Chapter 3

Mechanical Design of Transmission Lines

Conductor material, Sag and Corona for Overhead Lines
The overhead line comprises mainly of (i) conductor (ii) supports (iii) insulators and pole
fittings.
Conductor Materials
The conductor is one of the important items as most of the capital outlay is invested for it.
Therefor the proper choice of material and size of conductor is of considerable importance. The
conductor material used for transmission and distribution of electrical power should have the
following properties.
(a) high electrical conductivity
(b) high tensile strength in order to withstand mechanical stresses.
(c) low density so that the weight per unit volume is small.
(d) low cost so that it can be used for long distances
All above requirements are not found in a single material. Therefore, while selecting a
conductor material for particular case, a compromise is made between the cost and the
required electrical, mechanical properties and local conditions.

3.1 Commonly used Conductor Materials

The most commonly used conductor material are for overhead lines are copper, aluminium,
steel-cored aluminium, galvanised steel and cadmium copper. All conductors used for overhead
lines are preferably stranded in order to increase the flexibility. In stranded conductors, there
is generally one central wire and round this, successive layers of wires containing 6, 12, 18,
24…wires. Thus, if there are n layers, the total numbers of individual wires in stranded
conductor is 3n(n+1)+1. In the manufacture of stranded conductors, the consecutive layers of
wires are twisted of spiralled in opposite direction so that the layers are bound together. For
example, If n=1, the number of conductors (or strands) will be 3(1+1)+1=7 as shown in Fig. 1
and for n=2, number of conductor strands (Fig. 2) will be , 3(2+1)+1=19 and so on….

8
19 9

2 10
18
3
2 7
1 11
7 3 17
4
1 6
5 12
6 4 16

5 15 13
14

n=1 n=2
Fig 1: Stranded Conductor, for n=1 Fig 2: Stranded Conductor, for n=2

1
(a) Copper: It used to be excellent material for conductors because of its highest conductivity
95% to 98%, high tensile strength and best resisting properties to corrosion. However, due
to its higher cost and non-availability, it is used rarely for these purposes. It is always used
in hard drawn form as stranded conductor. Although hard drawing decreases the electrical
conductivity slightly but it increases the tensile strength considerably. Now-a-days the
trend is to use aluminium in place of copper.
(b) Aluminium conductor: Aluminium is much cheaper material as compared to copper and
for same resistance, aluminium conductor has 1.6 times the cross-section of copper but the
weight is nearly e 50% less as that of copper. Because of shortage of copper in India, the
use of aluminium in transmission and distribution lines has been adopted.
(c) Galvanised Steel: No doubt it has got the greatest tensile strength but it is least used for
transmission of electrical energy as it has got the highest resistance. Generally galvanized
steel wires are used as earth wire.
(d) Aluminium conductor steel reinforced (A.C.S.R.): Due to low tensile strength, the
aluminium conductor produce greater sag. This prohibits their use for larger spans and
makes them unsuitable for long distance transmissions. In order to increase the tensile
strength, the aluminium conductor is reinforced with a core of galvanised steel wires. It
consists of a steel core surrounded by aluminium strands of wires. The core may have one
or more steel wires and usually the aluminium and steel wires are of the same diameter.
Further the total strength of ACSR conductor is 50% higher to the equivalent copper
conductor and weight is only 75% as such the sag is the lowest with this conductor.
(e) Cadmium Copper
The conductor material now being used in certain cases is copper alloyed with cadmium.
An addition of 1% or 2% cadmium to copper increases the tensile strength by about 50%
and conductivity is only reduced by 15% below that of pure copper. Therefore, cadmium
copper conductor can be useful for exceptionally long spans, however, due to high cost of
cadmium, such conductors will be economical only for lines of small cross section i.e where
the cost of conductor material is comparatively small compared with the cost of supports.

3.2 Calculation of Sag for Equal Height of Towers

Let, the conductor be suspended between point P1 and P2 with O is the lowest point. The curve
will be horizontal at O.
Let, W = weight of conductor per unit y
length P1 P2
P(x,y) be any point on the curve.
The force acting on the portion OP of the Ty
curve (length S) are
(i) H – Horizontal tension at O T
S Tx
(ii) Ws – The weight of wire between OP H
acting vertically downward through O
X

centre of gravity
Ws
(iii) Tension Tx and Ty which are the
components of tension, T in wire.
Let,
2l = span between two supports
S = actual length of conductor
s = length of OP section (conductor)
For equilibrium, the horizontal & vertical components of the forces must balance so

2
H = TX and Ty = WS

dy
Also tan  =
dx
dy Ty
This gives =
dx Tx
H dx dy Ws
=s  = ..............(1)
W dy dx H
From Figure 2
(ds ) 2 = (dx) 2 + (dy) 2
ds dy W 2s2
= 1+ ( ) = 1+
dx dx H2
ds
dx =
W 2s2
1+
H2
Integrating both sides
H Ws
x = ( )sinh −1 ( ) + A
W H
where Ais cons tan t of int egration
when, x = 0, s = 0, then A = 0
H Ws
x = ( ) sinh −1 ( ) + 0
W H
Wx −1 Ws
= sinh
H H
Wx Ws
sinh = sinh sinh −1 (by taking Sin h on both sides )
H H
Wx Ws
sinh = ( sinh sinh −1 = 1)
H H
H Wx
s = sinh
W H
xW Ws
sinh = (2)
H H
dy Ws
= from equation (1) put in equation (2), we have
dx H
dy Wx
= sinh
dx H
Int egrating both sides

Wx
 dy =  sinh H dx

1 Wx
y= cosh + B (const .)
(W / H ) H
H Wx
y = cosh + B (const .) (2)
W H
when, y = 0, x = 0,
H W *0 H
Then , 0 = cosh + B or B = −
W H W

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 Put the value of B in equation (3)
H Wx H
y = cosh −
W H W
H Wx
y = [cosh − 1]
W H
The tensions at po int P is
Wx
T 2 = Tx 2 + Ty 2 = H 2 + W 2 s 2 sin ce Ty = Ws = H sinh
H
Wx
= H 2 + H 2 sinh 2
H
2 Wx Wx Wx
= H [1 + sinh
2
] 1 + sinh 2 = cosh
H H H
Wx
 T = H cosh
H

If P1 and P2 are at same level and half span length is l, the tension P1

Wl
T = H cosh x=l
H

and lenght of line conductor in half span is

H Wx
S = sinh x=l
W H
Also ordinate at P1 & P2 (or the sag )

H Wl
by puting x = l and y = D in y = (cosh − 1)
W H
H Wl
Sag , D = (cosh − 1)
W H
For practical cases when the sag is small compared with span equation may be expressed as
follow

H W 2l 2 W 4l 4
D= [1 + + + ........... − 1]
W 2 H 2 24 H 4
Wl 2
D
2H
S ince T is very nearly equal to H
Therefore, The Sag will be
Wl 2
D= where l = Half Span Length, 2l = Full Span Length
2T

Wl 2
If L = full span length=2l, then half span length l =L/2 now putting it in D = then the Sag will be
2T

W (L/ 2)2
D=
2T
WL2
Sag D = for full length L
8T

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 Now the arc length will be
H Wx
S = sinh
W H
H Wx W 3 x3
= [ + + ...............]
W H 6H 3
W 3 x3
= x+ sin ceT is very nearly equal to H Then
6T 3
W 2l 3
S = x+
6T 2
For half span length x = l
W 2l 3
S =l+
6T 2

Second Method: Consider a conductor suspended between the two equal level support A and
B. The conductor is assumed to be flexible and sags below the level AB due to its own weight.
Though the exact shape of the conductor is that of a catenary but except for lines with the very
length span and large sag it is sufficiently accurate to assume the shape of the hanging
conductor is that of a parabola y = ax2 where ‘a’ is a constant for a conductor and ‘O’ is the origin.
The curve at point ‘O’ being the lowest one will be horizontal. Let the length of span (horizontal
distance between supports) L metres and the weight of conductor be W kg and tension in the
conductor be T kg.

L
A B
N
S (x, y)
O y
T
x

Wx

Fig. :

Consider x meter length of conductor between midpoint ‘O’ and point ‘N’. The external forces
acting in the portion ON of the conductor are
(i) Tension T acting on point ‘O’ and
(ii) The weight of the conductor of x meter length i.e wx acting at x/2 from the point N.
equating the movement of above two forces about the point N.
We get,
𝑥 𝑤𝑥 2
T y= 𝑤𝑥. 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑦= 2𝑇
𝐿
At point B y=D and 𝑥 = 2
𝐿
( )2 𝑤𝐿 2
or Sag, 𝐷 = 2
=
2𝑇 8𝑇

3.3 Calculation of Sag (D) for Support at Different Levels

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Let point P1 and P2 be at different levels from the ground as shown.
Let O’ be the lowest on the curve.
Appling the results already deduced
Wx12
D =
2T
and h
Wx2 2
D2 = D2
2T
Wx 2 Wx 2
D2 − D1 = 2 − 1
2T 2T D1
W O'
D2 − D1 = [ x2 − x1 ]
2 2
x1 x2
2T
W l
D2 − D1 = [ x2 − x1 ][ x2 + x1 ] (i)
2T
But here x2 + x1 = l and D2 − D1 = h
Put in above equation (i)
W (l )
h= [ x2 − x1 ]
2T
2Th
x2 − x1 = (ii)
Wl
x2 + x1 = l (iii)
Solving equations (ii) & (iii)
2Th
x2 − x1 =
Wl
x2 + x1 = l adding
l Th
x2 = +
2 Wl
&
l Th
x1 = −
2 Wl
Thus O can be found out i.e. D 2 & D1 can be determined

Wx12 l Th
D1 = put x1 = −
2T 2 Wl
l Th 2
W( − )
D1 = 2 Wl
2T
and
Wx 2 l Th
D2 = 2 put x2 = −
2T 2 Wl
l Th 2
W( − )
D2 = 2 Wl
2T

3.4 Effect of Ice on Sag

The transmission line running through areas which experience severe winter and snowfall
would be covered with ice at the time of snowfall. The thickness of ice depends upon whether
and also on the size of the conductor. Under worst condition, it is found that the thickness of
ice is 1.27 cm. The effect of ice covering is to increase the weight of the conductor and thus
increase the vertical sag. To guard against this, the tension on the conductors at the time of
erection is suitable increased.

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 If ‘d’ is the diameter of the conductor and ‘t’ is the
thickness of ice, then the overall diameter of the ice t
covered conductor become
D =d +2t and overall area of conductor is (πD2/4),
Therefore, the area of ice coating
 D2  d 2
Aice = −
4 4
 2
= (D − d 2 )
4
If D & d are in metres then this expression is also d

equal to volume of ice in cubic metre per metre

length of the conductor. Taking the weight of ice as D

915 kg/m3. The weight of ice

 2
= ( D − d 2 )  915 kg/ m length length
4
It is obvious that this weight of ice act vertical downward.

3.5 Effect of Wind Pressure on Sag

The wind pressure on the conductor of the transmission line is considered as acting
perpendicular to conductor and taken as pressure on the projected area of the conductors. The
wind pressure is assumed to act on 2/3rd of the projected area for cylindrical surfaces. In case
of towers and Lettice type poles the wind pressure is assumed to act on the surface area of 1.5
times the projected area of one face to allow for the wind action on both the faces.
If d is the diameter of the conductor in meter and P the wind pressure in Kg/m2 then the wind
load per metre of the conductor length (assuming the wind pressure to act on 2/3rd of the
projected area) is 2p(d*1)/3 kg. When the effect of both ice and wind is to be taken d will be
substituted by D = d + 2t where t is the thickness of ice because the wind pressure is assuming
to perpendicular to the conductor. Its effect is only to increase the transverse loading on the
conductors. The maximum wind load varies from 100 km/m2 to 150 km/m2 in this country.
The wind load can also be calculated by applying formula WW = 0.006V2 where WW is load
kg/m2 and the V is the wind velocity in km per hour.
Thus if Wc is the weight of conductor/meter itself

Ww


900

(Wc+Wi)
Wi = ,, ,, ,, ,, ice/meter and
Ww = ,, ,, ,, ,, wind/meter
The resultant weight per meter is given by

WR = (Wc + Wi )2 + Ww 2

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The total sag is worked out for this load on the conductors. To calculate vertical sag the
component of the WR in direction of (Wc + Wi) should be taken into consideration.
❖ The sag with in direction of WR is known as slants sag and
❖ The sag direction of (Wc+ Wi) is known as vertical sag.

3.6 Choice of Span

In the transmission line, for the purpose of economy is required to be constructed at the lowest
possible cost and to achieve the span of the line must be optimum. This will reduce the number
of poles/towers thereby reducing the overall cost of the line. There is no definite mathematical
expression which gives the length of the economic span. While deciding the length various
factors such as voltage, maximum tension on the poles during any part of the year, public safety
and regulation imposed by the government must be kept in mind. The usual spans are
(i) with wooden poles 40 to 50 metres
(ii) with steel tubular poles -50 to 80 meter
(iii) with RCC poles at 80 to 100 meter
(iv) with steel tower 100 to 350 metres
It should be remembered that the wire expends in the summer season and contract in the
winter season thereby decreasing and increasing the tension respectively. In order to keep
insulation cost minimum, the span is greater with increasing voltages.

3.7 Spacing between the Conductors

The most suitable spacing between the conductors can we arrived at by mathematical
calculation. It can only be obtained by empirical formula which have been obtained from
practical consideration. Generally, the following formula are used for obtaining spacing
between the conductors
d
(i) spacing = (0.01Vkv + 1.24 D ) feet
W
Where, Vkv is voltage in KV
d = diameter of conductor in inches.
W = weight of conductor in pound per foot
D = sag in feet.

Vkv2
(ii)spacing = 0.75 D + meter
20, 000

Where D = sag in feet.

(iii) According to German formula the minimum distance between any two Al conductor
Vkv
D+ meter
150
(iv) For copper conductors

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 Vkv
0.75 D + meter
150
The minimum distance between any portion of the tower and conductor =
Vkv
= (0.1 + ) meter
150
This holds good only when V > 15 kV.
In addition, to this the minimum spacing between the lowest part of the conductor and ground
for 100 kV line must 6 metre and when the line cross road etc. This distance should be increased
to 7m. For higher voltage, this distance should be increased according to the formula
VkV − 100
= meter
150
For example, for 220 KV line

220 − 100
Increase in ground clearance = = 0.8 meter
150
Therefore, the ground clearance for 220 KV=6+0.8=6.8m