaps a combination of the two [3].

2.12.7 cooling coils

Coils are selected by the “Air Handling Unit Selection” from cold water, hot water,
steam and direct expansion types, to provide optimum performance conditions. In
accordance with system requirements, copper tube-aluminum fin or steel tube-steel fin
coils are used in air handling units. While copper tubes up to 2 bar pressure is used in steam
applications, the use of steel tubing is required for higher pressure steam applications.

39
Standard tube diameters used are 3/8”, 1/2” and 5/8”. In aluminum finned designs, fins are
coated with epoxy, providing high corrosion resistance.

2.12.8 Fan-Coil Unit Systems

This section discusses the use of hydronic fan-coil units to control the volume and
temperature of air delivered to the space as required to maintain occupant thermal comfort
and/or ventilation. the basic components of fan-coil units are a cooling coil, filter, fan, and
temperature control device. The fan recirculates air from the conditioned space through the
coil, which then transfers heat from the air. Heat transfer devices include finned-tube coils
(chilled water) or electric resistance elements. A filter at the unit’s inlet captures and
minimizes particulates in the air downstream of the filter [20].

Figure 2. 21: Basic Fan-Coil Unit

The fan-coil performs some combination of the following functions: (1) temperature
and humidity control, (2) ventilation of the conditioned space, (3) filtration, and (4) room
air distribution. Fan-coil units are available in various configurations, including vertical or
horizontal airflow paths (figure 2.22, 2.23) and exposed or concealed mounts. A
temperature control device regulates the fan-coil airflow and discharge air temperature.

40
Figure 2. 22: Horizontal Fan-Coil Unit.

Figure 2. 23: Vertical Fan-Coil Unit.

41
2.12.9 Air -Handling
An air-handling unit (AHU) is the primary equipment in an air system of a central hydronic
system; it handles and conditions the air and distributes it to various conditioned spaces. In an
AHU, the required amounts of outdoor air and recirculating air are often mixed and conditioned.
The temperature of the discharge air is then maintained within predetermined limits by means
of control systems. After that, the conditioned supply air is provided with motive force and is
distributed to various conditioned spaces through ductwork and space diffusion devices. Many
air-handling units are modular so that they have the flexibility to add components as required.
An AHU basically consists of an outdoor air intake and mixing box section, a fan section
including a supply fan and a fan motor, a coil section with a water cooling coil, a filter section,
and a control section. A return or relief fan, a heating coil, a precooling coil, and a humidifier
may also be included depending on the application as shown in the Figure 2.24 [20].

Figure 2. 24: A typical AHU with unhoused plug/plenum return fan (source [20]).

2.12.10 Volume Control Damper

Dampers modulate the flow of air through the ducts to the various parts of the building,
reducing or increasing the airflow depending upon conditions. Dampers also regulate the
quantity of outside air that is allowed to enter the air-handling unit or fan coil and mix with
return air for ventilation purposes. The volume control damper is shown in Figure2.25.

42
 Figure 2. 25: Volume Control Damper

2.12.11 CONDENSER
the condenser in a refrigeration system is a heat exchanger that rejects all the heat from the
system. This heat consists of heat absorbed by the evaporator plus the heat from the energy input
to the compressor. The compressor discharges hot, high-pressure refrigerant gas into the
condenser, which rejects heat from the gas to some cooler medium. Thus, the cool refrigerant
condenses back to the liquid state and drains from the condenser to continue in the refrigeration
cycle. Condensers may be classified by their cooling medium as (l) water-cooled, (2) air-cooled,
(3) evaporative (air- and water-cooled), and (4) refrigerant-cooled (cascade systems) [22].

2.12.12 Control
The purpose of a control system on an HVAC plant is to:
1. Provide automatic operation, i.e. avoid the cost of attendant labor or for where control is
too complex for manual operation.
2. Maintain the controlled conditions closer than could be achieved by manual operation.
3. Provide maximum efficiency and economy of operation.
4. Ensure safe operation at all times [23].
The control system will consist of a loop, with detector (sensor), controller and controlled
device. The communication between these parts of the loop will be electric, pneumatic or
mechanical (see Figure2.26)

43
 Figure 2. 26: Basic control loop
[source: Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Third edition A. R. Trott and T. Welch]

2.12.13 Water chiller

Water chillers are used in a variety of air conditioning and process cooling applications. They
cool water that is subsequently transported by pumps and pipes. The water passes through the
tubes of coils to cool air in an air conditioning system, or it can provide cooling for a
manufacturing or industrial process. Systems that employ water chillers are commonly called
chilled-water systems [24].

2.12.14 Humidification and dehumidification equipment

For comfort air conditioning systems, the space relative humidity is tolerable between 35
and 65 percent in summer, preferably from 40 to 50 percent. During winter, for space served by
a comfort air conditioning system that is installed with a humidifier, the space relative humidity
should not exceed 30 percent except in hospitals. The actual humidifying capacity of a
humidifier should not exceed the humidifying requirement so that wet surfaces do not occur
inside the AHU, PU, or supply ducts. Wet surfaces and dirt often cause the growth of
microorganisms and thus indoor air quality problems. For air conditioning systems without
humidifiers, space relative humidity is usually not specified. For processing air conditioning
systems, the space relative humidity should be specified as required by the manufacturing
process. Humidifiers are employed for processing air conditioning and health care facilities
where space humidity must be controlled.
Many homes also use dehumidifiers to remove moisture and control indoor humidity levels.
In cold climates, dehumidification is sometimes required during the summer in basement areas
to control mold and mildew growth and to reduce zone humidity levels. Traditionally, portable

44
dehumidifiers have been used to control humidity in this application. While the separable units
are not always as efficient as central systems, their low first cost and the ability to serve a single
zone make them appropriate in many circumstances.

2.13 Piping System

Piping is a system of pipes used to convey fluids, from one location to another. The
engineering discipline of piping design studies the best and most efficient manner of
transporting fluid to where it is most needed. Figure2.27 illustrate The in-line components of
piping system, known as fittings, valves, and other devices, typically sense and control the
pressure, flow rate and temperature of the transmitted fluid, and usually are included when
one discusses the concept of piping design. Piping systems are documented in piping and
Instrumentation Diagrams. If necessary, pipes can be cleaned by the tube cleaning process
[24].

Figure 2. 27: Components of Piping System.

2.13.1 Type of Piping system

2.13.1.1 Closed system
A closed system is one in which the flow of water is not exposed to the atmosphere at any
point. This system usually contains an expansion tank that is open to the atmosphere but the
water area exposed is insignificant as shown in the figure2.28.

45
 Figure 2. 28: Closed-loop of piping system. [source: carrier]

2.13.1.2 Two-Pipe Direct Return System

Two-pipe system, the load devices and the distribution system circulate chilled water when
cooling is required. To avoid disturbing the first floor occupants, reverse return headers are
located at the top of the building and direct return risers to the units are used. In this system the
flow rate is not equal for all units on a direct return riser. The differences in flow rates depends
on the design pressure drop of the supply and return riser. This difference can be reduced to
practical limits. The pressure drop across the riser includes the following:(1) the loss through
the supply and return run outs from the riser to the unit, (2) the loss through the unit itself, and
(3) the loss through the fittings and valves. Excessive unbalance in the direct supply and return
portion of the piping system may dictate the need for balancing valves or orifices [23].
Main and branch Pipes in a piping circuit as shown in Figure 2.29) chilled water from a
chiller is often supplied to a main pipe and then distributed to branch pipes that connect to coils
and heat exchangers. Chilled water from the coils and heat exchangers is accumulated by the
return main pipe through return branch pipes and then returned to the chiller [24].
In a constant flow water system, the volume flow rate at any cross sectional plane of the
supply and return mains remains constant during the entire operating period. In a variable flow
water system, the volume flow rate varies when the system load changes during the operating
period.

46
 Figure 2. 29: Two-Pipe Direct Return System. [source: carrier]

2.13.2 Piping Material

For water systems, the piping materials most widely used are steel, both black (plain)
and galvanized (zinc-coated), in the form of either welded-seam steel pipe or seamless steel
pipe; ductile iron and cast iron; hard copper; and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The piping
materials for various services are shown below:
Chilled water: Black and galvanized steel.
Hot water: Black steel, hard copper
Cooling water and drains: Black steel, galvanized ductile iron, PVC. Copper, galvanized steel,
galvanized ductile iron, and PVC pipes have better corrosion resistance than black steel pipes.
Technical requirements, as well as local customs, determine the selection of piping materials
[23].

2.13.3 Valves, Pipe Fittings and Accessories

Valves are used to regulate or stop the water flow in pipes manually or by means of automatic
control systems. Valves used in automatic control systems are called control valves, in this
section, only manually operated valves, or simply valves, are discussed. Hand-operated valves
are used to stop or isolate flow, to regulate flow, to prevent reverse flow, and to regulate water
pressure. The basic construction of a valve consists of a disk to open or close the water flow; a
valve body to seat the disk and provide the flow passage; a stem to lift or rotate the disk, with a
hand wheel or a handle and corresponding. Based on the shape of the valve disk, the valve body,
or its function, commonly used valves can be classified into the following types:

47
2.13.3.1 Gate Valves
The disk of a gate valve is in the shape of a “gate” or wedge, as shown in Fig.2.30a. When
the wedge is raised at the open position, a gate valve does not add much flow resistance. The
wedge can be either a solid wedge, which is most commonly used, or a split wedge, in which
two disk halves being forced outward fit tightly against the body seat. Gate valves are used
either fully opened or closed, an on/off arrangement. They are often used as isolating valves for
pieces of equipment or key components, such as control valves, for service during maintenance
and repair.

2.13.3.2 Globe Valves

They are so named because of the globular shape of the valve body, as shown in Fig. 2.30 b. Globe
valves have a round disk or plug-type disk seated against a round port. Water flow enters under the disk.
Globe valves have high flow resistances. They can be opened or closed substantially faster than gate
valves. Angle valves are similar to globe valves in their seats and operation. The basic difference is that
the valve body of an angle valve can also be used as a 90° elbow at that location. Globe valves are used
to throttle and to regulate the flow. They are sometimes called balancing valves. They are deliberately
designed to restrict fluid flow, so they should not be used in applications for which full and unobstructed
flow is often required.

2.13.3.3 Check Valves

Check valves, as their name suggests, are valves used to prevent, or check, reverse flow.
There are basically two types of check valves: swing check and lift check. A swing check valve
has a hinged disk, as shown in Fig. 2.30c. When the water flow reverses, water pressure pushes
the disk and closes the valve. In a lift check valve, upward regular flow raises the disk and opens
the valve, and reverse flow pushes the disk down to its seat and stops the backflow. A swing
check valve has a lower flow resistance than a lift check valve.
2.13.3.4 Pressure Relief Valves: These valves are safety valves used to prevent a system
that is over pressurize from exceeding a predetermined limit. A pressure relief valve is held
closed by a spring or rupture member and is automatically opened to relieve the water pressure
when it rises above the system design working pressure.

48
 Figure 2. 30: Types of valves. (a) Gate valve; (b) Globe valve; (c) Check valve, swing check.
[source: Handbook of HVAC Shan K. Wang]

2.13.3.5 Butterfly Valves: A butterfly valve has a thin rotating disk. Like a ball or plug
valve, it varies within a quarter-turn from fully open to fully closed. a butterfly valve exhibits
low flow resistance when it is fully opened. The difference between a butterfly valve used for
control purposes and a hand-operated butterfly valve is that the former has an actuator and can
be operated automatically. Butterfly valves are lightweight, easy to operate and install, and
lower in cost than gate valves. They are primarily used as fully open or fully closed, but they
may be used for throttling purposes. Butterfly valves are gaining in popularity, especially in
large pipes.

2.13.3.6 “Y” valve

The angle or “Y” valve pattern is recommended for full flow service since it has a substantially
lower pressure drop at this condition than the globe valve. Another advantage of the angle valve
is that it can be located to replace an elbow, thus eliminating one fitting.

2.13.3.7 Balance Valves

These valves are used to balance the water flow in a water system. There are two kinds of
balancing valves: manual balance valves and automatic balance valves. A globe valve can be
used as a manual balance valve. A manual balance valve can also be a valve with integral
pressure taps for flow measurement and a calibrated port to adjust the flow. An automatic
balancing valve is also called an automatic flow-limiting valve. There is a moving element that
adjusts the flow passage area according to the water pressure differential across the valve.

49
 (d) (e)

(i) (k)
Figure 2. 31: Types of valves. (d) Ball valve; (e) Plug valve; (i) Y valve; (k) Butterfly Valves.
[source: Water Piping and Pumps system by Career]

2.13.4 Valve Connections and Ratings(joint)

The type of connection used between a valve and the pipes is usually consistent with the type
of joint used in the pipe system. A water piping system with flanged joint requires a valve with
flanged ends. The commonly used types of valve connection are as follows:

2.13.4.1 Threaded ends

These connections are mainly used for small pipes with diameters from to 2 in. (6 to 50 mm).
Threaded-end valves are usually inexpensive and simpler to install.

2.13.4.2 Flanged ends

These connections are commonly used for larger pipes (63 mm and above). Flanged ends are
more easily separated when necessary.

2.13.4.3 Welded ends

Steel valves, when used at higher pressure and temperature, are often connected with welded
ends. Welded ends exhibit the fewest instances of leakage.

50
2.13.4.4 Grooved ends
These connections use circumferential grooves in which a rubber gasket fits and are enclosed
by iron couplings. Butterfly valves are often connected with grooved ends.

2.13.4.5 Soldered ends

Bronze valves in copper piping systems use soldered ends. Tin-alloy soldering is the type of
soldering commonly used. Lead soldering cannot be used in a potable water system because it
will contaminate the water [25].

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 2. 32: (a) Soldered Joint; (b) Weld and Threaded Joint; (c) Groove Joint.
[source: Water Piping and Pumps system by Career ]

2.13.5 Fitting
Numerous fittings are available such as 90 and 45-degree elbows, tees, concentric reducers,
eccentric reducers, flanges, etc. as shown in Figure (2.33) [25].

Figure 2. 33: Example of various pipe weld fittings [source: Water Piping and Pumps system
by Career ]

51
2.13.6 Accessories

2.13.6.1 Expansion tank

Expansion tanks are required in a closed loop chilled water HVAC system to absorb the
expanding fluid and limit the pressure within a cooling system. A properly sized tank will
accommodate the expansion of the system fluid during the cooling cycle without allowing the
system to exceed critical pressure limits. The expansion tank uses compressed air to maintain
system pressures by accepting and expelling the changing volume of water as it heats and cools.
The expansion tank model is in the figure 2.34 [25].

Figure 2. 34: Expansion tank.

2.13.6.2 Air Separator

Air separator is removing the air from pipes system because air create noise in the system and
causes corrosion in pump impellers. The air separator is shown in the figure 2.35

Figure 2. 35: Air Separator. [source: Water Piping and Pumps system by Career ]

52
2.13.6.3 Makeup Tank.
Make up tank as shown in figure 2.36 is a component of the cooling system that allows
additional coolant to be added to the system as needed [25].

Figure 2. 36: Makeup Tank.

2.13.6.4 Strainer
The strainer is used to prevent construction debris from entering the equipment during
initial start-up and to catch any small debris that may be circulating through the system
during normal operation or servicing as shown in figure 2.37 [25].

Figure 2. 37: Y Strainer. [source: Water Piping and Pumps system by Career ]

2.14 Water treatment

Normally all water piping system must have adequate treatment to protect the various
components against corrosion, scale, lime and algae. Water treatment should always be under
the supervision of a water conditioning specialist. Periodic inspection of the water is required
to maintained suitable quality [24].

53
2.15 Pump for HVAC system
Pump is the heart of HVAC system figure 2.38. The centrifugal pump has long been the
workhorse of HVAC systems, supporting the operation of chillers, and hydronic distribution
systems and while practically every other component in an HVAC system has been greatly
modified to meet ever changing requirements for efficiency and reliability, centrifugal pump
shape not changed very much. Manufacturers have made significant improvements in impeller
designs, construction materials, bearing and seal designs, and couplings. But these changes have
been more evolutionary than revolutionary [24].

Figure 2. 38: The centrifugal pump.

[source: Water Piping and Pumps system, by Company Carrier]

2.16 Chilled water pipe insulation

Insulation systems for piping that operate at below-ambient temperatures, such as chill water
pipe, present special challenges due the possibility of water vapor movement to the cold surface.
If the operating temperature of the system is below the dew point of the ambient air,
condensation will occur on the cold surface, creating a vapor pressure gradient through the
system. This vapor pressure gradient serves as the driving force for water migration toward the
cold surface of the chill water pipe insulation system. If these conditions remain for extended
periods of time, a significant amount of liquid water can accumulate in the system. Below-
ambient systems therefore, require special attention to the design to maintain thermal
performance [24].
In areas with high humidity, condensation problems often occur in chilled water pipelines of
central cooling systems. The condensation damages ceilings, carpeting and other furniture and
wastes energy with higher heat gain to the chilled water pipes. Pipe insulation is being widely
used in chilled water.
• Very low water absorption.
• Low and stable thermal conductivity (K. Value).

54
 • Non-polar polymer base with high water and moisture resistance.
• Universal smoke and flammability proof standards.
• Flexibility for quick and easy installation.
2.16.1 Economic thickness
Economics can be used to (1) select the optimum insulation thickness (Table 2.11) for a
specific insulation, or (2) evaluate two or more insulation materials for least cost for a given
level of thermal performance. In either case, economic considerations determine the most cost-
effective solution for insulating over a specific period. Life-cycle costing considers the initial
cost of the insulation system plus the ongoing value of energy savings over the expected service
lifetime. The economic thickness is defined as the thickness that minimizes the total life-cycle
cost [19].
Figure2.39 shows installed costs for a multilayer application. The slope of the curves is
discontinuous and increases with the number of layers because labor and material costs increase
more rapidly as thickness increases. Figure 2.39 shows curves of total cost of operation,
insulation costs, and lost energy costs. Point A on the total cost curve corresponds to the
economic insulation thickness [19].

Figure 2. 39: Determination of Economic Thickness of Insulation.

[source: The 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals SI]

12.17 Lithium Bromide-water Absorption Air-Conditioning

System
In such a system, the refrigerant is the water and absorbent is Lithium Bromide-water

55
solution. This system is safer and has more COP than ammonia-water system especially when
used in air conditioning. In such a system it would be better to combine evaporator and absorber
in the same shell, likewise, generator and condenser have to be put together in the same shell
since pressures in this system are very low (under barometric pressure) and can be lost easily.
In this research, using water-LiBr solution since it is very efficient especially in air conditioning
operations. The absorbing substance is LiBr-water solution and the refrigerant is the water.
LiBr-water solution is very suitable and efficient in air conditioning processes more than NH3 -
water solution due to high evaporation temperature which LiBr absorption system is being
worked on.
Their studies show that the LiBr/ water systems have higher COP than systems with other
working fluids. Li and Sumathy (Li and Sumathy, 2000) characterized the main
disadvantages of Ammonia/ Water system as follows:
1.The coefficient of performance for the Ammonia/ Water system is lower than for
Li-Br/ Water.
2.LiBr/ Water absorption units require lower generator inlet temperature (60-88℃)
than Ammonia/ water units (90-180℃).
3.There is limitations on utilizing ammonia- water units because of the hazards associated
with the use of ammonia.
4.The Ammonia/ water absorption system requires higher pressure and hence higher
pumping power.
5.A rectifier is required in this system to separate ammonia and water vapor at the
generator outlet.
For these reasons the lithium bromide-water system is considered to be better suited for this
solar absorption system [30].

Figure 2. 40: Schematic of a single-effect absorption chiller [(adopted from [Estiot (2009):
Development of Plate Heat Exchangers as Main Components of an Absorption Chiller, by
Thomas Hasenöhrl]

56
2.18 Solar Thermal Collectors
Figure 2.41 shows the four different types of solar hot water collectors. The type of collector
chosen for a certain application depends mainly on the required operating temperature and the
given ambient temperature range. Due to the design and simplicity of design each type has a
maximum temperature that they are best suited to provide
• Unglazed EPDM (Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer) collector, below 90 °F (32 °C).
• Flat plate, below 160 °F (71 °C).
• Evacuated tube, up to 350 °F (177 °C).
• Parabolic trough, up to 570 °F (299 °C).
In this research chosen heat pipe evacuated tubes solar collector because of the following:
1) Its high performance.
2) Plug and Play heat pipe system for easy transport, installation and maintenance (changing
broken tubes).
3) When one tube or more are broken down, the system doesn’t stop.
4) Use of non-toxic heat pipe transfer liquid.
5) High quality and long lasting components (corrosion resistant materials).
6) Excellent insulation properties (>50mm thick rock wool).
7) Environmentally friendly through the use of non-polluting, recyclable materials.
8) Corrosion resistant manifold header pipe (copper).
9) Suitable for open or closed flow operation.
10) Accepts a standard sized temperature sensor.
11) Compact frame that could be packed with the manifold.
12) Adjustable width frame to allow for varying installation surfaces.
13) Quick and simple tube attachment system – permitting easy removal of any one tube.
14) Compact manifold size.
15) No leakage [28].

Figure 2. 41: Types of solar thermal energy collectors

[Source: Central Solar Hot Water Systems Design Guide. Dec. 2011]

57
2.18.1 Evacuated Tube Collectors
Conventional simple flat-plate solar collectors were developed for use in sunny and warm
climates. Their benefits however are greatly reduced when conditions become unfavorable
during cold, cloudy and windy days. Furthermore, weathering influences such as condensation
and moisture will cause early deterioration of internal materials resulting in reduced
performance and system failure. Evacuated tube collector (ETC) as shown in Figure 2.42,
operate differently than the other collectors available on the market. Their thermal losses to the
environment are extremely low. Convective heat losses can be reduced by evacuating the space
around the absorber surface. A high quality vacuum layer around the tube prevents heat loss
when the outside air is colder than the tube. The tube captures the energy and keeps it inside
like a thermos flask. This means that they work well in cold weather without losing energy. The
tubes have a round surface which means that the sun’s radiation is not reflected away when the
sun is not directly above the collector. These solar collectors consist of a heat pipe inside a
vacuum-sealed tube. In this type of vacuum collector, the absorber strip is located in an
evacuated and pressure proof glass tube. Several single tubes, serially interconnected, or tubes
connected to each other via manifold, make up the solar collector [31].

Figure 2. 42: Evacuated tube collector with heat pipe

[source: Apricus ETC Solar Collector Product Overview. Sep. 2016]

58
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the basic methodology of calculating the cooling load, using manual
method and technical method (Revit program) which will be used. Pressure drop across the air
streams terminals that are calculating, to get overall view about this point pressure drop across
air streams ducts will be discussed, the total static pressure drop is given in the form of required
fanning power necessary to overcome the pressure drop.
The proper components sizing of the system is a very complex problem which includes both
predictable components such as pipe size and other components performance characteristics and
unpredictable components such as weather data.
The accurate calculation of cooling loads is essential to provide a sound bridge between
fundamental building design decisions and an operating building. If loads are substantially
underestimated, occupants and users will likely be cold [1].
Cooling load is the rate of heat energy must be removed from a space in order to maintain
the space at a given inside design condition. Cooling load calculation is the estimated of heat
gain from solar effect, occupants, lighting, equipment, etc.

3.2 Software program

In this research, the Autodesk Revit MEP is used for analyzing the HVAC system. The
software’s built-in analysis capabilities helps users create more sustainable designs and share
designs using a wide variety of partner applications, resulting in optimal building performance
and efficiency. Working with a building information model helps keep design data coordinated,
minimizes errors, and enhances collaboration among engineering and architecture teams. Revit
MEP software’s modeling and layout tools enable engineers to create mechanical systems more
accurately and easily. Automatic routing solutions enable users to model the ductwork, and
piping systems. Revit MEP software’s parametric change technology means that any change to
the MEP model is automatically coordinated throughout the model. Maintaining a single,
consistent model of the building helps to keep drawings coordinated and reduce errors.
Revit MEP provides the architectural, constructional and engineering professional with best
tools to design any complicated systems efficiently.

59
3.2.1 REVIT MEP System Design Features
Estimates design cooling loads for commercial buildings in order to determine required sizes
for air conditioning system components. Ultimately, the program provides information needed
for selecting and specifying equipment. Specifically, the program performs the following tasks:
• Calculates design cooling loads for spaces, zones, and coils in the air conditioning
system.
• Determines required airflow rates for spaces, zones and the system.
• Sizes cooling coils.
• Sizes air circulation fans.
• Sizes chillers.

• sizes duct and pipe.

Also, DUCT SIZER software is used in this research. By knowing the flow rate of a
space, and recommended velocity using DUCT SIZER to calculate the losses and duct
size as shown in figure 3.1.

Figure 3. 1: Duct sizer software calculation sample

60
3.3 Flow Chart
The flowchart shown below shows the summary of the design procedures in figure 3.2.

Methodology

Sizing the HVAC

Software Building Economic
Introduction System REVIT
Programs parameters Analysis
Utilixaton

Manual&Technical

Estimating
Total Cooling
Loads

Duct
System
Design

Water
Piping
System
Design

Standard&cataloged Selection

Pump Selection

AHUs&FCUs
Selection

FANs Selection

Chiller Selection

Evacuated Tube
Selection

Figure 3. 2: Flow chart

61
 3.4 Building parameters
The downward table 3.1 indicates the indoor and outdoor conditions in Sana’a city
according to ASHRAE meteorological weather data of Sana'a, see appendix A Table (A.1).
Table 3. 1: General Project Data
Outside Condition according to ASHARE meteorological
weather data of Sana'a
Region middle east
Location Yemen
City Sana’a
Latitude 15.5° N
Longitude 44.2° E
Elevation above sea level (m) 2206 m
Dry bulb(db) temperature (0c) 30.2°C
wet bulb(wb) temperature (0c) 17°C
Summer daily temperature range (k) 12.9°K

Wind velocity (m/s) 5 m/s

Design cooling months April to September

Indoor design condition for different departments in the hospital according to

ASHRAE standard

Rooms DB Temperature Relative humidity

Office, preparing, replacing, stores, control

24°C 50%
and service rooms

ICU room 21°C 50%

Equipment room 24°C 50%

Operation and recovery rooms 21°C 50%

CCU room 16°C 50%

62
3.5 Sizing the HVAC System
There are two methods to size the HVAC system that the research included; manual method,
and technical method by the software’s in section 3.2 for one space as a sample.
Numerous cooling load calculation procedures are available to the designer. Most of the
procedures are based upon ASHRAE research and publications, with simplifications and
adjustments sometimes incorporated for specific applications.
Loads for small envelope-load-dominated buildings are often manually calculated using a
single design-day peak hour with the addition of a safety factor when selecting equipment.
Loads for large, multi-zoned buildings are almost universally calculated using computer
programs.
Sizing a HVAC system is by determining all the cooling loads.

3.5.1 Estimating Total Cooling Load

The estimated cooling load (𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ) is given by:

1- Overall heat transfer coefficient

The overall heat transfer coefficient of the external wall which described in chapter two can
be estimated from equation
1
𝑈𝑤 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ (3.1)

The total thermal resistance for the heat transfer from the air on one side of a composite wall
to the air on other side, as obtained from given as follows:

𝑛
1 𝑥𝑗
𝑅𝑡ℎ = = 𝑅𝑖 + ∑ + 𝑅𝑜 (3.2)
𝑈𝑤 𝑘𝑗
𝑗=1

Where:

j: 1,2, …, Xi: Width of Layer(mm), Ri: inside thermal resistance (K.m2/W), Ro: outside
thermal resistance(K.m2/W), Kj: thermal conductivity of section (W/m. K).

Ri, Ro can be obtained from Appendix B Table (9,10).

63
1-Heat Gain Due to Solar Effects through Building
Conduction through the roof, exterior walls, windows, skylights, ceiling, interior walls, and
floor, as well as the solar radiation through the windows and skylights, all contributes only
sensible heat to the space. The estimated Heat Gain Due to Solar effects through building is
given by:
𝐷𝑅
𝑇𝑜𝑚 = 𝑇𝑜 − (3.3)
2

𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 𝐴𝑈(𝐶𝐿𝑇𝐷𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 ) (3.4)

𝐶𝐿𝑇𝐷𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = (𝐶𝐿𝑇𝐷 − 𝐿𝑀)𝐾 + (25.5 − 𝑇𝑖 ) + (𝑇𝑂𝑚 − 29.4)𝑓 (3.5)

Where:

Qsolar: Heat gain due to solar effects through building(W), U: Overall heat transfer coefficient
for Wall and Glass as shown in Appendix b table B.11 for glass,{CLTD: Cooling Load
Temperature Difference (℃), LM: Latitude correction factor which are obtained from Appendix
B Table (B.1,2)} respectively, K: Color adjustment factor 0.83 for medium color and 1 for
windows, Ti is the indoor design temperature, To,m is the outdoor design temperature(℃), f: Attic
or roof fan factor, it is 1 for no fan roof.

2-Heat Gain Due to Solar Transmission through Glass

Solar radiation often represents a major cooling load and is highly variable with time and
orientation. Careful analysis of heat gains through windows, skylights, and glazed doors is
imperative. The estimated Heat Gain Due to Solar Transmission through Glass is given by:

𝑄𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝐴(𝑆𝐻𝐺𝐹)(𝐶𝐿𝐹)(𝑆𝐶) (3.6)

Where:

Qglass: Heat gain due to solar transmission through the glass (w), {SHG: Solar heat gain factor
(W/m2), SC: Shading coefficient W/m2. K, CLF: The cooling load factor which are obtained
from Appendix B Table (B.3,4,5)} respectively, A: The area of glass (m2).

3-Heat Gain Due to Light

The heat gain from the light is taken for every meter square according ASHREA, and can be
estimated by equation:

𝑊
𝑄𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑄 (𝑚2 ) 𝐴 (3.7)

64
Where:

Qlight: Heat gain due to light, Q = light power (w/m2), A = area of zone (m2).

Lighting Power Densities can be obtained from Appendix B Table B.12.

4-Heat Gain Due to Occupants

Heat gain from people is depended on the activity of peoples, athletes in a gymnasium release
eight times the amount of heat released by a seated audience.
Equations 3.5 – 3.7 are used to find heat gain due to occupants:

𝑄𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝. = 𝑄𝑆𝐻 + 𝑄𝐿𝐻 (3.8)

𝑄𝑆𝐻 = 𝑁(𝑆𝐻𝐺)(𝐶𝐿𝐹) (3.9)

𝑄𝐿𝐻 = 𝑁(𝐿𝐻𝐺) (3.10)

Where:

Qoccup: total heat from occupant(W), QSH: Sensible heat gains from occupant (W), QLH: Latent
heat gains from occupant (W), {N: Number of people, SHG: Sensible heat gain W/person, LHG:
Latent heat gain is W/person, CLF: Cooling load factor for people which are obtained from
Appendix B Table (B.6,7,9)} respectively.

5. Heat gain from equipment

Hospital and laboratory equipment items are major sources of sensible and latent heat gains
in conditioned spaces. Equipment in laboratories is similar to medical equipment in that it varies
significantly from space to space. heat gain from equipment, which may range from 50 to 270
W/m2 in highly automated laboratories [4], and more laboratory equipment which are obtained
from Appendix B Table (B.13). To find heat gain due to equipment by equation:

𝑄𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝. = 𝑄(𝑤/𝑚2 ) ∗ 𝐴(𝑚2 ) (3.11)

Where:

Q equip: Heat gain of equipment, A: Area of zone(m2), Q: Heat gain from equipment (W/m2).
Medical equipment of 110W/m2 will be considered in our research.

65
6. Heat gain due to infiltration

The total heat load due to infiltration consists of two parts: (a) Sensible heat load and (b)
Latent heat load. Sensible heat is the heat which raises the temperature of the moisture air. The
latent heat is associated with the evaporation or condensation of water vapor at the same
temperature.

The sensible heat load Qs,f , due to infiltration is given by the following equation.

Qs,f =mf cp (Ti − TO) (3.12.a)

Or,

𝑄𝑠𝑓 = 𝜌° 𝑉𝑓̇ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑂 ) (3.12.b)

The total heat load Qt,f , due to infiltration is given by the equation

Qt, f =mf (hi __ho) (3.13)

The latent heat load QL, f, is given by the following equation.

__
QL,f = Qt,f 𝑄𝑠𝑓 (3.14)

Where:

mf is the mass flow rate of infiltration outside air, Cp: Specific heat of air constant equal 1005
kg
J/kg, 𝜌° is the Specific density of air constant which is 1.143 (m3), Vf: is the Volumetric

flow rate of infiltrated air, Vf= No. of ACH*Room volume (m3 /s), 𝑇𝑖 and TO are the inside and
outside temperatures of infiltration air, respectively, hi and ho are the inside and outside
enthalpies of infiltration air which are obtained from the psychometric chart at the given inside
and outside conditions, respectively. The infiltration rate per unit length of crack for different
types of windows and doors under different wind velocities.

7.Heat gain due to ventilation

The outdoor air ventilation load does not have a direct impact on the conditioned space
(except when provided via open windows), but it does impose a load on the HVAC equipment.
The amount of ventilation depends upon the occupancy and function of each space. Also the
load of ventilation could be the ACH load of the space or room for example the ACH of the
operation room in hospital from 12-20 [3]., and more Ventilation Design Parameters which are

66
obtained from Appendix B Table (B.10) [3]. The Heat gain due to ventilation is given by the
equation:

SHR=Qs/Qt (3.15.a)

Then hi can be obtained from the psychometric chart at the inside conditions, after that ms
estimated from equation (3.15.b), and determine the cooling coil by equation (3.15.c)

Qt=ms*(hi-hs) (3.15.b)

Qc=ms *(ho-hs) (3.15.c)

So, the ventilation load equals Qc-Qs

Where:

hi and ho are the inside and outside enthalpies of ventilation air which are obtained from the
psychometric chart at the given inside and outside conditions, respectively.

8 The Total Heat Gain:

The total heat gain for the room is given by equation

𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑄 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠 + 𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑛 + 𝑄𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 + 𝑄𝐻𝑆𝐿 + 𝑄𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝 + 𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑙 (3.16)

3.5.1.1 Manual Method Sample

By taking operation room 1 (OP-Z1) as sample, which is located in the SE and NE of
building.

Figure 3. 3: shown view for (OP-Z1) from rivet program

67
 Table 3. 2: Data needed for manual method
Outside design condition: 30.20 C Db, 40% RH.
Inside design condition: 210C Db and 50% RH.
Overall heat transfer coefficient for walls U=1.787 w/m2 C which is obtained from equation
(3.1)
Overall heat transfer coefficient for Aluminum Windows U=5.097w/m2 C as shown in table
3.4.
Occupancy: 5m2/person=8 people with sensible heat gain 82.1 W/person, and latent heat gain
79.1W/person as shown in appendix B
Lights: 17 W/m2 of floor area.
Equipment: 100 W/m2.

3.5.1.2 Technical method

1-REVIT program is used.

68
2-The building is sketched up.

3-Select from Analyze the space.

69
4-The spaces gathered in a zone.

70
5-Insert the space parameters according to ashrae standard.

6-Insert the building construction data.

71
7- From the icon of Heating and Cooling Loads insert the building parameters such as building
type, location, and the rest of them as shown in figure below.

8- Insert the location weather and site such as city, latitude, and longitude. Which are obtained
from the REVIT library.

72
9- Insert the weather data, according to meteorological weather data of Sana’a city. Then
insert calculate to get the results in a form of report.

3.5.2 Duct system Design

To design the ducts in this project the details must be known which includes duct component,
duct materials, duct shape, Flow through a duct, air leakage and Insulation and duct design
calculations will be discussed and achieved.

3.5.2.1 Duct Sizing Manually

To design the main supply duct by using manually method, the following steps have been
done:
1.Calculate the supply air quantity from equation:
Q= ρ CP 𝑉𝑠̇ (Ti __ Ts) (3.17)
Where:
Cp: Specific heat of air constant equal 1005 J/kg, ρ is the density of air, 𝑉𝑠̇ is the
Volumetric flow rate of supply air, Ti ,Ts are the inside and supply air temperatures
respectively.
2. Select the recommended main supply air velocity which can be obtained from appendix C, it
has been taken as 5 m/s.

73
3. Determine the duct diameter of the duct from the friction chart in figure3.3. Or the following
equation can be used to determine the diameter:
𝜋
𝑉𝑠̇ = 4 𝑑 2 (3.18)

Figure 3. 3:Friction Chart for Round Duct

4. After that the next duct section diameter obtained by using the same pressure drop with the
appropriate duct air velocity from appendix C Table C.2.
5. Convert round duct size to equivalent rectangular sizes using Table 3.4 with a maximum
aspect ratio of 4:1.
Table 3. 4: Circular Equivalents of Rectangular Duct for Equal Friction and Airflow

74
 Another manual method to design the main supply duct by using (Duct Sizer software) which
aided to obtain the duct size. By knowing the main duct supply velocity air (5 m /s) and flow
rate (405.4 liter/second), the program gives the dimensions of main duct as shown in the Figure
3.4. similarly, the next branches ducts can be obtained

3.5.2.1.1 Estimating The Duct Losses

Whenever a change in area or direction occurs in a duct or when the flow is divided and
diverted into a branch, substantial losses in total pressure may occur. These losses are usually
of greater magnitude than the losses in the straight duct.

Local Loss Coefficient Method

The dimensionless coefficient C is used for fluid resistance, because this coefficient has the
same value in dynamically similar streams (i.e., streams with geometrically similar stretches,
equal Reynolds numbers, and equal values of other criteria necessary for dynamic similarity).
The fluid resistance coefficient represents the ratio of total pressure loss to velocity pressure at
the referenced cross section. The pressure loss in the straight duct can be obtained from the
equation

∆Pstraight=L * ∆P/m =Pa (for total length) (3.19)

Where:

L= the length of the straight duct, ∆P/m=pressure lose per meter which has obtained from the
chart in figure3.3.

Fittings are classified as either constant flow, such as an elbow or transition, or as divided
flow, such as a wye or tee.
The pressure drop for fitting is obtained from the equation

Δp(Fitting) = 0.5ρV2 ×C (3.20.a)

The density of air ρ=1.2 (kg/m3) then the equation become

Δp(Fitting) = 0.6C(V2) (3.20.b)

Where:

75
Δp: is pressure drop per meter (Pa), ρ: Density of air (kg/m3), C: local dimensionless loss factor
for any fitting, V: air velocity(m/s). The local dimensionless loss factor can be obtained from
ASHRAE Tables in Appendix C

The total pressure drop is the sum of the two equations 3.20.a, and 3.20.b.

∆P= ∆P( straight) + ΔP(Fitting) (3.21)

Duct Sizing Recommendations

• Size fan supply ducts by either the equal friction (EF) or static regain (SR) method. The
duct velocity anywhere in the system should not exceed the velocity listed in in appendix
B Table B.16.
• Size ducts downstream of terminal boxes, toilet exhaust ducts, and other low-pressure
systems using the equal friction method with a friction rate in the range from 0.4 to 1.6
Pa/m such that the duct velocity in the duct anywhere in the system does not exceed the
values as shown in appendix B Table B.15. Use Table B.18 as a guide to select the design
friction rate [19].

• Diffuser runouts should be full size, except for runouts in the critical path or a runout length
greater than about 4.5 m: these runouts should be at least 2 m of flexible-duct full size, and the
remainder’s size determined by the design method [19].

Duct insulation
Insulation thicknesses in these standards are minimum values; economic and thermal
considerations may justify higher insulation levels. Additional insulation, vapor retarders, or
both may be required to limit vapor transmission and condensation.

Economic Thickness
Economics can be used to (1) select the optimum insulation thickness for a specific
insulation, or (2) evaluate two or more insulation materials for least cost for a given level of
thermal performance. In either case, economic considerations determine the most cost-effective
solution for insulating over a specific period. Figure 3.4 shows installed costs for a multilayer
application. The slope of the curves is discontinuous and increases with the number of layers
because labor and material costs increase more rapidly as thickness increases.

76
 Figure 3. 4: Determination of Economic Thickness of Insulation
[source Ashrae fundamentals 2017 SI]
Thermal insulation is commonly used to reduce energy consumption of HVAC systems and
equipment. Minimum insulation levels for ductwork is often dictated by energy codes, many of
which are based on ASHRAE Standards 90.1 and 90.2. In many cases, it may be cost-effective
to go beyond the minimum levels dictated by energy codes. Thicknesses greater than the
optimum economic thickness may be required for other technical reasons such as condensation
control, personnel protection, or noise control. as shown in appendix B Table B.17,18. contain
minimum insulation levels for ducts, excerpted from ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 90.1-201

77
For below-ambient systems, condensation control is often the overriding design objective.
The design problem is best addressed as two separate issues: (1) avoiding surface
condensation on the outer surface of the insulation system and (2) minimizing or managing
water vapor intrusion. To illustrate, Table 3.10 shows insulation thicknesses required to
prevent condensation on the exterior surface of a hypothetical insulated tank containing a
liquid held at 4°C in a mechanical room with a temperature of 27°C. Note that, at high
relative humidifies, the thickness required to prevent surface condensation increases
dramatically, and becomes impractical above 90% rh as shown in appendix B Table B.19.

3.5.2.2Technical method for duct design

1-From the System icon select DUCT.

2-Construct the duct layout.

78
3- Tap the duct layout to obtain the size of the duct according to the flow rate, and
friction(pa/m), which is determined from the duct sizer software method.

4- Insert the friction and start to calculate.

3.6 Ceiling diffuser

The selection of the proper supply air diffuser size is based on the following
parameters:

79
 1. Supply airflow rate per diffuser which is given by air conditioning system design to
be.

2. Neck or outlet velocity.

3. Required noise criteria (NC) for the hospital rooms as shown in appendix B table
B.20.

4. Pressure drop through the diffuser which can be obtained from the used diffuser
catalogs in this research.

5. The diffuser throw [21].

Note: all the above parameters must meet the catalogs according to ASHRAE cods for
Health care facilities.

3.7 Filters
Many of the spaces in a health care facility require a higher level of filtration than is
provided by a pre-filter alone. The FGI Guidelines, for example, recommend a filtration
level of MERV 14 for all patient care areas, whether in clinics or in full-service hospitals.
Some codes require HEPA filtration for inpatient applications, especially where patients
are particularly vulnerable to infection, such as protective isolation rooms for
immunocompromised patients and orthopedic operating rooms. Designers must provide
(and require in contract documents) adequate space for replacing filters. All filters should
be provided with a differential pressure indicating manometer, mounted on the AHU, to
indicate when replacement is required [3].

To ensure adequate airflow throughout the range (from clean to dirty) of filter
resistance, designers should use the filter manufacturer’s recommended final resistance
when calculating fan pressure requirements. If no final resistance recommendation is
available, a value of 1.4 in. of water [350 Pa] is recommended for MERV 13 to 15 filters.
Be aware that when filters are clean, resulting in system resistance lower than the fan
selection point, the fan motor must be adequately sized to accommodate the higher power
requirements at that operating condition. One advantage of using variable-speed drives on
fans is that fan speed can be increased as filters begin to load so the AHU maintains a

80
constant airflow. Figure 3.5 shows a typical relationship of pressure drop versus air velocity
for a MERV 14 filter [3].

Figure 3. 5: Filter Pressure Drop versus Air Velocity

[source :HVAC DESIGN MANUAL FOR HOSPITALS AND CLINICS 2nd edition]
Table 3. 5: Typical Initial Pressure Drops for Air Filters (at 500 fpm [2.5 m/s])
[source HVAC DESIGN MANUAL FOR HOSPITALS AND CLINICS 2nd edition]

3.8 Fan
Selection of a fan for a given type of air system or mechanical ventilating system
actually is done in two stages: selection of fan type and determination of fan size.
Before the selection, the following conditions must be clarified:
1. Setting (in a commercial building to handle clean air at room temperature, or an
industrial setting to handle dirty air)

81
 2. Special requirements (such as high-temperature operation or spark-resistant
construction)
3. Function (supply fan or a return fan in an air-handling unit, or supply or exhaust fan
in a ventilating system)
4. Characteristics of the air system (constant volume or variable air volume)
5. Room NC curve
6. Approximate annual operating hours
7. Unit cost of energy at the specific location.
During selection, the following factors should be considered:
• Pressure-volume flow operating characteristics. Selecting a fan to provide the
required volume flow rate and total pressure loss for the longest run of supply and
return ducts, including the pressure drop for all fittings, filters, exit air diffusers,
cooling coils, ..etc [20].
When all above parameters are determined, the fan is selected from fan performance
tables or graphs supplied by the fan manufacturers, such as that shown in catalogs
[6].
• Fan capacity modulation. A variable-air-volume system operates at a reduced
volume flow rate during part-load operation. Effective and economical fan capacity
modulation is an important factor that affects the operation of an air system.
• Fan efficiency. Fan efficiency is closely related to the energy consumption of an air
system. Fans should be selected so that they can operate at high efficiency during as
much of their operation time as possible.
• Sound power level. Most commercial and public buildings and many industrial
applications need a quiet indoor environment. Fans are the major source of noise in
an air system. Usually, the higher the fan total efficiency, the lower the sound power
level of the selected fan. A fan with a low sound power level and sound power level
at high frequencies is preferable. High-frequency sound is more easily attenuated
than low frequency sound.
• Airflow direction. In many applications, a straight-through or in-line flow occupies
less space and simplifies layout.

82
 • Initial cost. The initial cost of the fan modulation device, sound attenuator(s), and
space occupied by a particular type of fan, in addition to the cost of the fan itself,
should be considered [21].

The fan presser drop is determined by equation

∆Pfan=∆Pduct+∆Pdiffuser+∆Pfilter+∆Pcoil+∆Pfan,out+∆Pfan,in+∆Pdynamic (3.17)

The power consumed by the fan is obtained from equation

𝑉̇ ∗ ∆𝑃
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = (3.18)
𝜂

Where:
V=the volumetric air flow rate(m3/s), ∆P=the fan pressure drop, 𝜂=the motor efficiency
[21].

3.9 Air Handling Unit and Fan Coil Selection

Air Handling Units are available at Company and required to select some procedures
will be followed as follows:
1- Specify from duct sizing the total (L/S) that AHU or Fan Coil will supply.
2- Specify from cooling load calculation the total load that the coil will remove.
3- From catalogs of AHU or Fan Coil select suitable model and specify the AHU or
Fan Coil specifications.
The mass flow rate at each AHU or FCU can be estimated by equation
𝑄𝑐𝑐
𝑚 ̇= 𝐶 (kg/s) (19)
𝑝 (𝑇𝑖𝑛 −𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 )

Where:
𝑄𝑐𝑐 = cooling coil load (kw), 𝐶𝑝 = the specific heat water whose value can be taken to
equal to (4.186 k J/ kg °C), 𝑇𝑖𝑛 = Entering chilled water temperature (7°C), 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = Leaving
chilled water temperature (12°C) [21].

3.10 Pipe sizing

There are many materials used in piping system such as steel, galvanized coated zinc and
stainless steel schedule 40 S which is used in this research to design pipes that are deliver

83
the chilled water from the chiller to the AHUs, and FCUs. For calculating pipe dimensions
and fittings, the manual method and programing method are used.

3.10.1 Manual Method

There is a friction loss in any pipe through which water is following. This loss depends
on the following factors:
1. Water velocity
2. Pipe diameter
3. Interior surface roughness
4. Pipe length
Flow in pipes suffers from the friction losses between the flowing fluid and the internal
walls of the pipe. The parameters which influence the magnitude of the friction losses or
pressure head losses are the flow velocity, mass flow rate, fluid type, diameter of the pipe,
and the inner surface roughness of the pipe. For purposes of the pipe network of the HVCA
system design, the relation between the above parameters are given in graphical forms and
charts such as that shown in Figure3.6 represents the relationship between the pressure
drop per meter of pipe length, in unit Pa/m, volume flow rate, velocity of flow and pipe
diameter for flow of water in standard stainless steel schedule 40 S.
The sizing of the diameter is generally the procedure of determining the required pipe
diameter by using the chart presented in Figures14. The obtained flow velocity from these
Figures must be within the range of 0.6 to 1.2 m/s for pipe diameter up to 50 mm diameter
in order to control the flow induced noise and prevent the development of water hammer
in the pipes [21].

Figure 3. 6: Friction Loss for Water in Commercial Steel Pipe (Schedule 40)
(source: The 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals SI).

84
 Or, calculating main pipe diameter by using manual method, select the velocity of cold
water in the main pipe V= (1.11) m/s, by equation

Q = V × A (3.20)

Where:

Q = water flow rate (l/s), V = velocity of cold water in the main pipe, A = area of
water pipe (m2).

3.10.1.1 Valves and Fittings Losses

Valves and fittings cause pressure losses greater than those caused by the pipe alone.
One formulation expresses losses as

𝑉2 𝑉2
∆𝑃 = 𝐾𝜌 𝑜𝑟 ∆ℎ = 𝐾 (3 .21)
2 2𝑔
where
K = geometry- and size-dependent loss coefficient (Tables C.4-8. in appendix C) and 𝜌 =
𝑉2
density of fluid = 1000 kg/m3 for water at temperatures below 120°C, = velocity
2𝑔

head (m)[19].

The total pressure drop in pipe

∆𝑃
∆𝑃𝑡 = ∑( 𝑚 × 𝐿𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 + ∆𝑃Valves and fittings ) (3.22)

3.10.2 Technical method for piping network design

85
1-Construct the piping network, fitting, and pipe accessories.

2-Select the recommended velocity of the chilled water according to ASHRAE

standard. Then start calculating.

86
3.10.3 Pump Sizing
After the piping system has been laid out, and the total pressure loss, or head, for the
pumps is calculated, the selection of pumps can be made. In this research, concentrate on
centrifugal pump designs which are the most common types used in comfort air
conditioning.
The choice of the pump is according to total pressure drop around the fluid circuit or
total head actual and the water flow rate.
Capacity (water flow rate) is the amount of liquid that can be pumped, given in term of
gallons per minute (g.p.m).
Head (hd) is an energy unit that is usually expressed in feet or meter of the liquid being
pumped (total head). The total head consist of discharge head is the head at the pump
discharge, a pump discharge gauge would indicate total discharge head and Suction head
is the head indicated on a pressure gauge at the pump suction as shown in the figure (3.7).

Figure 3. 7: shows head pump

[source: water piping and pumping, by company carrier]
Since:
Total pressure drop = Pressure losses + Suction and discharge head or maximum head

∆𝑃𝑡 = ∆𝑃𝑙 + ℎ𝑑 (3.23)

Liquid horsepower (hp) is obtained by the formula

87
 𝑓𝑠∗∆𝑃 ∗𝑄
𝑡
hp = 1000∗𝜂∗746 (hp) (3.24)

Where:

Q = the water flow rate (L/s or gpm), 𝜂 = pump efficiency %, fs= factor of safety will be
considered in our research, pump efficiency = 75 % and factor of safety =1.1.

Since:

Total head actual (hp) is obtained by the formula

∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝐻 (3.25)
𝜌 = water density (kg/m3) =1.2kg/m3, 𝑔 = gravity (9.81N), 𝐻= actual total head (m).

3.11 Chiller Absorption

The following design requirement must be known to select (from catalogs) a proper
chiller absorption:
1- Required cooling capacity in kilowatt (kW).
2- Leaving chilled water temperature (°C).
3- Entering chilled water temperature (°C).
4- Design ambient temperature (°C).

3.12 Solar Fraction

The solar fraction SF is defined as the percentage of the total heating load that is supplied
by the solar system. The optimal size in terms of system cost effectiveness is generally
obtained for solar fractions between 30 to 60 percent, on a year-long operation basis. [32]
𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑄𝑆
𝑆𝐹 = (3.26)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
A solar fraction of 60 percent will be considered in our research.

3.13 Estimating Collector Size

Estimated collector size is given by the following equation:

88
 𝑸𝒈
𝑨𝑪 = (3.27)
𝛈𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱

Where:

Ac = total collector area [𝑚2 ], η solar = efficiency of solar system (the efficiency of solar
system is taken as 0.6 for design purpose), and Imax= maximum daily solar radiation
[W/𝑚2 ]. (Imax in the equation above means the system is designed to meet the load on the
sunniest day of the year, which eliminates excess capacity and optimizes economic
performance) [33].

𝑨𝒕
𝑨𝒕 = 𝒏𝑨𝒄 → 𝒏 = (𝟑. 𝟐𝟖)
𝑨𝒄

𝐴𝑡 = capture solar collector area [𝑚2 ], n =Number of solar collector

89
 CHAPTER FOUR

NUMERICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction
This chapter represents the numerical results and data output from calculations and
REVIT model simulation as detailed in the methodology chapter for the proposed HVAC
system. The data is then analyzed and presented in the form of tables and figures. Table
4.1 shows the summaries of the HVAC system sizing.
Table 4. 1: The summaries of the HVAC system sizing
Building summery

Location Yemen, Sana’a

Building Type Hospital or Healthcare

Area 1,970 m²

Volume 5,418.69 m³

Peak Cooling Total Load 340,435KW

Peak Cooling Sensible Load 252,761KW

Peak Cooling Latent Load 87,675KW

Peak Cooling Airflow 12,912.3L/s

AHUs 201.962 KW
FCUs 113.732 KW
Item Result
Qe 369KW
Qg 473.1KW

90
 Qs 333.2KW
Ac 5O4.9m2
Ag 792m2
Number of collector 180
Number of tubes 5400

4.2 Manual method

By taking operation room 1 (OP-Z1) as sample, which is located in the SE and NE of
building. The manual calculations have been determined by using the methodology
employed in chapter 3. The results of manual method for cooling loads, duct losses, and
pipe losses are shown below:

4.2.1 Cooling loads

1- Heat Gain Due to Solar Effects through Building
The heat gain due to solar effect through the building is given by equation (3.1), (3.2),
and (3.3). As shown in Table 4.2, the total heat gain due to solar effect is 𝑸𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 =
𝟕𝟎𝟓. 𝟕𝟑 𝑾

Table 4. 2: Result of heat gain due to solar effects through building

Surface Area LM U CLTD(0 CLTDcorr Q transfer(w)

m2 w / m2 .c C) (0C) Qt= AU CLTDcorr

NE- Wall 6 1.6 1.787 10 8.478 90.9

SE-Wall 12.62 -2.7 1.787 12 6.569 148.14
NE- Window 10.8 1.6 5.097 8 6.818 375.314
SE-Window 4.32 -2.7 5.097 8 4.15 91.38

Total 705.73

2- Heat Gain Due to Solar Transmission through Glass

91
 The heat gain due to solar transmission through glass is given by equation (3.4). As
shown in table 4.3, QTranssmssion = 679.722W.

Table 4. 3:Result of Heat gain due to solar transmission through the glass

Glass A SHG SC CLF Q (W)

NE 11.76 187 0.57 0.37 463.69
SE 4.32 111 0.57 0.79 215.93
Total 679.722

3-Heat Gain Due to Light

As we state in chapter 3, the heat gain due to light is given by equation (3.5). Lights: 17
W/m2 of floor area then 𝐐𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 = 595 W

4-Heat Gain Due to Occupants

To estimate the heat gain due to occupants, must determine (i) QSH= Sensible heat gains
from occupant (W), and(i) QLH= Latent heat gains from occupant (W). Equations (3.5 –
37) are used to find heat gain due to occupants as a result 𝐐𝐨𝐜𝐜𝐮𝐩. = 𝟒𝟎𝟐. 𝟐𝟗 + 𝟓𝟓𝟑. 𝟕 =
𝟗𝟓𝟔 𝐖

5-Heat gain from equipment

According to equation (3.9) that has been used to estimate the heat gain from equipment,
we determined that 𝑸𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒑 = 𝟑𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑾.

6-Heat gain due to infiltration

From equation (3.10) we find that;𝐐𝐢𝐧𝐟𝐢𝐥 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟔 𝐖

7-The Total Heat Gain:

The total heat gain for the room is given by equation (3.10).

𝐐𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 = 𝟕𝟎𝟓. 𝟕𝟑 + 𝟔𝟕𝟗. 𝟕𝟐𝟐 + 𝟓𝟔𝟎 + 𝟗𝟓𝟔 + 𝟑𝟓𝟎𝟎 + 𝟐𝟕. 𝟔 = 𝟔𝟒𝟐𝟗. 𝟎𝟒𝟐 𝐖

92
 Table 4. 4: Summary of cooling loads of the sample(OP-Z1) .
Item Cooling loads (𝑾)
Q solar 705.73
QTranssmssion 679.722
Q light 560
Q occup 956
Q equip 3500
Qinf 27.6
Q total 6429.042
Qsensible 6012.752
SHR 0.93
Qcoil 16430

4.2.2 Ductwork Summery Sample

The layout of operation room 1 (OP-Z1) ductwork is shown in the figure 4.1

Figure 4. 1: Layout of operation room 1 (OP-Z1) ductwork

The velocity required in each section of duct and the required duct dimension, and
pressure loss calculated as detailed in methodology chapter. Operation room 1 (OP-Z1) is
taken as a sample to in order to show the above parameters which they are listed in Table
4.5.

93
 Table 4. 5: Sample Ductwork Summery
Duct Air NO. of Duct size Velocity Duct Fitting Duct Total
element flow element (mmXmm) (m/s) length loss pressure pressure
(L/s) (m) coefficient loss drop
(Pa/m) (Pa)
Duct 405.4 1 350X350 3.46 0.378 ‫ــــــــــ‬ 8.182 3.093
Elbow 405.4 3 350X350 3.46 ‫ــــــــــــ‬ 1.2 ‫ــــــــــــــ‬ 25.857
Diffuser 405.4 1 ‫ـــــــــــــــ‬ 3.46 ‫ـــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ 8
A.H.U. 405.4 1 ‫ــــــــــــــــــ‬ 3.46 ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ 32
TOTAL 68.95

4.2.3 Piping Network Summary Sample

The velocity required in each section of pipe and the required pipe diameters and lengths
calculated as detailed in methodology chapter. The critical path of the supply and return
which consist of a terminal unit and chiller at the end of it, in order to show the above
parameters which, they are listed are listed in Table 4.6.

Table 4. 6: Piping Network Summery

Section Component Diameter Flow Velocity Fitting NO. of length P∆ P∆

(mm) rate ) m/s) coefficient component (mm) (pa/m) ) pa)
(kg/s) (mm)
sect 1 Pipe 125 16.7 1.2 ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ 4.297 130 558.61
Elbow 0.31 6 ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ 1339.2
Tee 0.15 1 ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ 108
Valve 6.25 3 ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ 13500
Sect 2 Pipe 125 15.4 1.13 ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ 2.1 110 231
Tee 0.15 1 ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ 95.7675
Sect 3 Pipe 125 13.36 1.2 ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ 1.4 100 140
Tee 0.15 1 ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ 108
Sect 4 Pipe 100 9.51 1.2 ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ 4.233 140 592.62
Tee 0.15 1 ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ 108
Sect 5 Pipe 50 1.37 0.63 ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ 40.66 100 4066
Tee 0.2 1 ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ 39.69

94
 ‫‪Elbow‬‬ ‫‪0.38‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪377.0555‬‬
‫‪Sect 6‬‬ ‫‪Pipe‬‬ ‫‪40‬‬ ‫‪1.02‬‬ ‫‪0.75‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪1.02‬‬ ‫‪200‬‬ ‫‪204‬‬
‫‪Tee‬‬ ‫‪0.23‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪64.6875‬‬
‫‪Sect 7‬‬ ‫‪Pipe‬‬ ‫‪32‬‬ ‫‪0.82‬‬ ‫‪0.78‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪15.26‬‬ ‫‪260‬‬ ‫‪3967.6‬‬
‫‪Tee‬‬ ‫‪0.25‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪76.05‬‬
‫‪Sect 8‬‬ ‫‪Pipe‬‬ ‫‪25‬‬ ‫‪0.49‬‬ ‫‪0.8‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪6.9944‬‬ ‫‪370‬‬ ‫‪2587.928‬‬
‫‪Elbow‬‬ ‫‪0.43‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪825.6‬‬
‫‪Valve‬‬ ‫‪13‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪8320‬‬
‫‪Sect 9‬‬ ‫‪Pipe‬‬ ‫‪25‬‬ ‫‪0.49‬‬ ‫‪0.8‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪6.9944‬‬ ‫‪370‬‬ ‫‪2587.928‬‬
‫‪Elbow‬‬ ‫‪0.43‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪825.6‬‬
‫‪Valve‬‬ ‫‪13‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪8320‬‬
‫‪Sect 10‬‬ ‫‪Pipe‬‬ ‫‪32‬‬ ‫‪0.82‬‬ ‫‪0.78‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪15.26‬‬ ‫‪260‬‬ ‫‪3967.6‬‬
‫‪Tee‬‬ ‫‪0.25‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪76.05‬‬
‫‪Sect 11‬‬ ‫‪Pipe‬‬ ‫‪40‬‬ ‫‪1.02‬‬ ‫‪0.75‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪1.02‬‬ ‫‪200‬‬ ‫‪204‬‬
‫‪Tee‬‬ ‫‪0.23‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪64.6875‬‬
‫‪Sect 12‬‬ ‫‪Pipe‬‬ ‫‪50‬‬ ‫‪1.37‬‬ ‫‪0.63‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪40.66‬‬ ‫‪100‬‬ ‫‪4066‬‬
‫‪Tee‬‬ ‫‪0.2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪39.69‬‬
‫‪Elbow‬‬ ‫‪0.38‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪377.0555‬‬
‫‪Sect 13‬‬ ‫‪Pipe‬‬ ‫‪100‬‬ ‫‪9.51‬‬ ‫‪1.2‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪4.233‬‬ ‫‪140‬‬ ‫‪592.62‬‬
‫‪Tee‬‬ ‫‪0.15‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪108‬‬
‫‪Sect 14‬‬ ‫‪Pipe‬‬ ‫‪125‬‬ ‫‪13.36‬‬ ‫‪1.2‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪1.4‬‬ ‫‪100‬‬ ‫‪140‬‬
‫‪Tee‬‬ ‫‪0.15‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪108‬‬
‫‪Sect 15‬‬ ‫‪Pipe‬‬ ‫‪125‬‬ ‫‪15.4‬‬ ‫‪1.13‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪2.1‬‬ ‫‪110‬‬ ‫‪231‬‬
‫‪Tee‬‬ ‫‪0.15‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪95.7675‬‬
‫‪sect 16‬‬ ‫‪Pipe‬‬ ‫‪125‬‬ ‫‪16.7‬‬ ‫‪1.2‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪4.297‬‬ ‫‪130‬‬ ‫‪558.61‬‬
‫‪Elbow‬‬ ‫‪0.31‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪1339.2‬‬
‫‪Tee‬‬ ‫‪0.15‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪108‬‬
‫‪Valve‬‬ ‫‪6.25‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫ــــــــــ‬ ‫‪13500‬‬
‫‪F.C.U.‬‬ ‫‪40000‬‬
‫‪Chiller‬‬ ‫‪54900‬‬
‫‪Total‬‬ ‫‪169519.62‬‬

‫‪95‬‬
4.2.4 Pump selection
after calculating size and losses of pipes the total quantity of the chilled water needed for
the cooling coils in all AHUs and FCUs is 16.7 L/s.
from table 4.6 the pressure drop in the critical path of pipes is 1.69 bar.

In addition to that, water flow is 16.7L/s = 1002 L/min.

Total pressure drop = 169519.62 Pa.
Total head (H) = 17.28 m.

Pump specifications:

Power = 4.152 Kw.

Pressure = 169519.62 Pa (1.69 bar).
Total head = 17.28m.
After we have done the calculations for the pump we go to LOWARA catalogs to choose
the appropriate pump. The choice of the pump is according to the total head and the water
flow rate.
The chosen pump is horizontal centrifugal pump that supplies 1200 L/min and has a total
head 20.5 m with power 5.5 Kw. As shown in figures

96
4.3 Technical method
Revit calculations output of cooling loads for the operation room 1 (OP-Z1) is shown
in the Table 4.7 below.
Table 4. 7: Zone summary -op-z1
Zone Summary - OP-Z1

Area (m²) 35

Volume (m³) 97.29

Cooling Setpoint 21 °C

Peak Cooling Total Load (KW) 15,485

Peak Cooling Month and Hour July 4:00 PM

Peak Cooling Sensible Load (KW) 10,592

Peak Cooling Latent Load (KW) 4,892

Peak Cooling Airflow (L/s) 405.4

From manual method, the total heat gain for the operation room 1 (OP-Z1) is16430 W.
The total heat gain from REVIT report for this room is 15485W. The difference between
the two results is due to defining the thermal resistance for the used materials of the wall,
roof, and windows in ERVIT program. In addition, the sources of constants used in the
equations of manual method are not the same. The results of programing method are more
accurately because the program is performing analysis for every element of whole building.
The manual method takes all the loads at the same time (collecting them accumulatively).
Whereas the programing method takes the time of acting load for example, the program
does not account the lights in the mid. The REVIT output total cooling coil loads for all
the spaces are labeled in the Table 4.8

97
 Table 4. 8: All spaces cooling coil load

Space name Total Coil Load (kW) Maximum Supply air (L/s)
Break 1 2.861 137.3
Break 2 2.951 141
Break 3 2.846 137.1
Break 4 2.834 136.3
Break 5 3.008 143.4
Cath zone 6.171 242.439
Dressing NR STR 4.659 244.3
Fixing NR STR 4.25 128
Hall Near OP 11.823 356.9
Hall with stair 8.545 302
Monitoring 9.967 309.6
OP-Z1 15.485 405.4
OP-Z2 12.23 423.5
OP-Z3 13.847 414.1
OP-Z4 7.689 344.9
OP-Z5 18.195 616.7
I.C.U 23.996 1189.9
CATH Heart Zone 23.996 1021.1
Dirt unit 10.929 431.1896
PR-ZONE 2 13.523 439.1
PREP-R-OP 4.865 243.4
Recovery zone 9.831 314.1
Replacing dressing zone 6.831 321
Replacing NR CATH 7.284 347.3
Replacing zone 11.052 396.5
Service + electric 4.011 162
Sterilization 37.33 1225.6
Store 1-OP 2.876 111.5
Store 2-OP 2.479 103.2
Store NR break 5.839 279.3
Sub NR STR 2.654 113
Subway 01 4.089 159.1
Subway 02 9.621 470.1
Subway 03 10.204 400.7
TOTAL 340.432 12912.3

98
 4.4 FCUs and AHUs Selection Summary
In this section FCU and AHU, selection summary will be provided.

4.4.1 Total Summary Parameters

Table 4.9 shows the summary of FCU parameters. We can note from the table that
FCU13 Load has the largest value. That’s because of the large space area. Taking into
account other influencing parameters such as the high wattages electrical equipment in the
Electrical room, on the other hand the FCU02 ventilation has the largest value, due to the
space construction which is exposed to the solar radiations through its windows, also due
to high occupant in such spaces. the total cooling coil will be 113732 W.
Table 4. 9: Summary of FCU Parameters
F.C.U. Spaces Q(W) V(L/s) mw(L/s)
F.C.U. 01 • Break 3 8688 416.8 0.4151
• Break 4
• Break 5
F.C.U. 02 • Break 1 11651 557.6 0.55667
• Break 2
• Store NR break
F.C.U. 03 • Monitoring 9967 309.6 0..47621
F.C.U. 04 • Dressing NR STR 4659 244.3 0.2226
F.C.U. 05 • Fixing NR STR 6904 241 0.32986
• Sub NR STR
F.C.U. 06 • Sub way 01 9621 470.1 0.45968
F.C.U. 07 • Sub way 02 4089 159.1 0.19537
F.C.U. 08 • Sub way 03 10204 400.7 0.48753
F.C.U. 09 • Replacing dressing zone 6831 321 0.3264

F.C.U. 10 • Replacing NR CATH 7284 347.3 0.348

F.C.U. 11 • ICU services rooms 6242 313.15 0.29823

F.C.U. 12 • CATH services rooms 3984 342.17 0.19

F.C.U. 13 • Services room 12556 464 0.59991

• Electric room
• Hall with stair
F.C.U. 14 • Replacing zone 11052 396.5 0.528

99
 Table 4.10 shows the summary of AHU parameters. We can note from the table that
AHU09 Load, and ventilation has the largest value. That’s because of the large space area.
Taking into account other influencing parameters such as the high temperature glassware
washers/autoclaves for sterilization, chemical hoods, water filtration systems, and
refrigerators and/or freezers. Also Sterilization requires that instruments be exposed to
steam at a temperature of 250°F [121°C] or higher for a length of time. Excessive superheat
may result if the sterilizer jacket is maintained at a higher temperature than the chamber or
if there is excessive pressure reduction before the sterilizer connection. [3] the space
construction which is exposed to the solar radiations through its windows also causes
increasing the conditioned air. The total cooling coil will be 201962 W.
Here the method to select FCU from FCU YGFC catalog, according to the cooling coil and
the flow rate as a sample FCU01 has 8688W lays close to Model 3Rows10 with nominal
cooling capacity of 9.07KW. So the rest of them can be obtained.

The AHU11with 22043W lays close to the AHU 2Row section with cooling mode of
22.8 KW. The rest of the AHUs also can be gotten according to their cooling loads.

100
 Table 4. 10: Summary of AHU parameters
A.H.U. Spaces Q(W) V(L/s) mw(L/s)

A.H.U. 01 • OP-Z1 15485 405.4 0.73985

A.H.U. 02 • OP-Z2 12230 423.5 0.58433
A.H.U. 03 • OP-Z3 13847 414.1 0.661586
A.H.U. 04 • OP-Z4 7689 344.9 0.36737
A.H.U. 05 • OP-Z5 18195 616.7 0.86933
A.H.U. 06 • I.C.U. 31777 876.75 1.5183
A.H.U. 07 • Cath heart zone 33535 1118.03 1.6022
• PR-zone 2
A.H.U. 08 • Cath zone 17100 673.63 0.817
• Dirt unit
A.H.U. 09 • Stylization 37330 1225.6 1.78356
A.H.U. 10 • Recovery zone 9831 314.1 0.46971

A.H.U. 11 • Store 1-OP 22043 815 1.0532

• Store 2-OP
• Prep. -R- OP
• Hall near-OP

101
 4.4.2 Rooftop Supply and Exhaust Fan Units Specification
Table 4.11 are representing the actual values of the flow rates, pressure drops, also the
standard values of them which obtained from the Revit software.

Table 4. 11: The actual and standard values of the flow rates, pressure drops of the
rooftop fan units

Roof top fan units Actual Actua Model standard flow Standard
3
flow l rate (m /s) Pressure drop
rate Press (Pa)
(m3/s) ure
drop
(Pa)
Mechanical supply air (1) 1.056 123.64 MUB 042450 EC-A2-k 1.41 250

Mechanical supply air (2) 1.08 314.67 MUB 042450 EC-A2 1.75 560

Mechanical supply air (3) 1.9274 334.62 MUB 062560 EC-A2 3 540

Mechanical supply air (4) 3.04 772.7 MUB 062630 D4-A2 3.89 790
IE2

Mechanical supply air (5) 0.9795 116.3 MUB 042450 EC-A2 1.75 600

Mechanical supply air (6) 1.1859 342 MUB 042450 EC-A2 1.75 430

Mechanical exhaust air (1) 2.8107 349 MUB 062630 D4-A2 3.63 660
IE2

Mechanical exhaust air (2) 1.9485 255.5 MUB 062560 EC-A2 3 500

Mechanical exhaust air (3) 1.7505 276 MUB 062560 EC-A2 3 550

102
The MUB-EC fans are driven by EC-external rotor motors. These are energy
savingmotors with high efficiency. Fans specifications are gotten from systemair catalog
show inTable4.12 . Table 4. 12: Fan specifications
FAN MODEL FLOW (m3/s) ∆P (Pa)

Mechanical supply air (1) MUB 042450 EC-A2-k 1.41 250

Mechanical supply air (2) MUB 042450 EC-A2 1.75 560

Mechanical supply air (3) MUB 062560 EC-A2 3 583.62

Mechanical supply air (4) MUB 062630 D4-A2 IE2 3.89 790

Mechanical supply air (5) MUB 042450 EC-A2 1.75 600

Mechanical supply air (6) MUB 042450 EC-A2 1.75 430

Mechanical exhaust air (1) MUB 062630 D4-A2 IE2 3.63 660

Mechanical exhaust air (2) MUB 062560 EC-A2 3 500

Mechanical exhaust air (3) MUB 062560 EC-A2 3 276

Also, it can be seen that the system characteristics (flow rate, pressure loose) lay very close
from setting number4, so this fan dose not satisfies the needs to overcome the pressure
losses. So move to the air flow rate 1.41 (m3/s) which is selected from technical data Table
4.13 MUB 042 450EC-A-2K. Then selected fans performance chart case (B) is shown in
Figure4.3. It can be seen from that graph that there are four different settings. Also, it can
be seen that the system characteristics (flow rate, pressure losses) lay very close from
setting number 2, so this fan satisfies the needs to overcome the pressure losses. By using
this method, the rest of fans can be obtained from the fan catalogs as labeled above in the
preceding table.

103
 Table 4. 13: technical data for fans

A B

Figure 4. 2: Selected fan performance chart

104
4.5 Supply, Return Diffuser, and Exhaust grille
Table 4.14 is representing a summary of 600X600 diffusers where they are installed in
the large spaces, 450X450 are installed in the small spaces, while the grills are installed in
the operations rooms,

Table 4. 14: Diffuses and Grilles Summary

Type Size (mmXmm) Quantity

Supply diffuser 600X600 10

Supply diffuser 450X450 82

Return diffuser 450X450 45

Exhaust grille 600X600 3

Exhaust grille 400X400 26

Exhaust grille 300X300 4

The way to select the 4 Way Square Diffuser- model 4WS from the catalog is shown
below, according to the flow rate and the throw distance.

105
The exhaust grilles also can be obtained according to the flow rate as shown in next
table

106
4.6 Absorption chiller
According to the total cooling load of the whole 1st floor of USTH that has been
estimated by using the Revit software program which is equal to 340.435KW. So from the
catalog can select Lithium bromide absorption chiller Single effects steam type hot water
inlet /outlet 80-95 0C respectively, with cooling capacity 369KW closes to the required
capacity.
107
 Table 4. 15: Absorption chiller specifications
Item Specifications
Required cooling capacity in kilowatt 369 kW
Entering and Leaving chilled water temperature 7-12 0C
Entering and Leaving cooling water temperature 32-40 0C
Entering and Leaving hot water temperature 80-95 0C
Design ambient temperature 35 0C

4.7 Solar Collector Characteristics

The most important consideration of any solar heating system is to find out the available
solar collectors. The evacuated tube collector (type AP-30) will be adopted in the
calculations of the proposed HVAC system and simulation. It is supplied by Apricus Co.

108
Apricus solar collectors use high efficiency twin-glass evacuated tubes. They are ideal for
cold regions and high temperature applications. The collector performance parameters and
its technical specifications are given in the Table 4.16.
Table 4. 16: Technical specifications of the collector
Apricus AP-30 collector specifications

109
 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This research investigates the potential of selecting an absorption HVAC for the 1st floor
of USTH, Sana’a. Many software computer program have been used in calculating,
designing the ductwork construction, and piping network. Also, the manual method has
been used to compare the results. The total cooling loads of the 1st floor of USTH is
340.43KW (97.3 TR), and total air flow rate is 12912.3 L/s.
The system includes two types of unites which are selected according to the cooling coil
load and the flow rate, eleven AHUs are installed in the most critical spaces such as ICU,
CCU, operations rooms, and sterilization room with total cooling coil load of 201962 W.
While the fourteen FCUs are installed in the other spaces such as the break zones, dressing
room, and the corridors with total cooling coil of 113732 W.
The design includes some points which are studied such as ductwork design with total
area of 1927m2 the duct material used is galvanized steel, the rooftop unites comprises of
six supply fans with total flow rate 13.89L/s, three exhaust fans with 9.63L/s, selection of
diffusers and grills according to the flow rate were done from catalogs. The system will
operate with 100 % capacity in the pipeline network a ANIS SCH 40 steel type was used
because it can handle the high pressure and therefore it has long life and using the maps
the diameters and pressure drop were calculated in the critical path which is equal to 1.69
bar. Selection of water pump (50-160/55) LOWARA is achieved to overcome maximum
head up to 17.3m. The absorption chiller with cooling capacity of 369 KW is selected from
carrier company.
Regarding the analysis presented in this research it can be concluded that solar energy
systems are efficient, cost effective, and friendlier to the environment. The reduction of
GHGs pollution is the main advantage of utilizing solar energy. Therefore, solar cooling
energy systems should be employed whenever possible in order to achieve a sustainable
future.

110
 REFERENCES

[1] Solar Cooling for Industry and Commerce (SCIC) Study on the Solar Cooling Potential
in Jordan
[2] Laleh Hosseini August 2011 Design and Analysis of a Solar Assisted Absorption
Cooling System Integrated with Latent Heat Storage.
[3] HVAC Design Manual for Hospitals and Clinics Second Edition.
[4] Khalid Alshibani, (May 2013), “Yemen's Second National Communication under the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change”.
[5] Roger W. Haines, C. Lewis Wilson - HVAC Systems Design Handbook (2003,
McGraw-Hill Professional)
[6] ASHRAE Handbook. HVAC Systems and Equipment. Atlanta, GA: American Society
of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers; 1996. pp. 1-10
[7] American Society of Heating, Refrigerating & Air-Conditioning Engineers. Heating,
Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning: Systems and Equipment: 2000 ASHRAE Handbook:
Inch-Pound. Amer Society of Heating; 2000
[8] Sugarman SC. HVAC Fundamentals. 2nd ed. CRC Press, The Fairmont Press, Inc.;
2005
[9] American Society of Heating, Refrigerating & Air-Conditioning Engineers. ASHRAE
Handbook. Fundamentals: SI edA. mer Society of HeatingA, tlanta, GA; 2009
[10] Haines RW, Myers ME. HVAC Systems Design Handbook. McGraw-Hill Education;
2010
[11] ASHRAE Handbook. Fundamentals. Atlanta: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers; 2001. p. 111
[12] Mumma SA. Ceiling panel cooling systems. ASHRAE Journal. 2001;43(11):28
[13] Brumbaugh JE. Audel HVAC Fundamentals: Volume 1: Heating Systems, Furnaces,
and Boilers. Vol. 17. Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Wiley Publishing, Inc.; 2004
[14] From HVAC fundamentals/Samuel C. Sugarman pdf50 reference
[15] Deutsches Institut für Normung 1999 March, American Institute of Architects 2006,
American Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers 2003

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[16] American Institute of Architects 2006 and American Society of Heating Refrigerating
and Air-Conditioning Engineers 2003).
[17] (Melhado, Hensen and Loomans, Literature Review of Staff Thermal Comfort and
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[18] (Melhado, Hensen and Loomans, Review of Ventilation Systems in Operating Rooms
in View of Infection Control 2006
[19] (The 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals SI).
[20] HANDBOOK OF AIR CONDITIONING AND REFRIGERATION Shan K. Wang
[21] Heating and air conditioning for residential buildings fifth edition, by Mohammad A.
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[22] The 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment
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[25] Water Piping and Pumps system, by Company Carrier

[26] R. Z. Wang, T. S. Ge, C. J. Chen, Q. Ma, and Z. Q. Xiong, "Solar sorption cooling
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[28] A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate School of Engineering and Sciences of İzmir
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112
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113
 APPENDIX A
SANA’A WEATHER DATA

2017 ASHRAE Handbook - Foundamentals (SI)

SANA'A EL RAHABA, YEMEN (WMO: 414040)

Lat:15.476N Long:44.220E Elev:2206 StdP: 77.48 Time zone:3.00 Period:02-14 WBAN:99999

Annual Heating and Humidification Design Conditions
Humidification DP/MCDB and HR Coldest month WS/MCDB
Heating DB MCWS/PCWD to 99.6% DB
Coldest Month 99.6% 99% 0.4% 1%
99.6% 99% DP HR MCDB DP HR MCDB WS MCDB WS MCDB MCWS PCWD

12 3.8 5.0 -18.0 1.0 16.1 -14.8 1.3 17.6 7.5 20.5 7.1 20.1 1.0 220

Annual Cooling, Dehumidification, and Enthalpy Design Conditions

Cooling DB/MCWB Evaporation WB/MCDB
Hottest Month MCWS/PCWD to 0.4% DB
Hottest Month 0.4% 1% 2% 0.4% 1% 2%
DB Range
DB MCWB DB MCWB DB MCWB WB MCDB WB MCDB WB MCDB MCWS PCWD

6 12.9 30.2 12.6 29.9 12.5 29.2 12.4 16.6 22.3 16.1 22.0 15.7 22.0 5.0 40

Dehumidification DP/MCDB and HR Enthalpy/MCDB

Extreme
0.4% 1% 2% 0.4% 1% 2%
Max WB
DP HR MCDB DP HR MCDB DP HR MCDB Enth MCDB Enth MCDB Enth MCDB

15.0 14.0 18.3 14.2 13.2 18.4 13.7 12.9 18.4 55.7 22.3 54.0 22.2 52.4 22.0 18.9

Extreme Annual Design Conditions

Extreme Annual
n-Year Return Period Values of Extreme Temperature
Temperature
Extreme Annual WS
Standard
Mean n=5 years n=10 years n=20 years n=50 years
deviation
1% 2.5% 5% Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max

8.2 7.2 6.3 DB N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
WB -3.6 17.8 1.8 0.7 -4.8 18.3 -5.9 18.8 -6.9 19.2 -8.1 19.7

Monthly Climatic Design Conditions

Annual Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
DBAvg 19.0 15.1 16.8 18.5 19.7 21.3 22.9 23.4 22.4 20.9 17.2 15.6 14.1
DBStd 3.43 1.60 2.02 1.75 1.30 1.06 1.04 1.20 1.17 1.46 1.33 1.56 1.85
HDD10.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Temperatures, Degree-Days HDD18.3 426 100 49 19 4 0 0 0 0 1 41 82 130
and Degree-Hours CDD10.0 3288 159 189 264 291 352 388 414 384 328 223 168 129
CDD18.3 672 0 6 24 44 93 138 156 126 79 5 0 0
CDH23.3 6819 77 238 382 468 893 1414 1332 1050 784 113 46 23
CDH26.7 1465 1 19 37 47 153 426 419 251 112 0 0 0

Wind WSAvg 2.5 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.4 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.4 2.1 2.0

PrecAvg 194 2 6 21 43 18 11 30 45 4 8 2 2
Precipitation PrecMax 466 45 91 107 161 155 81 102 174 31 166 19 18
PrecMin 73 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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 PrecStd 95 8 16 28 35 29 19 27 36 7 28 5 4

DB 26.2 28.4 28.9 28.9 30.0 31.2 31.2 30.2 29.9 26.1 25.7 25.1
0.4%
MCWB 10.0 11.7 11.6 12.1 12.1 12.9 13.1 13.4 12.8 10.4 10.6 10.6
DB 25.1 27.1 27.8 28.0 29.0 30.2 30.8 29.7 28.9 25.2 24.5 24.0
Monthly Design Dry Bulb and 2% MCWB 9.5 10.8 11.5 11.7 11.8 12.4 12.9 13.3 12.3 10.1 10.6 10.2
Mean Coincident Wet Bulb
Temperatures DB 24.1 26.1 26.8 27.1 28.2 29.9 30.0 29.0 28.0 24.8 23.8 23.1
5%
MCWB 9.7 10.4 11.2 11.6 11.8 12.2 12.6 13.2 12.0 10.0 10.5 9.7
DB 23.1 24.9 25.8 26.1 27.6 29.1 29.1 28.1 27.1 23.9 22.8 22.0
10%
MCWB 9.7 10.5 11.2 11.7 11.7 11.7 12.7 13.3 11.7 9.8 10.2 9.1

WB 13.5 14.2 15.7 16.2 16.7 16.2 17.4 17.2 15.9 14.7 14.0 13.9
0.4%
MCDB 20.9 22.9 22.9 22.0 21.2 23.3 22.6 22.7 22.9 19.1 18.5 22.2
WB 12.3 13.3 14.8 15.5 15.7 15.3 16.6 16.6 15.2 13.5 12.8 13.1
Monthly Design Wet Bulb and 2% MCDB 20.4 21.8 21.8 21.5 21.6 24.0 22.4 22.2 22.7 18.8 19.8 20.6
Mean Coincident Dry Bulb
Temperatures WB 11.7 12.6 14.1 14.8 15.2 14.6 15.9 16.1 14.4 12.0 12.0 12.1
5%
MCDB 20.2 21.5 21.4 21.0 21.3 24.0 22.2 21.6 22.5 21.5 20.0 19.6
WB 10.9 11.9 13.4 14.3 14.5 14.0 15.4 15.7 13.7 10.7 11.3 11.0
10%
MCDB 20.0 21.3 21.0 20.7 21.1 23.8 22.4 21.6 22.6 22.6 20.5 19.4

MDBR 17.1 16.9 15.3 13.8 13.1 12.9 12.1 12.3 13.1 14.1 15.3 17.1
MCDBR 18.0 17.7 16.4 14.8 13.8 13.6 13.0 13.0 13.3 14.6 16.1 17.5
Mean Daily Temperature 5% DB
MCWBR 7.9 7.2 6.5 5.8 5.3 5.3 4.4 4.2 5.1 6.2 7.1 8.0
Range
MCDBR 15.8 16.2 14.1 13.3 12.7 13.0 12.1 12.4 12.7 11.9 14.1 14.9
5% WB
MCWBR 7.2 6.7 5.3 5.0 4.6 5.4 4.2 4.0 5.1 6.2 7.1 8.0

taub 0.332 0.367 0.434 0.452 0.482 0.572 0.647 0.610 0.499 0.375 0.353 0.332
taud 2.383 2.253 2.046 2.013 1.913 1.677 1.581 1.655 1.859 2.207 2.287 2.366
Clear Sky Solar Irradiance
Ebn,noon 961 938 882 861 823 744 692 726 812 917 929 950
Edn,noon 116 138 174 181 197 246 272 255 207 142 126 115

RadAvg 5.62 6.25 6.72 6.89 7.05 6.76 5.83 5.93 6.51 6.54 5.78 5.48
All-Sky Solar Radiation
RadStd 0.17 0.25 0.34 0.29 0.32 0.34 0.26 0.29 0.20 0.20 0.18 0.21

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 APPENDIX B
IMPORTANT TABLES FOR CALCULTIONS
Table B.1 Cooling Load Temperature Difference(CLTD), for convection heat gain rate
for glass windows

Table B .1
CLTDs for glass (From ASHRAE, 1989, with permission.)
The units are degrees fahrenheit; to convert to kelvins, multiply by 5 / 9
Solar
time,
h CLTD, °F
1 1
2 0
3 -1
4 -2
5 -2
6 -2
7 -2
8 0
9 2
10 4
11 7
12 9
13 12
14 13
15 14
16 14
17 13
18 12
19 10
20 8
21 6
22 4
23 3
24 2

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Table B.2 Latitude-Month correction factor LM, values as applied to flat roofs and walls.
Table B.2
CLTD correction for latitude and months, applied to walls and roofs. (From ASHRAE, 1989, with
permission.)
The units are degrees fahrenheit; to convert to kelvins, multiply by 5 / 9

NE / SE /
Lat. Month N NW E/W SW S HOR
16 Dec -4 -8 -4 4 13 -9
Jan / Nov -4 -7 -4 4 12 -7
Feb / Oct -3 -5 -2 2 7 -4
Mar / Sep -3 -2 -1 0 0 -1
Apr / Aug -1 -1 -1 -3 -6 0
May / Jul 4 3 -1 -5 -7 0
Jun 6 4 -1 -6 0 -7

Table B.3 Solar heat gain rate SHG, for sunlit glass windows (W/m2 ), for latitude angle
of 16 0N.
Table B.3
Maximum solar heat gain factor SHG, for sun lighted
glass, north latitudes. (From ASHRAE, 1989, with permission.)
The units are Btu / ( h ft2 ); to convert to W/m2, multiply by 3.155
16°

N NE-NW E-W SE-SW S HOR

Janvier 30 55 210 251 199 248

Février 33 96 231 233 154 275

Mars 35 140 239 197 93 291

Avril 39 172 227 150 45 289

Mai 52 189 215 115 41 282

Juin 66 194 207 99 41 277

Juillet 55 187 210 111 42 277

Août 41 168 219 143 46 282

Septembre 36 134 227 191 93 282

Octobre 33 95 223 225 150 270

Novembre 30 55 206 247 196 246

Décembre 29 41 198 254 212 234

117
 Table B.4 Shading coefficient SC (W/m2. K), for glass windows with interior shading.
Table B.4
Shading coefficient SC and solar transmissivity t for several
conventional glazing types, for winter and summer conditions
(From ASHRAE, 1989, with permission.)
Nominal thickness
Type of glazing SC
of each pane
mm in Winter Summer
Single Glazing
Clear 3 1/8 0.86 1 1
6 1/4 0.78 0.94 0.95
10 3/8 0.72 0.9 0.92
13 1/2 0.67 0.87 0.88

Heat-absorbing 3 1/8 0.64 0.83 0.85

6 1/4 0.46 0.69 0.73
10 3/8 0.33 0.6 0.64
13 1/2 0.24 0.53 0.58

Double glazing
Clear out, clear in 3 1/8 0.71 0.88 0.88
6 1/4 0.61 0.81 0.82
Heat-absorbing out, clear in 6 1/4 0.36 0.55 0.58
Table B.5 The cooling load factor CLF, for glass windows with interior shading

118
Table B.6 Cooling load factor due to occupants (CLF), for sensible heat gain rate.

Table B.7 The number of the people

119
Table B.8 Instantaneous heat gain rate due to occupants in units of wattes per person

120
TABLE B.9 Inside flim resistance Ri, for different material type and heat directions.

TABLE B.10 Outside film resistance Ro, for different material type and wind speeds

121
TABLE B.11 Values of overall heat transfer coefficient Ug, for glass windows, W/m2.k

TABLE B.12 Lighting Power Densities Using the Building Area Method
(source: ANSI/ASHRAE STANDARD 90.1-1999)

122
 Table B.13 Laboratory Equipment
(Source: The 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals SI).

Table B.14 Recommended Heat Gain from Typical Laboratory Equipment

123
 Table B.15 Ventilation Design Parameters
(source: HVAC Design Manual for Hospitals and Clinics Second Edition).

Table B.16 Recommended Maximum Airflow Velocities to Achieve Specified Acoustic

Design Criteria* (Source (15 TO 19): The 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals SI)

124
 Table B.17 Guide for Selecting Low-Pressure System Friction Rate

Table B.18 : Minimum Duct Insulation R-Value,a Cooling and Heating Only Supply
Ducts and Return Ducts

125
Table B.19: Minimum Duct Insulation R-Value,a Combined Heating and Cooling Supply
Ducts and Return Ducts

Table B.20 Insulation Thickness Required to Prevent Surface Condensation

126
Table B.21: FGI Limits for background Noise [source: HVAC DESIGN MANUAL FOR
HOSPITALS AND CLINICS 2nd edition]

127