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EARTH

The Earth which is also known as the blue planet due to high content of water i.e. 71%
covers approximately 510 million sq.kms. The earth is the densest of all the planets in the
solar system and it is the only planet which supports all forms of life. The shape of the
earth is oblate spheroid or oblate ellipsoid i.e. it is almost spherical, flattened at the poles
and slightly bulge at the equator.

Movement of the Earth

Rotation of the Earth

The Earth rotates from West to East on its own axis in 23 hours, 56 minutes and 41
seconds. The rotational velocity of the Earth is maximum at the equators i.e. 1667 kms/hrs
and minimum at the poles i.e. zero.

The rotation of Earth causes the day and night in the world and it is also responsible for
the rise and fall of the tides everyday. The longest day in the Northern Hemisphere is June
21st and the longest day in the Southern Hemisphere is 22 nd December whereas the
shortest day in the Northern Hemisphere is 22nd December whereas the shortest day in
the Southern Hemisphere is 21st June. The days and the night at the Equator almost
remains the same throughout the year.

Revolution of the Earth

The Earth revolve around the sun in the elliptical orbit at a orbital velocity of 1, 07,218
kms/hrs. The earth takes 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 45.51 seconds to complete
its one revolution.

Revolution of the Earth results in the change of the seasons and the variation in the day
and nights at different times of the year. The revolution of the earth is also responsible for
the shifting of the wind belts.

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Inclination of Earth

The axis is an imaginary line that runs from North to South and passes through the centre
of the earth. It is always remains inclined at an angle of 66.5 degree to the plane of the
earth’s orbit and is tilted at 23.5 degree from a line perpendicular to this plane. As the
earth revolve around the sun the increase and decrease in the amount of the sunlight is
caused by the tilt of the Earth’s axis.

Change in Seasons

The seasons are basically divided into 4 types

Spring

On the 21st March the sun rays are directly on the equator. Thus on the 21 st March the
spring season starts in the Northern Hemisphere.

Summers

On 21st June the sun rays are directly on the Tropic of Cancer. Thus on the 21 st June the
summer season starts in the Northern Hemisphere.

Autumn

On 23rd September the sun rays again come back on the equator thus on 23 rd September
Autumn season starts in the Northern Hemisphere.

Winters

On 22nd December the sun rays are directly on the Tropic of Capricorn thus on 22 nd
December the winter season starts in the Northern Hemisphere.

Note: The conditions in the Southern Hemisphere are just opposite

Equinoxes

Equinoxes are those days when the days and nights are equal. It happens twice in a year
on these two days the sun rays are directly over the equator

March 21st- Vernal Equinox in Northern and Autumnal equinox in the Southern Hemisphere

September 23rd – Autumnal equinox in the Northern and Vernal equinox in the Southern
Hemisphere

Solstice

It is time during the year when the difference between the length of days and nights is
the largest. During these days the sun rays are directly over the tropics

June 21st – Summer Solstice in Northern and Winter Solstice in the Southern Hemisphere

December 22nd – Winter Solstice in the Northern and the Summer Solstice in the Southern
Hemisphere

Midnight Sun

This is the phenomenon observed at the latitudes 66.5 degrees North and South of the
equators where the sun never sinks below the horizon during the summers due to the tilt
of the earth’s axis in each hemisphere during the summers. The phenomenon increases
towards the equators.

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North Pole experiences day from 21 st March to 23rd September

South Pole experiences day from 23rd September to 21st March

MOON
● The moon is a satellite that revolves around the earth in an oval shaped orbit. It is
2,40,000 miles away from the earth. The moon is very hot during day time and gets
very cold at night. The moon has no atmosphere to support life. The surface of the
moon has many craters caused by being hit by large meteoroids and asteroids.
● It is the second brightest object in the sky after sun. Ancient Greeks called it Artemis
and Selene while the romans referred to it as Luna.
● The moons diameter is 3,474 km which is a little over a quarter of the diameter of the
earth. Due to its smaller size and mass, the pull of gravity on the lunar surface is about
17% of that at the earths surface.
● The moon was first visited by the Soviet spacecraft Luna-2 is 1959. In 20 July, 1969,
American astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin Buzz Aldrin became the first humans
to walk on the moon. During six lunar landing missions from 1969 to 1972, a total of
12 American Astronauts explored the lunar surface
● Diameter – 3475 km
● Circumference – 10864 km
● The maximum distance of the moon from the earth (Apogee) 4,06,000 km
● The minimum distance of the moon from the earth (Perigee) – 3,64,000 km
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● Rotation time around axis – 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes (This period about 27
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days is called the sidereal month)
● Revolution time with reference to sun – 29 days 12 hrs, 44 minutes and 2.8 seconds
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(This period of about 29 days is called the synodic month)
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● Only 59 percent of the total surface of the moon is visible from the earth because its
rotation time around axis and revolution time around the orbit are same.
● The highest mountain on the moon is Leibnitz (10660 m) and largest crater is more
Imbrium (1250 km)
● Important lunar sea are :
(1) sea of crises
(2) sea of Fecundity

(3) Sea of Nectar

(4) Sea of Tranquility

(5) Sea of Serenity

(6) Sea of Cold

(7) Sea of Vapors

(8) Sea of Clouds

(9) Sea of Showers

(10) Sea of Humors

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ECLIPSES

Solar Eclipse

As seen from the Earth, a solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and
Earth, and the Moon fully or partially blocks the Sun. This can happen only at new moon,
when the Sun and the Moon are in conjunction as seen from Earth.

Solar Eclipse can be of four types

● Total Eclipse- It occurs when the dark silhouette of the Moon completely obscures the
intensely bright light of the Sun, allowing the much fainter solar corona to be visible.
During any one eclipse, totality occurs at best only in a narrow track on the surface of
Earth.
● Annular Eclipse- It occurs when the Sun and Moon are exactly in line, but the apparent
size of the Moon is smaller than that of the Sun.
● Hybrid Eclipse- It shifts between a total and annular eclipse. At certain points on the
surface of Earth it appears as a total eclipse, whereas at other points it appears as
annular.
● Partial Eclipse- It occurs when the Sun and Moon are not exactly in line and the Moon
only partially obscures the Sun.

Lunar Eclipse

It occurs when the earth comes between sun and the moon. The lunar eclipse basically
occurs on the full moon day. However it does not occur on every full moon day because
the moon is so small and the planer of its orbit is tilted about 5 degree which represents
to the plane of the Earth’s orbit due to this reason only the eclipse does not occur every
month.
The Lunar Eclipse can last up to the maximum of 1hours and 40 minutes, the moon does
not becomes completely dark during the most lunar eclipse however in many of the cases
it becomes reddish.

TIDES
Tides are periodic rises and falls of large bodies of water. Tides are caused by the
gravitational interaction between the Earth and the Moon. The gravitational attraction of
the moon causes the oceans to bulge out in the direction of the moon. Another bulge
occurs on the opposite side, since the Earth is also being pulled toward the moon (and
away from the water on the far side). Since the earth is rotating while this is happening,
two tides occur each day. The interval between the two tides is 12 hours and 26 minutes.
There are basically two types of tides

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Spring Tides

In every two weeks’ time the positions of the sun, moon, and Earth forma straight line. At
these times of new and full moon phases as viewed from Earth, the lunar- and solar-
related ocean bulges also line up (and add up) to produce tides having the greatest
monthly tidal range (that is, the highest high tide and lowest low tide); these are called
spring tides.

Neap Tides

Between spring tides, at the first and third quarter phases of the moon, the sun's pull on
Earth is at right angles to the pull of the moon. At this time, tides have their minimum
monthly tidal range that is, unusually low high tide and unusually high low tide these
are called neap tides or fortnightly tides.

Some Important Facts about Earth

Age of the Earth: 4.5 to 4.6 billion years

Human Population of the Earth: 7,039,191,305 (approximately)

World Population Growth: 1.092%

Earth's Circumference at the Equator: 40,075 km

Earth's Circumference between the North and South Poles: 40,008 km

Earth's Diameter at the Equator: 12,755 km

Earth's Diameter at the Poles: 12,713 km

Average Distance from the Earth to the Sun: 14, 96, 69,180 km

Average Distance from the Earth to the Moon: 3, 84,400 km

Highest Elevation on Earth - Mt. Everest, Asia: 8848 meters

Lowest Elevation on Land - Dead Sea 396 meters deep

Deepest Point in the Ocean - Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench, Western Pacific Ocean
11,033 meters deep

Highest Temperature Recorded: 134°F (56.7°C) - Greenland Ranch in Death Valley,

California, July 10, 1913

Lowest Temperature Recorded: -128.5°F (-89.2°C) - Vostok, Antarctica, July 21, 1983

Mean Temperature: 15.4 degree Celsius

Water vs. Land: 70.8% Water, 29.2% Land

Rotation Time: 23 hours 56 minutes 40.91 seconds

Revolution Time: 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 45.51 seconds

Satellite: Moon

Tilt of axis from Orbital plane: 23027’

Average depth of Oceans: 3554 meters

Date of perihelion (minimum distance from sun): January 3rd

Date of aphelion (maximum distance from sun): July 4th

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Average Orbital Velocity: 29.783 km/sec or 1, 07, 218 km/hr

Orbital Circumference: 92, 43, 75, 700 km

Escape Velocity: 11.2 km/sec

Average Solar Constant: 1.94 calories/cm2/min

EARTH INTERIOR
– Understanding of the earth interior is essential to understand the nature of changes
that take place over and below the earth surface.

● It is also beneficial to understand -

(a) Geophysical phenomenon like Volcanism, Earthquake, etc.

(b) How exogenic as well as endogenic processes are constantly shaping the
landscapes

(c) Evolution and present composition of Atmosphere.

(d) Future deep sea mineral, oils and natural gas exploration etc.

● The interior of earth can be observed through direct evidence such as rock samples
from mining, deep ocean drilling project, Volcanic eruption, existence of hot springs,
geysers and indirect evidence such as seismic waves, meteorite investigation,
gravitation force, magnetic field depth etc.

INTERIOR STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Crust

● The crust is the outermost brittle solid part of Earth ranging from 5-70 km.
● The Crust can be divided into :

1. Continental Crust : Mean thickness is around 30 km, made of SIAL (Silica and
Aluminum) and is thicker than Oceanic crust. Its density is around at 2.7 g/cm 3

2. Oceanic Crust : Mean thickness is around 5 km made of SIMA (Silica and Magnesium).
Oceanic crust is basaltic is origin and relatively of younger age than the continental crust.
The basaltic crust is denser at 3.0 g/cm3

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Mantle

● They extend up to 2890 km

● Asthenosphere : The upper portion of the mantle which extends up to around 400
km and the main source of Magma.
● The density of mantle is 3.4 g/cm3
● The lower mantle is in solid state which extends up to Core-Mantle boundary. This layer
is called as the D’’ (pronounced dee-double-prime) layer.
Note

● The Crust and Upper part of Mantle combined called as Lithosphere.

Core

● The Core extends to 2870 – 6370 km.

It is divided into

1. Liquid Outer Core

2. Solid Inner Core : Made of NIFE – Nickel and Ferrous.

Note : Inner core rotates slightly faster than the rest of the planet.

● The density at the outer core is at 5.5 g/cm3 which increases to 13 g/cm3 in the inner
core.
Note :

Dynamo theory : It suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis
effect, gives rise to Earth’s magnetic field

Schematic sections through the Earth :

● Continental crust
● Oceanic crust
● Upper mantle
● Lower mantle
● Outer core
● Inner core
Boundaries in the Earth’s interior

Conrad Discontinuity : Between Upper and Lower Continental Crust

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Gutenberg discontinuity : Core-Mantle boundary

Lehmann discontinuity : Boundary between Outer and Inner Core

Important Facts
● Earth’s radius : 6370 km
● Earth diameter : about 12756 km at equator and about 12715 km at the poles.
● Crust : 0.5% of the volume of the Earth
Mantle : 83% of the volume of the Earth
Core : 16% of the volume of the Earth
● Temperature, Pressure and Density increases with the increasing distance from the
surface to the interior in deeper depth
● Gravitation force is greater near the poles and lesser near the equator
● Gravity anomaly is the difference in gravity value according to the mass of the material
Earthquake
● It is shaking of the Earth which is caused due to the release of energy along a fault
line.
● Hypocenter or Focus : The point where the energy of an earthquake is released
● Epicenter : It is the point on the surface, directly above the focus, the first one to
experience the waves.
Earthquake waves are divided into
● Body waves : Created due to the release of energy at the Hypocenter (focus). These
waves travel in all directions through the body of the earth.
It can be divided into :
1. P-waves : They are called Primary waves. They move faster and are first to arrive at
the surface. They are similar to sound waves and can travel through Solid, Liquid and
Gaseous materials. P waves vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave which causes
stretching and squeezing of the material/
2. S-waves : They are called Secondary waves which arrive at a time lag with Primary
waves. They can travel only through Solid materials. S-waves vibrate in perpendicular to
the wave direction which creates crests and through.

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● Surface waves : the body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate surface
rocks. They are the last to report on the Seismograph and are the most destructive.
They cause displacement of rocks and structural collapse. Surface waves vibrate
perpendicular to the wave direction.
The velocity of the waves is directly proportional to the density of the material through
which they travel. Differing density leads to reflection or refraction of the seismic
waves.

Shadow Zone

Shadow zones are those specifies area where seismic waves are not reported. These zones
are distinct for P and S-waves.

● Within the distance, up to 105° from epicenter has recorded the arrival of both
waves.
● The zone between 105° – 145° form epicenter is identified as a shadow zone for
both types of waves (P and S).
● Beyond 105° zone does not receive S-waves. Thus the shadow zone of S-wave is
must larger than P-wave.
● P-wave appears after 145° from the epicenter.

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Type of Earthquake
● Tectonic : They are caused due to the sliding of rocks along a fault plane.
● Volcanic : They are confined to areas of active Volcanoes. They are caused due to
the explosion of volcanos and the corresponding tectonic disturbances.
● Collapse : They are caused in areas of intense mining activities where the roofs of
underground mines collapse causing minor tremors.
● Explosion : They are caused due to the explosion of chemical or nuclear devices.
Important facts
● A seismograph is an instrument that records the waves reaching the surface.
● Richter Scale : it is known as Magnitude scales as it measures the energy released
during the quake. It is expressed is absolute number 0-10.
● Mercalli Scale : It is called an Intensity scale as it measures the visible damage
caused by the earthquake. The range is from 1-12.
Tsunami
● These are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves or tidal waves produces by the
sudden or abrupt displacement or large volumes of water (including when an
earthquake occurs at sea)
● The effect of Tsunami would occur only if the epicenter of the tremor is below oceanic
water and the magnitude is sufficiently high.
Effect of Earthquakes
● Ground Shaking
● Differential ground settlement
● Land and mid slides
● Soil liquefaction
● Ground lurching
● A valances
● Ground displacement
● Floods from the dam and levee failures
● Fires
● Structural collapse
● Falling objects
● Tsunami
Global Warming and Earthquakes
● In recent research, geologists claim that global warming is one of the reason for
increases seismic activity.
● Reason : Melting glaciers and rising sea levels disturb the balance of pressure on
Earth’s tectonic plates which causes an increase in the frequency and intensity of
earthquakes.
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