THC 4
Module 1: Prelim
Unit 1: Introduction to Culture And
Diversity
Anthropologist – a person who studies human
races, origins, societies and cultures
Diversity – the state or fact of being diverse;
difference; unlikeness; variety
Non-instinctive – not prompted by instinct
Instinctive- prompted by natural instinct or
propensity
Instinct- behavior that is meditated by reactions
below the conscious level
CULTURE AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY
Culture defined
Over the past century, anthropologists have
formulated a number of definitions of the concept
of culture. In fact On the often-cited work by Alfred
Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn (1952), more than
160 different definitions of Culture were identified
by different personalities, like:
• British Anthropologist Edward Tylor – Culture
includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law,
custom, and Any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society.
• Downs (1971); Ferraro and Andreatta (2018) –
Culture is a mental map which guides us in our
relations To our surroundings and to other people”
• Ferraro, G. & Andreatta, S. (2018). – Culture is
everything that people have, think, and do as
members Of a society.”
Have = material objects
Think = ideas, values, attitudes
Do = behavior patterns
» Material objects:
In United States, American young adults must
Learn to use and have computers in order to
survive College and business. This is in contrast
with the material culture in Yanomamo society in
the Amazon where young adults must learn to
build and possess weapons and hunt.
» Ideas, Values and Attitudes:
In the United States people place a high value on
individuality and independence. In contrast, Many
other cultures are collectivist, meaning the welfare
of the group and group relationships are
A primary value. One perfect example is the
Bayanihan of the Philippine culture.
»Behavior patterns:
The way people give their greetings is a perfect
example.
- In Africa, handshakes should be firm and
often prolonged; in Middle East,
handshakes are Softer;
- In Thailand, Thais greet one another with a
wai-bow, elbows in, hands clasped as if in
Prayer;
- In Japan, handshake is acceptable although
some Japanese accompany this with a slight
bow;
- Latin Americans and Brazilians are
demonstrative in their greetings. A firm
handshake is Appropriate on an initial
meeting but once a friendship has been
established, men will Greet male friends
with a hug and sometimes, even a kiss on
the cheek.
- Air kissing is appropriate in Argentina, Chile,
Peru and Colombia for a man greeting a
Woman (whom he already knows) and a
woman greeting another woman.
- Venezuela and Mexico are more formal;
stick to handshakes unless you are greeting
a Very close friend.
Humans are born without any cultural knowledge.
However, they are genetically predisposed to
rapidly learn language and other cultural traits.
New born humans are amazing learning machines.
Any normal baby can be placed into any family on
earth and grow up to learn their culture and accept
it as his or her own. Since culture is non-
instinctive, we are not genetically programmed to
learn a particular one. The culture that you will
learn will always depend on where and how you
were raised and who raised you.
In simple terms, Culture is circle of religion, food ,
what we wear, how we wear it, our language,
Marriage, music, what we believe is right or wrong,
how we sit at the table, how we meet visitors, how
we behave With some ones, and million other
things.
The outlook, attitudes, values, morals, goals, and
customs shared by a society all are include in
culture. Culture is a complex concept which
impacts virtually every aspect of our lives both
consciously and subconsciously.
Other examples of culture:
1. In France, people tend to enjoy a cheese
tasting plate accompanied by a good red
wine after meals.
2. In Japan, slurping the soup loudly means it
is a sign of approval and appreciation of
someone’s cooking. Their handshakes are
traditionally limp, a little or no eye contact
3. In Malaysia, people are prohibited from
wearing yellow clothing
Cultural Diversity
Diversity is nothing more than a difference from
the majority. Cultural diversity therefore means the
wide range of cultural differences found between
and within nations. It is also the cultural variety and
cultural differences that exist in the world, a society
or an institution or the inclusion of diverse people
in a group or organization.
Imagine yourself working in an organization
together with other people from different places.
Example, you are from Bacolod City working in a
cruise ship together with Americans, Europeans,
Africans, Malaysians, Japanese and etc. then there’s
cultural diversity in your workplace.
Therefore culture is considered as a tool for survival
because you have to learn to adapt to the different
cultures that you encounter for you to survive.
Culture – the set of shared attitudes, values, goals,
and practices that characterizes an institution or
organization
Diversity – the state or fact of being diverse;
difference; unlikeness; variety
Cultural Diversity – people with different cultures
gathered in one place
CULTURES AROUND THE GLOBE
Different cultures
Now that culture is defined and cultural diversity is
explained, following are different cultures around
the globe for you to compare and contrast to
further understand culture and cultural diversity:
GREETING PEOPLE
Thailand
Greetings: Thais greet one another With a wai-bow,
elbows in, hands clasped as if in prayer
Dos: Fingertips should be below the chin for equals,
in front of nose for seniors and at eye level for
those with the highest standing
Don’ts: Do not wai to shopkeepers or anybody
serving you, children or other foreigners (smile is
enough)
Japan
Greetings: Handshake is acceptable although some
Japanese accompany this with a slight bow
Dos: Limp handshake; little or no eye contact; have
your business card ready and present it with both
hands with a bow before shaking hands
Don’ts: grip someone’s hand too hard, pump it,
Slap them on the shoulder, grab their arm
Africa
Greetings: Firm and often prolonged handshake. In
Namibia, thumbs are locked in the middle of the
handshake
Dos: In Muslim areas, touch your left hand to your
chest as you shake hands, as a sign of additional
deference.
Don’ts: offer a limp grip, pull hand away, if you’re a
male, don’t try to shake a woman’s hand unless she
extends hers
Middle East
Greetings: Handshakes are softer. As you shake
hands, say “As-salaam alaykum” (peace be upon
you). The response is “wa alaykum as-salaam”
(peace be upon you too)
Dos: Adapt to the softer style of handshake, If you
are female, greeting a muslim male, it is acceptable
to put your hand over your heart and say hello, if
you are male, do allow a close Arab friend to
embrace You; it is not uncommon for men to hug
and kiss one another on the cheeks.
Don’ts: Attempt to shake the hand of a muslim
woman unless you are female. Do not end the
handshake before your counterpart does.
Latin America
Greetings: Latin Americans and Brazilians are
demonstrative in their greetings.
initial meeting: firm handshake
established friendship: hug and sometimes, a kiss
on the cheek. air kissing is appropriate in Argentina,
Chile, Peru and Colombia for a man greeting a
woman (whom he already knows) and a woman
greeting another woman. Venezuela and Mexico
are more formal; stick to handshakes unless you
are greeting a very close friend.
Dos: Air kiss on the left side first. learn the special
rules for Brazil; one kiss in São Paolo; two in Rio.
Don’ts: Make actual contact during an air kiss
beyond cheek to cheek. don’t shrink away from a
hug, either; it has no romantic connotations
whatsoever.
Philippines
Greetings: When greeting strangers, a soft
handshake accompanied with a smile is common
among men. Among women, a smile and a hand
wave is the usual greeting.
Dos: Smile when meeting people. filipinos are
renowned for being joyful people who try to show
warmth where they can.
Don’ts: Don’t greet someone older by calling them
with their names. it is considered disrespectful.
You could use “kuya” for men
older than you, and “ate” for women older than
you.
ENJOYING FOOD/ HAVING A MEAL
India – Indians traditionally eat with hands. Some
say it is more delicious to do so, perhaps due to the
ability to personally mix your food and curries to
your precise taste.
Always eat with your right hand only – eating with
your left is considered disrespectful and unhygienic.
As a rule of thumb, make sure not to have any food
touch your palms, and do not put your fingers into
your mouth. Instead use your thumb to push the
food into your mouth
China – Use chopsticks. When eating with
chopsticks, makes sure not to use it to point, tap,
suck the tips, or use it upside down (it’s really
easier than it sounds). Also, a big no-no is sticking it
vertically into your rice bowl, especially if you are
with a superstitious crowd, as this mimics
the use of traditional incense used to honour the
dead.
Japan – In Japan (and in some local Japanese
restaurants), before sitting down to a meal, fresh
hot towels called oshibori are given out for patrons
to clean their hands with. When your orders arrive,
it is also polite to utter the phrase “itadakimasu“,
which means “I graciously receive” or can be
thought of as a version of the French’s “bon apetit“.
In Japan, it is customary to slurp your noodle soup
as loud as you can when eating your noodle soup
or ramen. It serves as a display of enjoyment as
well as supposedly enhancing the flavours of the
soup as you consume it.
Iran/Middle East – In the Middle East, in general, it
is not uncommon to eat with your hands.
In Iran, bread is commonly served whole on the
centre of the table (sometimes directly on the
table), and guests are expected to help themselves
to the bread using their hands.
Sometimes, accompanying side dishes are also
served at the centre of the table. Tear small pieces
of the bread and use the bread to scoop up the
accompanying dishes. Do not lick or put your
fingers in your mouth when eating with your hands.
Britain – Dinner may not be the dinner that you
and I know (assuming you’re a Malaysian reading
this). Depending on which part you are visiting in
England, the term “dinner” can refer to the
afternoon meal, or lunch as some of us know it.
What we know as dinner is sometimes called tea or
supper, depending on how late it is consumed.
Supper is generally a lighter meal taken later in the
evening.
In some parts, the term “dinner” is used for the
biggest and most important meal of the day,
whether afternoon or evening and the distinction
does not matter.
So if your British counterpart invites you out for
dinner, make sure to ask what time of the day that
means.
South Korea – In Korea, respect for the elders is a
key element to keep in mind. Before beginning a
meal, make sure the seniors and elders on the table
have begun eating first.
Unlike China and Japan, holding your rice bowl in
your hand while eating is not a norm here unless
you are receiving food that is being served to you.
When receiving food or drink served to you, you
should hold your bowl or glass with two hands to
be polite.
Russia – Russians eat lunch as " main and heaviest
meal, sometime between 1pm to 3pm.
For dinner, their meals are typically lighter and
sometimes consist of a simple breads, meats, and
vegetables. Tea is usually served after the dinner.
When drinking vodka in Russia, drink it plain,
without any mixers or ice. Mixing vodka with
anything else is considered to be ruining the purity
of the alcohol.
Philippines –Filipinos eat most of the time. There is
breakfast, morning snack, lunch, afternoon snack,
dinner and midnight snack. Rice doesn’t go away
with meals and usually Filipinos eat with their
hands especially when eating seafoods, fried foods
and alike, though spoon and fork are commonly
used. “Sawsawan” or condiments is also very
common.
Other cultures from different countries
In order not to be considered disrespectful or rude
when you’re visiting another country, learn some of
The unique cultural traditions and customs around
the world.
1.Choose the flowers you give to a Russian
Yellow – represents a break-up of a relationship or
deceit. also, Red carnations are taboo as well
because these are flowers presented to veterans
who survived the war and on the graves of those
who have left this earth.
2.Be careful of what you give to Chinese colleagues
avoid using white flowers (associated with ghosts
and death). Likewise, avoid flowers with thorny
stems. Other things that are not good gifts for the
Chinese are:
⟩ Clock. Its name in Chinese (sòng zhōng, meaning
send clock) sounds like sòng zhōng or funeral rite. It
is also taken to mean that time is running out, or
life and relationship can end.
⟩ Handkerchief .–In Chinese, it sounds like a
farewell greeting.
⟩ Umbrella. Offering or giving your Chinese friend
or colleague an umbrella is a subtle hint of ending a
relationship. You can share your umbrella but you
have to take it back with you.
⟩ Gifts that come in sets of four. The number 4 is
associated with death.
⟩ Straw sandals, shoes. It is also taken to mean that
you want to part ways.
⟩ Green hat. Green is considered lucky by other
people because it is the color of money. For the
Chinese however, a green hat means that the wife
is being unfaithful.
3.Don’t ask for salt when dining in Egypt
If you are dining with friends and colleagues in
Egypt, keep in mind to avoid asking for salt. It is
taken as an insult to the host, as Egyptians take it to
mean that you are repulsed by the taste of the
meal served to you.
4.A question of being punctual
•Venezuelans – it is a norm to arrive about 10 to 15
minutes late for a dinner invitation. Being early for
the Venezuelans means the person is either overly
eager or greedy
•Americans – punctual, just like the Germans,
South Koreans and The Japanese.
•Malaysians – five minutes late (which can actually
extend to 60 minutes) is acceptable and you do not
need to apologize, too.
•Moroccan – totally all right to be late for an hour
or an entire day!
•Chinese – okay with 10 minutes late
•Mexicans and Greeks – will excuse you if you
arrive 30 minutes after the appointed time.
5.Mind your table manners in Norway
In some cultures, it is acceptable to eat food with
your bare hands. But as etiquette would have it, it
is often required that you use utensils such as a
spoon and fork, chopsticks, or spoon, knife and fork
when having a meal. Be sure to brush up on how to
eat with a knife and fork before you travel to
Norway. In this Scandinavian country, even
sandwiches are eaten using a fork and a knife.
6. “No” to sharp objects
~Netherlands and China– giving pointed and sharp
objects to your friends or colleagues in the
Netherlands (and in China) is a big no-no.
~Dutch – sharp objects are considered unlucky gifts
~Chinese – giving sharp objects mean you want to
break or cut ties with them.
7.Losing a tooth in Greece
For many cultures, children are told to keep their
baby teeth under their pillow and the Tooth Fairy
will give them money in exchange for their teeth.
But Greek children are told to toss their tooth onto
their roofs. The cultural tradition is meant for the
child to have a healthy tooth as well as good luck to
the family.
8.Say cheers but don’t clink glasses in Hungary
It’s almost customary when sharing a drink
especially when there is a celebration to say
Cheers and clink your glasses. But the traditional
practice is not done in Hungary. You see,
Hungarian forces were severely and savagely
defeated during their war with Austria in
1849 and they witnessed Austrian generals
celebrating the occasion by drinking beer and
clinking their glasses. Hungarians swore not to clink
their glasses when having a drink for
150 years. The vow ended in 1999 but a majority of
Hungarians continues the cultural tradition.
9.Choose the right occasion to discuss business in
Bolivia
If you are in Bolivia to discuss business and your
time is limited, it will still be considered rude to
discuss business during a dinner party or any social
occasion. Bolivians believe that a dinner is for
improving personal relationships. If you are invited
to a business lunch or dinner, do not bring up the
topic of business on the table, unless your Bolivian
host is the first to bring it up. Otherwise, simply
savor the meal and foster better relations
with your Bolivian host by talking about family.
10.Don’t try to ”go Dutch” in Turkey
In some cultures, it is acceptable to split the meal
tab even if the lunch or dinner is given in your
honor, but this is not acceptable when you are in
Turkey. Offering to pay for half of the meal is
considered polite, but your host will be offended if
you insist. It is all right to reciprocate by inviting
your host to a follow-up meal so you can have your
turn to pay for the lunch or dinner.
11.Avoid using red ink for writing names of your
friends in South Korea
for South Koreans , you can use other colors except
red because for them red
ink symbolizes death.
12.trip to the sauna in Finland
For many people, going to the sauna is a personal
thing. A trip to the sauna is a favorable way to
relieve stress and relax. It is also one way to
socialize. The Finns think the same way, but if your
business client or counterpart invites you to the
sauna after your meeting, do not be alarmed. This
means that your business meeting is successful.
13. Where do you sit when taking a taxi?
In movies and pictures, it is customary to see
people taking a ride in a taxicab sitting in the back
of the vehicle. Your Etiquette 101 class might have
taught you that it is the proper way to ride a taxi if
you are the only one in It. But in Australia, it is
considered snobbish to sit at the back. Australians
often sit in front with the taxi driver.
14.Greeting a magpie on its own in the UK
In many parts of the United Kingdom, it is
customary for people to greet a lone magpie to
avoid having bad luck.
15.Birthday greetings in the Netherlands
You would not feel lonely when you celebrate your
birthday in the Netherlands. In this country, it is a
tradition to greet the person celebrating the
birthday as well as the person’s family and other
relatives.
16.Finger-pulling in Austria
You might wonder when you see Austrian men
engaged in finger-pulling. It is actually a serious
traditional sport and the rules of the game are
quite strict. The game is called Fingerhakeln (finger-
pulling), which is like a mini version of tug-of-war.
The objective is the same, to drag the opponent by
the finger across the table. Bavaria
also plays this sport.
17.The dangers of remaining single after age 25
In some cultures, it is a tradition for families to
marry off their children at a very young age. In
several modern countries where people have more
freedom, it is up to them to decide if they want to
marry or not and at what age. But in some
countries, friends and families can be “cruel.”
*In Germany for example, a person who’s still single
at age 25 is showered by friends with cinnamon
powder throughout the day. It is worse if the
person is still single at 30 because they use pepper
instead.
*In France, people buy funny hats for their 25-year
old single friends on November 25, which is Saint
Catherine’s Day.
18. Shoving your face on your birthday cake
In Mexico shoving of face on birthday cake is a
cultural tradition, so the birthday celebrant does
not have any reason to get angry. It even follows a
process. The cake is brought out and presented to
the person celebrating the birthday. Guests sing the
birthday song and the candle is blown. The birthday
girl or boy takes a bite of the cake and as expected,
someone will definitely shove her or his face on the
cake
19.Wife-carrying is a competitive sport in Finland
Who would believe that carrying your wife would
be considered a sport? In Finland, wife-carrying or
eukonkanto in Finnish is even an endorsed sport
and couples from other countries travel each year
to Sonkajarvi to participate in the activity that
started in the 19th century. Since 1992, it has been
called the Wife Carrying World Championships.
The prize is beer, with the amount corresponding to
the weight of the wife.
Since 2005, the game has been held in other
countries, such as Australia, United States, United
Kingdom and Asia.
INFLUENCE OF CULTURAL DIVERSITY ON
TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY
Workplace culture in an important factor to all
workplaces. It determines how pleasant or toxic
your work environment is. It has a direct influence
on how your employee fits into the organisation
and your organization’s ability to attract and retain
employees because it shapes the environment that
they work in. From the time of initial application,
through to the hiring process and finally through to
the few weeks on the new job, both the hirer and
new employee attempt to confirm whether they
are the right cultural fit for one another. This is a
lengthy process, and is often viewed as a time-
consuming process and a waste of company
resources. However, the outcome shows how large
of an influence workplace culture has for the
employer and employee.
In the Hospitality and Tourism Industry,
stakeholders include travelers which means we deal
with different kind of people from different cultures
coming from different countries. Out of all the
industries, Hospitality and Tourism Industry is
mostly influenced by cultural diversity.
Hospitality and Tourism Industry offers leisure and
recreations, food and accommodation that are all
sought after by travellers. People from countries
experiencing winter are travelling to countries that
are in summer or sunny day season so they can
enjoy the sun and go away with the coldness of the
snow. In short, people travel so they go across
different cultures and as for those working in the
Hospitality Industry, we encounter different types
of people.
Having different cultures as employees in a hotel
would have a positive effect on the company
because you have different types of people ready
to accommodate guests who are also people of
different types. Let’s say a hotel in New York is
having a Filipino guest, the manager could ask
Filipino employees to take care of them because
Filipinos know exactly how to deal with fellow
Filipinos. Same goes with other nationalities.
IMPORTANCE OF CULTURAL DIVERSITY ON
TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY
We might think that having diverse culture in the
workplace would be really hard since you think and
act differently but actually it is important because
of the following:
1. Opportunity for employees and tourists
alike to engage in new cultural experiences
and gain insights into how other people live.
2. Appreciate cultural differences. You have
the opportunity to learn to love other
cultures amidst your differences.
3. Reinforcement and encouragement in
understanding the different cultures and
cultural backgrounds
4. Enhances hospitality by giving staff
invaluable contact with varied cultural
backgrounds
5. Promotes equal employment opportunity
Unit 2: Effective Cross-cultural
Communication
Etiquette – is the set of conventional rules of
personal behavior in polite society, usually in the
form of an ethical code that delineates the
expected and accepted social behaviors that accord
with the conventions and norms observed by a
society, a social class, or a social group
Slang – is a type of language that consists of words
and phrases that are regarded as very informal, are
more common in speech than writing, and are
typically restricted to a particular context or
group of people. “grass is slang for marijuana”
Efficacious- having the power to produce a desired
effect
Humour- funny or amusing quality
CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
CHALLENGES
Having diverse cultures in one place, we can for
sure expect some challenges that we may
encounter and we categorize it to the following:
Categories:
 Language Barriers
 Psychological Barriers
 Physiological Barriers
 Physical Barriers
 Systematic Barriers
 Attitudinal Barriers

Language Barriers
Language and linguistic ability may act as a barrier
to communication. However, even when
communicating in the same language, the
terminology used in a message may act as a barrier
if it is not fully understood by the receiver(s). For
example, a message that includes a lot of specialist
jargon and abbreviations will not be understood by
a receiver who is not familiar with the terminology
used.
Incorporating it in the Hospitality Industry:
For example, you work in a restaurant and you have
a foreign guest. By the time the guest sits down,
you offered him “omakase”. There is a possibility
that the guest won’t understand you, not everyone
knows what omakase is. Instead, you may ask
“would you like to choose from our menu or would
you like to try what we have to offer, our specialty
(which is called omakase, it means the chef gets to
choose what to offer to the guest)
Psychological Barriers
The psychological state of the communicators will
influence how the message is sent, received and
perceived.
For example, If someone is stressed they may be
preoccupied by personal concerns and not as
receptive to the message as if they were not
stressed. Anger is another example of a
psychological barrier to communication. When we
are angry it is easy to say things that we may later
regret, and also to misinterpret what others are
saying.
Incorporating it in the Hospitality Industry:
If you work in the front office department, you
have to be alive and alert all the time. Take for
example, you are on morning shift and you haven’t
slept all night because you had a quarrel with your
boyfriend. The next day, all guest inquiries are
coming and you don’t know how to answer
because your mind is somewhere else. Also, you
forgot some of the endorsements from other
departments because you lost focus.
Physiological Barriers
Physiological barriers to communication may result
from the receiver’s physical state.
For example, a receiver with reduced hearing may
not fully grasp the content of a spoken
conversation especially if there is significant
background noise.
Incorporating it in the Hospitality Industry:
There is one restaurant here in Bacolod and it’s a
perfect example. Their workers are mute and
deaf and there are times when they misunderstand
the orders of their customers.
Physical Barriers
An example of a physical barrier to communication
is geographic distance between the sender and
receiver(s).
Communication is generally easier over shorter
distances as more communication channels are
available and less technology is required. The ideal
communication is face-to-face.
Incorporating it in the Hospitality Industry:
If you are assigned in the reservations department,
you will get plenty of calls from different places,
some are from other countries. They will either
contact you through phone or computer by call,
chat or text messages. With that, there is a
possibility of some misunderstanding.
Systematic Barriers
Systematic barriers to communication may exist in
structures and organisations where there are
inefficient or inappropriate information systems
and communication channels, or where there is a
lack of understanding of the roles and
responsibilities for communication. In such
organizations, people may be unclear of their role
in the communication process and therefore not
know what is expected of them.

Incorporating it in the Hospitality Industry:
There are standard operating procedures in
different establishments that you need to follow.
One challenge in interdepartmental communication
is when some scenarios happen like this: there is a
guest complaint about defective furniture in the
room so he called the front office department to
complain. The process should be
If it was done differently, possible
miscommunication will happen.
Attitudinal Barriers
Attitudinal barriers are behaviours or perceptions
that prevent people from communicating
effectively. Attitudinal barriers to communication
may result from personality conflicts, poor
management, and resistance to change or a lack of
motivation. To be an effective receiver of messages
you should attempt to overcome your own
attitudinal barriers to help ensure more effective
communication.
Incorporating it in the Hospitality Industry:
For example, you are a Filipino working in a hotel in
America as a front desk clerk. Most of the bosses
there tend to shout when an employee erred. If it
happens that your boss shouts at you for forgetting
to write down your endorsement, you might react
in a way that your mind is thinking things like “I
don’t care”, “you’re my boss but you can never
control my life”, “I could leave your company
anytime” and with that, you might not understand
a word he says and miss his point.
Module 2: Midterm
Unit 3: Managing Conflict of Diverse
Culture in a Workplace
Conflict – to be different, opposed, or
contradictory: to fail to be in agreement or accord
Prejudice – preconceived judgement or opinion; an
adverse opinion or leaning formed without just
grounds or before sufficient knowledge
Denomination – a religious organization whose
congregations are united in their adherence to its
beliefs and practices
Anecdote – a usually short narrative of an
interesting, amusing, or biographical incident
Circumlocutions – the use of an unnecessarily large
number of words to express an idea
Consensus – the judgement arrived at by most of
those concerned
CONFLICTS IN THE WORKPLACE AND HOW
TO HANDLE THEM
Conflicts
When everyone’s trying to work together, finding a
common platform can be a challenge. But in order
to be a successful organization, working well as a
team is a must. While America’s culturally diverse
workforce has strength because of all the views and
perspectives different people bring to their
organizations, differences sometimes cause gaps,
frustrations and conflict. The key, of course, is to
find ways to overcome these challenges.
Prejudice
Unfortunately, people have their biases and
prejudices about different races and ethnic groups.
Sometimes they keep their views to themselves,
but sometimes they let them slip through their
words or conduct. In some cases, even jokes can
come across wrong and create offense. Many
companies have diversity training to address such
situations and behaviors. Additionally, it’s
important to realize that prejudices run in all
directions. Many times, minority groups have
biases and stereotypes of their own—including
some about other minorities.
Incorporating it in the Hospitality Industry:
For example you work in a hotel in US and you have
an American guy working same shift with
you in the housekeeping department. Before even
getting to know him, you already thought “for sure,
he’s lazy because he’s a guy and he’s American”.
That’s prejudicing, you already thought of him
based on his gender and nationality.
Cultural Gaps
People come with different perspectives, social
styles, approaches, senses of propriety and
communication styles. As cultures mix in the
workplace, employees and managers can get
frustrated when communication becomes difficult
or when social styles don’t mix easily with a
company’s culture. Different cultures can be more,
or less, deferential to authority or have higher or
lesser degrees of autonomy in the workplace,
which can differ from a company’s needs.
Resolution often requires open exchanges and a
process of learning on the part of employee, co-
workers and managers. Everyone needs to
understand and respect the perspectives of others
in order to find a workable common ground.
Incorporating it in the Hospitality Industry:
Imagine you are working as a waitress in a cruise
ship and you work with different races –American,
Indian, Malaysian, Australian, etc. For sure you
would expect that there will be faction
because of the variety of nationalities. Asians
would group together and Europeans would be a
different group so on and so forth. If they won’t
openly welcome each other and respect each
other, then the faction will remain and teamwork
would be affected thus affecting group
performance.
Language
Diversity often brings people whose first language
isn’t english. In some cases, language can be a
genuine impediment to doing a job and an
employee must be assisted to improve his or her
language skills. From a different angle, when
someone speaks English well, it can be easy to
forget it’s not native for them. Teams have to be
careful with slang and colloquialisms that non-
native speakers might not understand. Likewise, in
bilingual workplaces, employees must be careful
not to say anything in one language that they
wouldn’t say in another. It can be damaging and
disrespectful if a second language becomes a
“code” to keep co-workers from understanding
conversations.
Incorporating it in the Hospitality Industry:
If you are working in a restaurant abroad, let’s say
in Middle East, not all people are speaking
good English. If you are assigned in the kitchen and
you don’t speak the same language, your chives
might turn into parsley or your bell pepper might
turn into peppercorn or the like.
Religion
Although Philippines is a catholic country, many
denominations are present. People don’t always
understand each others’ belief systems, which can
cause stereotypes and biases that create hurt
and even legal liability if they leak out in the
workplace.
Incorporating it in the Hospitality Industry:
In different companies, including hotels, spiritual
activities are also being executed. One example is
the first Friday mass. Not all workers are catholic.
There are also other s that are having prayer
meeting in their resort, not all workers may
participate because of different views in religion.
Gender
Companies can also face civil suits for
discrimination and sexual harassment. Smart
employers not only have policies on sexual
harassment and gender discrimination, but also
provide training on these issues to ensure a
respectful, comfortable workplace in which
everyone feels valued and has equal opportunity.
Incorporating it in the Hospitality Industry:
There are restaurants who only want to hire men
since they believe that only men are strong enough
to carry heavy trays in serving food or clearing
tables. Others also are hiring women as cashier
because they believe only women are smart
enough for this job
How to resolve conflict at work
It’s fair to assume that nobody likes living in a state
of conflict in the workplace. Conflict is wearing and
demoralizing. But how to manage it – and how to
perceive it – depends on the culture of the
individuals concerned. Developing cultural
awareness could help reduce conflict in
multicultural teams.
Individualists and low-context communicators – in
other words, people from the United States,
Australia, the Netherlands, the UK, Germany and
Scandinavia – accept that conflict is a part of life.
Not necessarily a welcome one, but something that
can be handled. Conversely, people from high-
context, collectivist countries and regions like
China, Japan, Arab nations, Greece, Latin America
and India, have a strong sense of ‘face’. Emphasis is
placed on harmony, and getting along, and to be in
conflict with someone is a sign of social failure.
Either way, conflict that doesn’t evaporate on its
own needs to be addressed. Here are some
pointers on dealing with disagreements and
disputes in a multicultural team.
1. Recognize when something is wrong
not all cultures wear their hearts on their sleeves
and often, it is up to a team leader to spot when
something is wrong, as team members will keep
problems to themselves. Individuals may blame
others, or the system, for their mistakes. A team
with a foreign manager may adopt passive
aggressive behavior, like speaking to one another in
their own language or dialect in front of that
manager. A team member who continually greets a
manager or colleagues with silence is probably
harboring a grievance.
2. Listen
Don’t just listen to the words people are saying;
people from some cultures, like Japan or China,
may struggle to articulate their feelings, as
discussing one’s feelings in public is not done.
Look for non-verbal clues that an individual is
unhappy: body language like fidgeting, slumped
posture, continually crossed arms and lack of
eye contact.
3. Look beyond
Don’t see everything through the lens of your own
culture – and bear in mind that the people
who are involved in the conflict may be operating
not just from the point of their own culture,
but a corporate culture, or a culture common to
their profession. Try to understand what their
expectations are, and what they see as normal
behavior.
4. Don’t assume
The conflict may not be the result of cultural
difference; it could be the result of a clash between
genders, or generations. Conflicts like these may
occur in countries where, for example, seniority is
valued, like Asian nations, or parts of Africa, and a
younger manager is brought in to manage an older
team. Or in traditionally more male-orientated
Societies, like Muslim cultures, where perhaps
female managers are a relatively new
phenomenon, and may struggle to earn the respect
of a male team. Conflict within what an ex-pat
manager sees as one single cultural group could be
tribal, or political, or related to social class, or
caste.
5. Empathize
Try to imagine, in the context of their culture, how
each individual feels and try to encourage them to
do the same. For example, if team member A
berates colleague B for missing a deadline and the
two get into an argument, try to get the individuals
to look a little deeper. Did B miss the deadline
because of some external factor? Or because they
are a perfectionist, or the deadline was unrealistic?
did A get annoyed because missing the deadline
had knock-on implications for them? Or because
they thought B hadn’t taken it seriously enough
and took that personally? Think of culture as an
iceberg: 90% of an individual’s conditioning and
culture is hidden below the surface.
6. Know when to step in
In some cultures, individuals expect to be able to
solve most conflicts by themselves. In Israel, for
example, or the United States, or Germany, or
Scandinavian countries, people are conditioned to
speak up for themselves, to problem-solve and to
say what they’re thinking. In cultures like South
Korea, the hierarchy will usually resolve a conflict;
the structure is so entrenched that the senior
person in a dispute will pull rank. In cultures where
harmony is the main goal, like India, or China, or
Kenya, situations can simmer as workers try to
maintain the status quo while still harboring
resentment about whatever the conflict is.
7. Mediate
If individuals clearly can’t solve a problem
themselves, the most common approach, however
informal, is to introduce a third
party to mediate. But even this role varies between
cultures. Individualist cultures welcome an
independent mediator – an HR Person, or a
qualified mediator, who will simply listen while the
individuals talk through the situation. Collectivist
cultures prefer a mediator who is known to both
parties, and respected, so
Perhaps a senior manager, or a tribal elder, or
religious leader, and that individual is expected to
guide the mediation and help the individuals come
up with a solution.
NEGOTIATIONS AND CULTURAL
DIFFERENCES
Negotiating: The Top Ten Ways that Culture Can
Affect Your Negotiation
These “top ten” elements of negotiating behaviour
constitute a basic framework for identifying cultural
differences that may arise during the negotiation
process. Applying this framework in your
international business negotiations may enable you
to understand your counterpart better and to
anticipate possible misunderstandings. This article
discusses this framework and how to apply it.
1. Negotiating goal: Contract or relationship?
»Some cultures’ priority goal in making a deal is
signing of contract while others prioritize first their
relationship with the other parties.
2. Negotiating attitude: Win-Lose or Win-Win?
»Because of differences in culture, personality, or
both, business persons appear to approach deal
making with one of two basic attitudes: win-win or
win-lose.
3. Personal style: Informal or formal?
»In negotiating, depending on their culture, they
could go formal or informal.
Formal Informal
–Example are Germans –Example are Americans
–addressing –calls the other party on a
counterparts by their first-name basis, quickly
titles, avoids personal develops personal and
anecdotes and refrains friendly relationship, and
going personal become too comfortable
with his outfit like taking
off jacket and rolling up
sleeves.
However, each culture has its own formalities with
their own special meanings. They are another
means of communication among the persons
sharing that culture, another form of adhesive that
binds them together as a community.
As a general rule, it is always safer to adopt a
formal posture and move to an informal stance, if
the situation warrants it, than to assume an
informal style too quickly
4. Communication: Direct or indirect?
»Methods of communication vary among cultures.
It could be direct or indirect
*The confrontation of these styles of
communication in the same negotiation can lead to
friction. For example, the indirect ways Japanese
negotiators express disapproval have often led
foreign business executives to believe that their
proposals were still under consideration when in
fact the Japanese side had rejected them.
*In the Camp David negotiations that led to a
peace treaty between Egypt and Israel, the Israeli
preference for direct forms of communication and
the Egyptian tendency to favor indirect forms
sometimes exacerbated relations between the two
sides. The Egyptians interpreted Israeli directness
as aggressiveness and, therefore, an insult. The
Israelis viewed Egyptian indirectness
with impatience and suspected them of insincerity,
of not saying what they meant.
5. Sensitivity to time: High or low?
High Low
–Germans are always –Latins and Filipinos
punctual are habitually late
– Americans are –Japanese negotiate
quick to make a deal slowly
–Indians also are one
example
Commentators sometimes claim that some cultures
value time more than others, but this
observation may not be an accurate
characterization of the situation. Rather,
negotiators may value differently the amount of
time devoted to and measured against the goal
pursued.
–For Americans, the deal is a signed contract and
time is money, so they want to make a deal quickly.
Americans therefore try to reduce formalities to a
minimum and get down to business quickly.
–Japanese and other Asians, whose goal is to
create a relationship rather than simply
Direct Indirect
–Examples are –Example are Japanese
Americans and Israeli –they usually use vague
–they give you clear comments, gestures, and
and definite response other signs.
to your proposals or
questions.
sign a contract, need to invest time in the
negotiating process so that the parties can
get to know one another well and determine
whether they wish to embark on a long-term
relationship. They may consider aggressive
attempts to shorten the negotiating time as efforts
to hide something.
6. Emotionalism: High or low?
Accounts of negotiating behavior in other cultures
almost always point to a particular group’s
tendency to act emotionally.
High Low
Latin Americans and Germans, English,
Spanish show their Japanese and many
emotions at the other Asians hide their
negotiating table feelings
7. Form of agreement: General or specific?
Whether a negotiator’s goal is a contract or a
relationship, the negotiated transaction in almost
all cases will be encapsulated in some sort of
written agreement. Cultural factors influence the how executives organize themselves to negotiate a
form of the written agreement that the parties deal. Some cultures emphasize the individual while
make. others stress the group. These values may
General Specific influence the organization of each side in a
–Chinese prefer a contract –Generally, Americans negotiation.
in the form of general prefer very detailed Individual Group
principles rather than contracts that attempt Example : America Example: Japanese,
detailed rules because, it is to anticipate all Chinese, Filipino
claimed, that the essence possible circumstances *with one supreme *not apparent who
of the deal is the and eventualities, no leader who has the leader is or who
relationship between the matter how unlikely complete authority to has the authority to
parties. If unexpected because the deal is the decide commit the side
circumstances arise, the contract itself, and one * negotiating team is *the negotiating team
parties should look must refer to the usually small is often large
primarily to their contract to handle new * usually prepared to *they are organized
relationship, not the situations that may make commitments on the basis of
contract, to solve the arise. more quickly consensus, which
problem –stronger party always usually takes more
–weaker party prefers a seeks a detailed time to deal.
general agreement to give agreement to “lock up
it room to “wiggle out” of the deal” in all its 10. Risk taking: High or low?
adverse circumstances that possible dimensions Research supports the conclusion that certain
are bound to occur
cultures are more risk averse than others.
High Low
8. Building an agreement: Bottom up or top
–divulges information –Requires large
down?
–tries new approaches amount of
Related to the form of the agreement is the –tolerates information before
question of whether negotiating a business deal is uncertainties in a deciding
an inductive (bottom up) or a deductive process proposed course of –Japanese are an
(top down). action example
Bottom up Top down –Americans, French,
–From specific to general –From general to British and Indians are
–Americans, Japanese, specific an example
Mexicans and Brazilians –Specific includes
prefer this prices, delivery date, Faced with a risk-averse counterpart, how should a
product quality, etc. deal maker proceed? The following are a few steps
–French, Argentineans to consider:
and Indians this
1. Don’t rush the negotiating process. A
negotiation that is moving too fast for one
9. Team organization: One leader or group of the parties only heightens that person’s
consensus? perception of the risks in the proposed deal.
In any negotiation, it is important to know how the 2. Devote attentions to proposing rules and
other side is organized, who has the authority to mechanisms that will reduce the apparent
make commitments, and how decisions are made. risks in the deal for the other side.
Culture is one important factor that affects
 3. Make sure that your counterpart has
sufficient information about you, your
company, and the proposed deal.
4. Focus your efforts on building a relationship
and fostering trust between the parties.
5. Consider restructuring the deal so that the
deal proceeds step by step in a series of
increments, rather than all at once.
Unit 4: Organizational Culture
Organizational culture- A system of shared
meaning held by members that distinguishes the
organization from other organizations.
Hierarchy – a body of persons in authority
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
Organizational culture is quite complex. Every
company has its own unique personality, just like
people do. The unique personality of an
organization is referred to as its culture.
Organizational culture/corporate culture includes-
▪ The ways the organization conducts its business,
treats its employees, customers, and the wider
community,
▪ The extent to which freedom is allowed in
decision making, deve loping new ideas, and
personal expression,
▪ How power and information flow through its
hierarchy, and
▪ How committed employees are towards collective
objectives.
Organizational Culture’s Functions
What do organizational cultures “Do”?
Culture is the social glue that helps hold an
organization together by providing appropriate
standards for what employees should say or do.
· It has a boundary-defining role.
· It conveys a sense of identity for organization
members.
· It facilitates the generation of commitment to
something larger than one’s individual self-
interest.
· It enhances social system stability.
· It serves as a “sense-making” and control
mechanism that guides and shapes the attitudes
and behavior of employees.
Organizational Culture vs. National Culture
National culture has more influence on employees
than org culture – so, for multinational
orgs, the goal could be to hire applicants who fit
the organizational (dominant) culture
Creating & Sustaining Culture
How a culture begins: founders, vision set the pace.
First – hire and keep employees who match the
vision – then socialize individuals – then the
founders’ behavior acts as a role model and the
“personality” of the organization
How to keep it alive? There are many ways…First,
it’s reflected and sustained via HR policies
–Selection (after minimum qualifications are
established, then hire for “fit”), perf evaluations,
training and career development, promotions,
reward those who support culture, remove those
who do not. Next, top management behavior
exemplifies culture (norms filter down – is risk
taking desirable? How much freedom do managers
give employees to make decisions? What should
we wear to work? What behaviors get rewarded
and lead to promotions?, etc).
finally, socialization methods (the process that
adapts employees to the organization’s culture)
are key (pre-arrival, encounter, metamorphosis
stages).
How Employees Learn Culture
• Stories – (ex. Nordstrom and car tires, Microsoft
and “calling in rich”, and Krispy Kreme’s “minister of
culture”)
• Rituals – repetitive sequence of activities
expressing and reinforcing key values (ex. getting
tenure, Mary Kay cosmetics annual award meeting)
• Material Symbols – convey to employees what is
important, who holds power and what kinds of
behavior are appropriate (ex. Limousines, jets,
offices, dress)
• Language – identifies members of cultures or
subcultures, if used by all then it’s accepted
and preserved (ex. Slang used by companies like
Boeing)
Matching People with Cultures
• Sociability (friendliness) and solidarity (task
orientation) dimensions can be used to
understand different “types” of culture: networked,
mercenary, fragmented or
communal.
Creating an Ethical Organizational Culture
• Be a visible role model
• Communicate ethical expectations
• Provide ethical training
• Visibly reward ethical acts and punish ethical
ones
• Provide protective mechanisms
CULTURE ADAPTATION
Accepting changes in the work culture is the
toughest thing to do for an employee. Not all
employees can happily adapt to organizational
changes.
Employees need time to cope up with a new
culture. Miracles can’t happen overnight and
habits do not change all of a sudden. The
employees must spend some time to understand
and adjust to the new culture. One should work
with an open mind and willingly accept things.
Don’t always crib as it leads to no solution. The
employees must try their level best to accept the
changes with a smile and work accordingly. One
should never be in a rush. The management
must also give time to the employees for them to
gel with the new culture. Don’t pressurize anyone
to accept changes all of a sudden.
The employees must design new strategies, new
plan of actions and policies to meet the new
challenges. Try to find out the exact reasons for the
change. The ideas which were successful earlier
might now fall out of place. One should not be
adamant. Sit with your team leader, discuss all
possible options and try to implement something
which would work best in the new culture and
benefit you as well as your organization.
An employee must change his behaviour and
thought process as per the culture. It is essential to
be flexible. Being adaptable at the workplace
always pays in the long run. Remember everything
happens for the best. One should always try to look
at the positive aspects of life rather than cribbing
on things which are beyond anyone’s control.
One should always remember that a little change
in one’s behavior can make the organization a
better place to work.
Few tips to adjust to the changing organization
culture.
▪ Give time to adjust
▪ Be flexible
▪ Work with an open mind
▪ Never crib
▪ Look at the positive side
▪ Develop alternate plans
▪ Don’t get too attached to someone at the
workplace
Customer-Responsive Culture
One of the best ways to ensure your team is great
at customer service is to create a company culture
focused on caring.Happy employees that
understand and embrace company values will
become exceptional advocates.
Follow these 5 tips to create a culture in your
company that thrills both your employees and your
customers.
1. Start at the top
If you want your team to care about customers,
start by making it a priority at the top. Don’t just
“say” that you value great service or write it in a
memo, but live it. Reward it on a regular basis,
recognizing those that go over the top publicly and
often. Leave an open seat in every meeting and at
every company function for your customer. Make it
clear to everyone that customers have a say at your
company.
2. Hire people who fit
When evaluating potential new hires, consider
whether or not they’ll fit into the culture you have
created and fostered. Of course, that doesn’t mean
hiring a bunch of people who look and act the
same. Rather, if you want to build a customer-first
company, for instance, do your best to build a team
full of people who are enthusiastic about customer
service. Zappos does this especially well, as they
are known for paying employees to quit just to
make sure, they have the perfect culture. The
quicker you realize that someone isn’t a fit for your
organization, the quicker you can move on to the
right person.
3. Get everyone involved
At Help Scout, everyone does at least a little bit of
customer service, no matter what their job title is.
We love this because it gets everyone involved and
excited to talk with customers, which are the heart
and soul of our company. It’s clear to our team that
customers are the reason we have jobs, so we all
participate in service to say thanks. Another great
benefit is that requiring designers, engineers and
everyone else to talk with customers means they all
have a good understanding of what our customers
want. Being on the front lines supporting and using
our own product is critical to making it a success.
Tons of successful companies use this strategy with
great success.
4. Trust your team
Once you’ve implemented your company values
and hired the right people, be sure to let go! Not
only will this encourage employees to develop
creative ways to serve customers, but your
employees will also be happier. Happier employees
do a great job and like working for you!
Everyone likes to take ownership in their job. By
throwing away the scripts and formulaic email
responses, you free employees up to delight
customers in their own voice. That’s why you hire
so rigorously in the first place! Let them do
whatever it takes to make your customers happy.
5. Establish good lines of communication
Make sure it’s easy for everyone to communicate
and stay on the same page so that nobody feels
like they’re facing a difficult problem alone. We
consider this our job at Help Scout. Our product
provides tools to make collaboration easy and be
sure nothing slips through the cracks. If you don’t
know the right answer, make sure your team can
get the inquiry in the hands of someone that does,
as quickly as possible.
Above all, remember to value and thank your
employees regularly. Do this and you are on your
way to an outstanding culture, which in turn means
better service for your customers.
Creating a Customer-Responsive Culture
• Select “customer” focused individuals
• Use a structure with a low level of formalization
(flexibility to deal w/customers)
• Use empowerment
• Use good listening skills
• Role clarity
• Display “helping” or Organizational Citizenship
Behavior (OCB)
Module 3: final
Unit 5: Organizational Culture Change
Stimulate – to excite to activity or growth or to
greater activity
Inhibitions – is something that forbids, debars or
restricts.
Inertia – indisposition to motion, exertion, or
change
STIMULANTS TO CHANGE
Forces that Act as Stimulants to Change
In this changing world, we really have to cope up or
else we will be left out. That is the reason why
companies are planning out or making some
changes to the company to suit the changing needs
also of the market. Following are the forces that
stimulate change in a company: external forces are
those changes that are part of an organization’s
general and business environment. There are
several kinds of external forces an organization
might face:
• Demographic. A changing work demographic
might require an organizational change in culture.
For instance, Avon built and grew their business
around door-to-door cosmetic sales, with the stay-
at-home wife and mother as their primary front
line employee. When more women entered the
workforce in 9-to-5 jobs, Avon had to shift gears
and find new ways to get their products in front of
their customers.
• Social. Changing social trends can pressure
organizations into making changes. Consumers are
becoming more environmentally conscious, a trend
which has pushed fast food restaurants to replace
Styrofoam containers with paper. Manufacturers of
cleaning products changed product formulas to
omit phosphorus and other environmentally
threatening chemicals. Tobacco companies have
buckled under the changing image of smokers, the
dangers of their products, and some have started
looking into eCigarettes and other smoking
alternatives to stay in business.
• Political. Government restrictions often force
change onto organizations. This can be something
as simple as a change in minimum wage for
employees, or as complex as rules and restrictions
governing fair competition in business. For
instance, when the Affordable
health Care act was put into place, businesses had
to change their operations and put steps into place
to confirm that all employees had healthcare
coverage to comply with the new law.
•Technology. Still have your VHS player? The
founder of Blockbuster wishes you did.
Technological changes can make or break a
business. Whether new technology is introduced
industry-wide, as when the laser was introduced to
modern medicine, making surgeries easier and
safer; or when it’s introduced to end users, as when
consumers stopped renting videos to enjoy the
cheaper, more convenient streaming services like
Netflix, organizations must change to
accommodate new technologies or suffer the
consequences.
• Economic. During the 2008 recession, consumers
lost their jobs and cut back on their
spending. These economic downturns had a major
impact on businesses. Banks failed.
General Motors and Chrysler filed for bankruptcy.
Survival meant adapting to change. Companies like
Lego, who experienced stagnant U.S. sales during
this time, took the opportunity to build their
markets in Europe and Asia. Netflix realized the
potential of providing in-home entertainment to
families that had cut back their entertainment
budgets and grew their subscriptions by 3 million
subscribers in 2009 alone. Meanwhile, In the midst
of spiking fuel prices, gas guzzling Hummers were
no longer en vogue and quietly went out of
business
Companies can also experience internal forces of
change, which can often be related to external
forces, but are significant enough to be considered
separately. Internal forces of change arise from
inside the organization and relate to the internal
functioning of the organization. They might include
low performance, low satisfaction, conflict, or the
introduction of a new mission, new leadership.

Sources of individual and organizational resistance
to change
Individual sources of resistance towards a change
exist in the basic human tenets or characteristics
and are influenced by the differences in perception,
personal background, needs or personality-related
differences. It is important to understand those
triggering factors or issues which refrain individuals
from endorsing change or extending their support
and cooperation
towards any change initiatives at an organizational
level.
Criticizing the individuals or the teams for not being
supportive in the stages of transition or
compelling them cannot be an effective solution for
implementing change smoothly or in a hassle
free manner.
The resistance towards change at an individual
level can be due to various reasons:
• How satisfied they are with the existing state of
affairs
• Whether they appreciate the overall end product
of change and it’s outcome on them
• How much practical or realistic the change is
• What will be the possible cost change on the
individual in terms of potential risks involved,
pressure to develop new competencies and
disruptions
The following factors explain why individuals may
pose resistance towards change:
• Habits: We individuals are influenced by our
habits in our ways of working and accept or reject a
change depending upon the effect which a change
may have on the existing habits of the individuals.
For example, change in the office location might be
subjected to resistance from the individuals as this
might compel them to change their existing life
routine and create a lot of difficulties in adjustment
or coping with the schedule. The individuals might
have to drive a longer way for reaching their office,
or start early from home for reaching their office in
time, etc.
•Lack of Acceptability or Tolerance for the Change:
Some individuals endorse change and welcome a
change initiative happily while few individuals fear
the impact of change. Over a period of time change
fatigue also builds up.
• Fear of a Negative Impact Economically or on the
Income: During the process of organizational
restructuring or introduction of organization-wide
change as a strategic move on the part of the
management, several inhibitions, and fear rule the
thought process of the individuals. Fear of possible
loss of a job as a result of change or a change in
their income structure or may be a change in their
work hours could be one amongst
the possible reasons.
•Fear of Losing Something Really Valuable: Any
form of threat to personal security or financial
security or threat to the health of the individuals
may lead to fear of losing something precious as a
result of the implementation of change.
•Selective Processing of Information: It can be
considered as a filtering process in which the
individuals perceive or make judgments by
gathering selective information which is greatly
influenced by their personal background, attitude,
personal biases or prejudices, etc. If an individual
maintains a negative attitude towards any kind of
change, then they are having a usual tendency of
looking at the negativities associated with the
change and involve all the positive aspects of it.
• A Rigid Belief that change cannot bring about any
facilitating change in the organization and it only
involves the pain and threats to the individuals.
Now, we will look into the organizational factors
which result in resistance to change.
• Resistance Due to the Structural Rigidities or
Limitations: Structural resistance is a characteristic
feature of bureaucracies, which focus more on
stability, control, set methodologies or routine.
• Ignoring all the interconnected factors which
require change or lack of clarity in understanding
the ground realities.
• Inertia from the Groups: Groups may resist
change because just like individuals, groups equally
follow set behavioral patterns, norms or culture
and as a result of change the groups might have to
change their existing ways of conduct or behavior.
• Possible threats to Power, Resources or Expertise
can also result in resistance towards an
organization level change. Any kind of devolution of
power or transfer of resources from some agency
or group to some other agency or a group will
definitely lead to a feeling of fear or inertia towards
a change initiative.
–––––––––++–––––––––++–––––––––++–––––––
In the end, it can be concluded that any kind of
change will surely involve heavy resistance at the
individual as well as organizational level. But
through effective communication during all stages
and consulting, desirable outcomes can be ensured
by breaking all the possible barriers or resistances
towards a change. What is more important is
identifying the main source of resistance and
accordingly developing action plans for dealing
with it.
Successful change in an organization will require
strong commitment and involvement on the part of
the top management, focused and an integrated
approach, strong and a stable leadership, effective
and open communication from the internal change
agent for making people sensitive and more aware
of the realities and the ultimate need for change
For minimizing the resistance towards the change
employee participation and involvement in the
overall process plays a crucial role in building
acceptability and seeking the cooperation of the
employees towards the change. Hence proper
planning, coordinated approach and complete
involvement of all the stakeholders, play a decisive
role in implementing strategic decisions and
determining the success of change.
PROPERTIES OF INNOVATIVE
ORGANIZATIONS
1. Unique and Relevant Strategy
Arguably, the most defining characteristic of a truly
innovative company is having a unique and
relevant strategy. We all know what companies like
Apple, Facebook and Google do. That’s because
they make their strategies clear and relentless
follow them. An innovative smaller player may not
be recognized globally, but its leaders, employees,
business partners and customers all will have a
clear idea of the company’s strategy. If a business
does not have definable, unique strategy, it will not
be innovative. Bland strategies, such as “to be the
best”, do not provide a path to innovation in the
same way clearer strategies, such as “to be on the
cutting edge of mobile communications
technology,” “to build the world’s safest cars”or “to
deliver anything anywhere” do. If your strategy is
vague or fails to differentiate your company from
the competition, you should change this situation
as quickly as possible!

2. Innovation Is a Means to Achieve Strategic
Goals
Highly innovative companies do not see innovation
as an end, but rather as a means to achieving
strategic goals. Just as a good camera is an essential
tool that enables the photographer to take
professional images and the saw is an essential tool
for the carpenter, innovation is an essential tool for
visionary companies intent on achieving their
strategic goals. Indeed, if you look at the web sites
of the world’s most innovative companies, they
tend not to trumpet innovation, but rather
corporate vision.
3. Innovators Are Leaders
The one thing innovation provides more than
anything else is market leadership. When
companies use innovation to achieve strategic
goals, they inevitably take the lead in their
Markets. Unfortunately, this does not always
translate to being the most successful or profitable.
amazon has been an innovator from l the
beginning, setting many of the standards for e-
commerce. Nevertheless, it took some years for the
company to become profitable. Cord was one of
the world’s most innovative car companies,
launching cutting edge innovations such as front
wheel drive and pop-up headlights – in the 1920s
and 30s. However the company was never very
successful financially and went out of business in
1938. On the other hand, innovators like apple and
Google have been financially successful as a result
of their innovation. In short, innovators are leaders,
but not always profitable leaders!
4. Innovators Implement
Most businesses have a lot of creative employees
with a lot of ideas. Some of those ideas are even
relevant to companies’ needs. However, one thing
that differentiates innovators from wannabe
innovators is that innovators implement ideas. Less
innovative companies talk more about ideas than
implementing them!
5. Failure Is an Option
I would argue the the most critical element of
business culture, for an innovative company, is
giving employees freedom and encouragement to
fail. If employees know that they can fail without
endangering their careers, they are more willing to
take on risky, innovative projects that offer huge
potential rewards to their companies. On the other
hand, if employees believe that being part of a
failed project will have professional consequences,
they will avoid risk – and hence innovation – like
the plague. More importantly, if senior managers
reward early failure, employees are far more likely
to evaluate projects regularly and kill those projects
that are failing –Before that failure becomes too
expensive. This frees up resources and budget for
new innovative endeavours. However, in businesses
where failure is not an option, employees will often
stick with failing projects, investing ever more
resources in hopes that the project will eventually
succeed. When it does not, losses are greater and
reputations are ruined. As a result, companies that
reward failure often fail less than those that
discourage it.
6. Environment of Trust
The Innovative company provides its employees
with an environment of trust. There is a lot of risk
involved in innovation. Highly creative ideas often
initially sound stupid. If employees fear ridicule for
sharing outrageous ideas, they will not share such
ideas. Likewise, if employees fear reprimand for
participating in unsuccessful projects, they will not
participate (see item 5 above). if employees do not
trust each other, they will be watching their backs
all the time. If they fear managers will steal their
ideas and claim them as their own, employees will
not share ideas. On the other hand, if employees
know they can take reasonable risks without fear, if
they know outrageous ideas are welcome, if they
know that their managers will champion their ideas
and
credit them for those ideas, these employees can
be creative, implement ideas and drive the
company’s innovation. In short, creativity and
innovation thrive when people in an organization
trust each other and their organization.
7. Autonomy
Along with trust, individual and team autonomy is a
key component of innovation. If you give
individuals and teams clear goals together with the
freedom to find their own paths for achieving
those goals, you create fertile ground for
innovation. But, if managers watch over their
subordinates’ shoulders, micro-managing their
every move, you stifle the creativity and individual
thought that is necessary for innovation. Of course
giving employees autonomy means they may make
mistakes. They may choose inefficient routes to
achieving goals. But at worst, they will learn from
their mistakes and inefficiencies. At best, they will
discover new and better ways of accomplishing
objectives. Most importantly, if you hire intelligent,
capable, creative people and give them the
freedom to solve problems, they will do so. And, in
so doing, they will help innovation to thrive
throughout the company.
Unit 6: Stress Management
POTENTIAL STRESSORS
The workplace is an important source of both
demands and pressures causing stress, and
structural and social resources to counteract stress.
Situations that are likely to cause stress are those
that are
- Unpredictable/ uncontrollable;
- Uncertain;
- Ambiguous or unfamiliar;
- Involving conflict;
- Loss or performance expectations;
- Limited events, such as the pressures of
examinations or work deadlines; and
- Ongoing situations, such as family demands,
job insecurity, or long commuting journeys
CAUSES OF STRESS
• long hours;
• work overload;
• time pressure;
• difficult or complex tasks;
• lack of breaks;
• lack of variety; and
• poor physical work conditions (for Example,
space, temperature, light).
Historically, the typical response from employers to
stress at work has been to blame the victim of
stress, rather than its cause. Increasingly, it is being
recognised that employers have a duty, in many
cases in law, to ensure that employees do not
become ill. It is also in their long term economic
interests to prevent stress, as stress is likely to lead
to:
11. High staff turnover;
12. An increase in sickness absence and early
retirement;
13. Increased stress in those staff still at work;
14. Reduced work performance and increased
rate of accidents; and
15. Reduced client satisfaction.
Good employment practice includes assessing the
risk of stress amongst employees. This
Involves:
• looking for pressures at work which could cause
high and long lasting levels of stress
• deciding who might be harmed by these
• deciding whether you are doing enough to
prevent that harm.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
As is evident from figs 1 and 2, individuals differ in
their risk of experiencing stress and in their
vulnerability to the adverse effects of stress.
Individuals are more likely to experience stress if
they lack material resources (for example, financial
security) and psychological resources (for example,
coping skills, self esteem), and are more likely to be
harmed by this stress if they tend to react
emotionally to situations and are highly
competitive and pressured (type A behaviour).
The association between pressures and well being
and functioning can be thought of as an inverted U,
with well being and functioning being low when
pressures are either high or very low
(for example, in circumstances of unemployment).
Different people demonstrate different shapes of
this inverted U, showing their different thresholds
for responses to stress. A successful strategy for
preventing stress within the workplace will ensure
that the job fits the person, rather then trying to
make people fit jobs that they are not well suited
to.
INTERACTIONS BETWEEN WORK AND HOME
STRESS
Increasingly, the demands on the individual in the
workplace reach out into the homes and social
lives of employees. Long, uncertain or unsocial
hours, working away from home, taking work
home, high levels of responsibility, job insecurity,
and job relocation all may adversely affect family
responsibilities and leisure activities. This is likely to
undermine a good and relaxing quality of life
outside work, which is an important buffer against
the stress caused by work. In addition, domestic
pressures such as childcare responsibilities,
financial worries, bereavement, and housing
problems may affect a person’s robustness at work.
Thus, a vicious cycle is set up in which the stress
caused in either area of one’s life, work or home,
spills over and makes coping
with the other more difficult. Women are especially
likely to experience these sources of stress, since
they still carry more of the burden of childcare and
domestic responsibilities than men. In addition,
women are concentrated in lower paid, lower
status jobs, may often work shifts in order to
accommodate domestic responsibilities, and may
suffer discrimination and harassment
EFFECTIVELY MANAGING STRESS
Individual Stress Management
Most interventions to reduce the risk to health
associated with stress in the workplace involve
both individual and organisational approaches.
Individual approaches include training and one-to-
one psychology services—clinical,occupational,
health or counselling. They should aim to change
individual skills and resources and help the
individual change their situation. The techniques
listed in fig 3 mirror the active coping (fight/flight)
and rest phases (habituation) of the stress model
presented earlier.
Figure 3
Techniques for managing stress.
Training helps prevent stress through:
• becoming aware of the signs of stress
• using this to interrupt behavior patterns when the
stress reaction is just beginning.
Stress usually builds up gradually. The more stress
builds up, the more difficult it is to deal with
• analyzing the situation and developing an active
plan to minimize the stressors
• learning skills of active coping and relaxation,
developing a lifestyle that creates a buffer against
stress
• practicing the above in low stress situations first
to maximize chances of early success and boost self
confidence and motivation to continue.
A wide variety of training courses may help in
developing active coping techniques—for example,
assertiveness, communications skills, time
management, problem solving, and effective
management.
However, there are many sources of stress that the
individual is likely to perceive as outside his or her
power to change, such as the structure,
management style or culture of the organisation. it
is important to note that stress management
approaches that concentrate on changing the
individual without changing the sources of stress
are of limited effectiveness, and may be
counterproductive by masking these sources. For
example, breathing deeply and thinking positively
about a situation causing stress may make for a
temporary feeling of well being, but will allow a
damaging situation to continue, causing persistent
stress and, probably, stress to others. The primary
aim of the individual approach should be to
develop people’s skills and confidence to change
their situation, not to help them adapt to and
accept a stressful situation.
ORGANISATIONAL STRESS MANAGEMENT
The prevention and management of workplace
stress requires organizational level interventions,
because it is the organization that creates the
stress. An approach that is limited to helping those
already experiencing stress is analogous to
administering sticking plaster on wounds, rather
than dealing with the causes of the damage. An
alternative analogy is trying to run up an escalator
that’s going down! Organisational interventions can
be of many types, ranging from structural (for
example, staffing levels, work schedules, physical
environment) to psychological (for example, social
support, control over work, participation).
The emphasis on the organisation, rather than the
individual, being the problem is well illustrated by
the principles used in Scandinavia, where there is
an excellent record of creating healthy and safe
working environments (box 3).
Box 3: Principles of preventing work stress in
Scandinavia
• Working conditions are adapted to people’s
differing physical and mental aptitudes
• Employee is given the opportunity to participate
in the design of his/her own work
situation, and in the processes of change and
development affecting his/her work
• Technology, work organisation, and job content
are designed so that the employee is not
exposed to physical or mental strains that may lead
to illness or accidents. Forms of remuneration and
the distribution of working hours are taken into
account
• Closely controlled or restricted work is avoided or
limited
• Work should provide opportunities for variety,
social contact, and cooperation as well as
coherence between different working operations
• Working conditions should provide opportunities
for personal and vocational development, as well as
for self determination and professional
responsibility
Assessing the risk of stress within the workplace
must take into account:
• the likelihood and the extent of ill health which
could occur as a result of exposure to a particular
hazard
• the extent to which an individual is exposed to
the hazard
• the number of employees exposed to the hazard.
The analysis of stressful hazards at work should
consider all aspects of its design and management,
and its social and organisational context.9 Although
the priority is prevention,
protective measures can be introduced to control
the risk and reduce the effects of a given hazard. A
detailed account of how to assess and reduce risk
associated with exposure to stressful hazards is
summarised in box 4.
Box 4 : A risk assessment strategy—six stages9
• Hazard identification:
Reliably identify the stressors which exist in relation
to work and working conditions, for specified
groups of employees, and make an assessment of
the degree of exposure
• Assessment of harm:
Collect evidence that exposure to such stressors is
associated with impaired health in the group being
assessed or of the wider organization. This should
include a wide range of health-related
outcomes, including symptoms of general malaise
and specific disorders, and of organizational and
health related behaviors such as smoking and
drinking, and sickness absence
• Identification of likely risk factors:
Explore the associations between exposure to
stressors and measures of harm to identify likely
risk factors at the group level, and to make some
estimate of their size and/or significance
• Description of underlying mechanisms:
Understand and describe the possible mechanisms
by which exposure to the stressors is associated
with damage to the health of the assessment group
or to the organization
• Audit existing management control and
employee support systems:
Identify and assess all existing management
systems both in relation to the control of stressors
and the experience of work stress, and in relation
to the provision of support for employees
experiencing problems.
• Recommendations on residual risk:
Take existing management control and employee
support systems into proper account, maker
recommendations on the residual risk associated
with the likely risk factors related to work stress
increasingly, legislation requires employers to
assess and address all risks to employee health and
safety, including their mental health (for example,
the European Commission’s framework directive on
the introduction of measures to encourage
improvements in the safety and health of workers
at work). Creating a safe system of work requires
targeting equipment, materials, the environment
and people (for example, ensuring sufficient skills
for the tasks). It also requires having monitoring
and review systems to assess the extent to which
prevention and control
strategies are effective.
Although associations between workplace factors
and psychological ill health and associated sickness
absence have been well documented, evidence-
based interventions to reduce these
problems are scarce.
Successful interventions used training and
organizational approaches to increase participation
in decision making and problem solving, increase
support and feedback and improve communication.
These studies found that:
• those taught skills to mobilize support at work
and to participate in problem solving and
decision making reported more supportive
feedback, feeling more able to cope, and better
work team functioning and climate. Among those
most at risk of leaving, those undergoing the
training reported reduced depression
• staff facing organizational change who were
taught skills of stress management, how to
participate in, and control, their work showed a
decrease of stress hormone levels14
• staff taught verbal and non-verbal
communication and empathy skills demonstrated
reduced staff resignations and sick leave
•physically inactive employees undergoing stress
management training improved their perceived
coping ability and those undergoing aerobic
exercise improved their feelings of wellbeing and
decreased their complaints of muscle pain, but also
reported reduced job satisfaction
• employees undergoing one of seven training
programmers emphasizing one or more aspects of
stress management—physiological processes,
coping with people or interpersonal awareness
processes—showed reductions in depression,
anxiety, psychological strain, and emotional
exhaustion immediately after the programme.
There was a further reduction in psychological
strain and emotional exhaustion at 9–16 months’
follow up
•those on long term sickness absence who were
referred early to the occupational health
department (within two or three months absence)
reduced their sickness absence from
40 to 25 weeks before resumption of work and
from 72 to 53 weeks before leaving
Employment for medical reasons, leading to large
financial savings. success in managing and
preventing stress will depend on the culture in the
organization. Stress should be seen as helpful
information to guide action, not as weakness in
individuals. A culture of openness and
understanding, rather than of blame and criticism,
is essential. Building this type of culture requires
active leadership and role models from the top of
the organisation, the development and
implementation of a stress policy throughout the
organization, and systems to identify problems
early and to review and improve the strategies
developed to address them.
The policy and its implementation should be
negotiated with the relevant trade unions and
health and safety committees (for a trade union
example of a model agreement for preventing
stress at work see the Manufacturing, Science and
Finance Union guide). Last, but by no means least,
interventions should be evaluated, so that their
effectiveness can be assessed. Ideally, the method
of achieving this should include a high response
rate, valid and reliable measures, and a control
group. Two measures that provide a
comprehensive analysis of work stress and have
been widely used are the Job Content
Questionnaire, which includes measures of the
predictors of job strain described earlier, and the
Occupational Stress Indicator.