CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Mapping surveys are made to determine the locations of natural and manmade features on the

Earth’s surface and to define the configuration (relief) of that surface. Once located, these

features can be represented on maps. Natural features normally shown on maps include

vegetation, rivers, lakes, oceans, etc. Cultural (artificial) features are the products of people

and include roads, railroads, buildings, bridges, canals, boundary lines, etc. The relief of the

Earth includes its hills, valleys, plains, and other surface irregularities. Lines and symbols are

used to depict features shown on maps. Names and legends are added to identify the different

objects shown (Ghilani and Wolf, 2012).

A topographic map is a detailed and accurate illustration of man-made and natural features on

the ground such as roads, railways, power transmission lines, contours, elevations, rivers,

lakes and geographical names. The topographic map is a two-dimensional representation of

the Earth’s three-dimensional landscape. Topographic maps represent the Earth’s features

accurately and to scale on a two- dimensional surface. Topographic maps are an excellent

planning tool and guide and, at the same time, help make outdoor adventures enjoyable and

safe. Information along the map borders provides valuable details to help you understand and

use a topographic map. For example, you will find the map scale and other important

information about the map such as the year, the edition and information about the map data

(Abdussalam, 2019).
Surveying or land surveying is the technique, profession, and science of accurately

determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional position of points and the distances and

angles between them. These points are usually on the surface of the earth, and they are often,

used to establish land maps, and boundaries for ownership or governmental purposes.

(Encyclopedia, 2009)

Surveying which is also called Geomatics as traditionally been defined as the science, art and

technology of determining the relative position of points above, on or beneath the earth’s

surface or of established points. In a broad sense, surveying can be regarded as that discipline

which encompasses all methods for measuring and collecting information about the physical

earth and our environment, processing that information and disseminating a variety of

resulting products to a wide range of clients (Ghilani& Wolf, 2010).

Microsoft Encarta, (2009) defined Surveying as the mathematical science used to determine

and delineate the form, extent, and position of features on or beneath the surface of the earth

for control purposes, that is, for aligning land and construction boundaries and for providing

checks for construction and civil engineering works such as dams, bridges, railroads, and

highways controlled by surveying methods.

There are various operation in surveying but are depended on the purpose and the accuracy

required (Jame, 2010). Surveying are classified as control survey, cadastral survey,

topographic survey, hydrographic survey, engineering survey, mine survey route survey,

photogrammetric survey and remote sensing (Olatundeet al.,(2003).

Topographic (survey) maps are essential and indispensable tools for any sustainable

development. Hence, a topographical map could be defined as a two-dimensional

representative of the earth’s surface which shows by the use of suitable conventional signs,
the spatial configuration of the earth’s surface. This includes such features as hills and valley,

other natural features such as trees and streams and physical changes wrought upon earth’s

surface by man as house, roads, canals and cultivation. A topographical map is required in

planning, construction and also for military purposes (Olaniyi, 2011).

Isoclines are imaginary lines joining points of equal elevation. Historically contours were

drawn by hand and smoothed to produce a cartographically pleasing product. Contours are

usually stored as two-dimensional lines with an attribute or label containing the appropriate

elevation value (Bawa, 2010).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

As surveying is said to be the bedrock of any meaningful development and topographic

surveying is the type of surveying that is carried out in other to show pictorially at any point in

time out. Owing to the present growth of the Nigerian population and the corresponding push for

tertiary education, there is need for key driving tertiary institution like the Ahmadu Bello

University to explore avenues in developmental improvements at various times. This process can

only be achieved by baseline of the existing terrain that can appropriately guide university policy

makers in terms of development, expansion and management of limited resources.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

1.3.1 Aim

This project aimed at producing a topographical map of Area BZ, of Ahmadu Bello

University Samaru Zaria. In order to produce corrected and reliable topographical map of

Area BZ
1.3.2 Objectives

To achieve the above aim the project is guided by the following objectives to:

i. Ascertain the perimeter/bounding of the study area.

ii. Determine the planimetric position of existing feature (natural and Man-made) in

the Area.

iii. Ascertain the relief configuration/ topography of the Area

iv. Combination of the different layers produced to form a topographical map.

1.4 Significance of the Study

In this project collected or observed field data will be analyzed (Area, perimeter, highest and

lowest elevation) and finally produce a topographical map. Topographical map plays a vital

role as tool for regional development, this is because the map can be used for better planning,

and management and utilization of resources as it depicts various features on earth surface

both natural and man-made features. With a topographical survey in this case, the planner or

manager will be able to decide the best position to fix a tank in the area and it also helps to

make professional decisions.

1.6 Scope and limitation

The scope of this project comprises of the extension, identification or establishment of third

order control point, and the collection of 3-Dimensional datasets (easting, northing and

heights) of natural and man-made features within the project area. Data for the Study were

collected using ground and field survey methods, validated using existing maps and images

from Google earth.

1.7 Study Area

The study area is area B.Z located within the main campus of Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. (Fig. 1). It

is about 760 m above sea level. It is approximately bounded by Latitude 11 0 10’ 46’’N and 110 4’ 25’’ N,

Longitude 70 36’ 55’’ E and 70 44' 12''E. There exists a tropical continental climate in Zaria with

defined seasonal regimes of tropical wet and dry season. It consists of six months of wet season

and six months of dry season. Its rainy season starts in May and ends in October with a peak in

August, while its dry season starts from November and ends in April the following year (Ekpo,

Abaje, et all, 2021). The study area is showed in Figure. 1.1 below.
Fig. 1.1: Inset Map of ABU Zaria Area BZ (Source: Author)
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Theoretical Framework

Mapping surveys are made to determine the locations of natural and artificial features on the

Earth’s surface and to define the configuration (relief) of that surface. Once located, these

features can be represented on maps. Natural features on maps include: vegetation, rivers,

lakes, oceans, etc. Cultural (artificial) features are the products of people and include roads,

railroads, buildings, bridges, canals, boundary lines, etc. The relief of the Earth includes its

hills, valleys, plains, and other surface irregularities. Lines and symbols are used to depict

features shown on maps. Names and legends are added to identify the different objects shown

(Ghilani and Wolf, 2012).

Surveying, which has recently also been interchangeably called Geomatics, has traditionally

been defined as the science, art, and technology of determining the relative positions of

points above, on, or beneath the Earth’s surface, or of establishing such points. In a more

general sense, however, surveying (Geomatics) can be regarded as that discipline that

encompasses all methods for measuring and collecting information about the physical earth

and our environment, processing that information, and disseminating a variety of resulting

products to a wide range of clients. Surveying has been important since the beginning of

civilization. Its earliest applications were in measuring and marking boundaries of property

ownership. Throughout the years its importance has steadily increased with the growing

demand for a variety of maps and other spatially related types of information and the
expanding need for establishing accurate line and grade to guide construction operations

(Ghilani and Wolf, 2012).

2.2 Topography

Topography refers to characteristics of land surface. These characteristics include relief, natural

features and man-made features. Relief is the conjuration of the earth’s surface and include such

features as hills, valleys, plains, summits, depressions and other material features such as trees,

stream and lakes, man-made features highways, bridges and dams.

Topographic Surveying

Topographic Surveys determine locations of natural, artificial features and elevations used in

map making. Land, boundary, and cadastral surveys establish property lines and property

corner markers. The term cadastral is now generally applied to surveys of the public lands

systems. There are three major categories: original surveys to establish new section corners in

unsurvey areas, retracement surveys to recover previously established boundary lines and

subdivision surveys to establish monuments and delineate new parcels of ownership.

Condominium Surveys, which provide a legal record of ownership, are a type of boundary

survey (Ghilani and Wolf, 2012).

Height Systems

Height Systems The term “height system” refers to a mechanism by which height values can

be assigned to places of interest. In consideration of what criteria a height system must

satisfy, Hipkin (2002b) suggested two necessary conditions: (i. Hipkin) Height must be single

valued. (ii.Hipkin) A surface of constant height must also be a level (equipotential) surface.
Heiskanen and Moritz (1967, p. 173) held two different criteria, namely: (i.H&M)

Misclosures must be eliminated. (ii.H&M) Corrections to the measured heights must be as

small as possible. The first two criteria (i.Hipkin and i.H&M) are equivalent: if heights are

single valued, then leveling circuits will be closed, and vice versa. The second two criteria

form the basis of two different philosophies about what is considered important for heights.

Requiring that a surface of constant height be equipotential requires that the heights be a

scaled geopotential number and excludes orthometric and normal heights. Conversely,

requiring the measurement corrections to be as small as possible precludes the former, at least

from a global point of view, because dynamic height scale factors are large far from the

latitude of definition. No height meets all these criteria. This has given rise to the use of

(Helmert) orthometric heights in the United States, dynamic heights in Canada, and normal

heights in Europe (Ihde and Augath 2000). Table III.1. provides a comparison of these height

systems.

A height system is a one-dimensional coordinate system used to express the metric distance

(height) of a point above a reference surface (i.e., the zero-height level) along a well-defined

path. Particularly, the physical heights are determined using geodetic levelling techniques that

measure the distance between two equipotential or level surfaces of the Earth’s gravity field

and provide the height along the curved plumb line. As the height determination depends on

the level surfaces and the plumb line of Earth’s gravity field, these coordinate systems are

called physical height systems. These coordinate systems are called physical height systems

as the height determination depends on the level surfaces and the plumb line of Earth’s

gravity field. The physical heights are referred to the geoid, a particular equipotential surface

of the Earth’s gravity field that is close to the mean sea level. From the practical point of
view, the mean sea level has been assumed as the zero-height level and inferred from

averaged tide gauge records over certain time intervals. Since the mean sea level differs from

the geoid (up to 2 m at global scale) and from point to point, the heights determined along the

so-called vertical or levelling networks referred to a given tide gauge define a local height

system. Presently, more than 100 local physical height systems are in use.

2.3 Controls for Topographical Survey

Whether the mapping is done by ground or aerial methods, the first requirement for any

survey project is good control point. The various types of control are explained below

(Ghilani and Wolf, 2012).

2.3.1 Horizontal Control

Horizontal control for a mapping survey is provided by two or more points on the ground,

permanently or semi permanently monument, and precisely fixed in position horizontally by

distance and direction or coordinates. It is the basis for locating map features. Horizontal

control can be established by the traditional ground surveying methods of traversing,

triangulation, or trilateration, or by using GNSS surveys (Ghilani and Wolf, 2012).

2.3.2 Vertical Control

Vertical control is provided by benchmarks in or near the tract to be surveyed and becomes

the foundation for correctly portraying relief on a topographic map. Vertical control is

usually established by running lines of differential levels starting from and closing on

established benchmarks. Project benchmarks are established throughout the mapping area in

strategic locations and their elevations determined by including them as turning points in the

differential leveling lines. In rugged areas, trigonometric leveling with total station

instruments is practical and frequently used to establish vertical control for mapping. GNSS
surveys are also suitable for establishing vertical control for topographic mapping, but the

ellipsoidal heights derived from GNSS surveys must first be converted to Orthometric

heights. The latter two methods are of sufficient accuracy to support most mapping surveys

(Ghilani and wolf, 2012).

2.4 Methods of Topographical Survey

Two methods of topographical surveying are adopted, the selection of the most appropriate

depends on the accuracy required, and extent, details and nature of the area to be surveyed

(Antonio, 2018).

2.4.1 Older Topographic Surveying Methods

This involves the use of older instruments, surveying methods and techniques to carry out the

topographic survey. Some of this type of survey is discussed below.

1- Transit-Tape (Chain) Transit tape topographic surveys can be used to locate points

from which a map may be drawn. The method generally requires that all observed data be

recorded in a field book and the map plotted in the office. Angles from a known station are

measured from another known station. Transit-tape surveys typically set a baseline along

which cross-section hubs were occupied and topographic features were shot in on each cross-

section. The elevation of an offset point on a section is determined by vertical angle

observations from the transit. The slope or horizontal distance to the offset point is obtained

by chaining. The accuracy may be slightly better than the plane table-alidade method or very

high (0.1ft or less), depending upon the equipment combinations used.

2- Chaining A chain of 100, 200, 300, or 500-foot steel tapes are used for manual

distance measurement methods. Maintaining any level of accuracy (e.g. better than 1:5,000)
with steel tape is a difficult process, and requires two experienced persons. Mistakes/blunders

are common. Tapes must be accurately aligned over the points (using plumb bobs), held at a

constant, Subsequent corrections for tape sag/ tension, temperature, and slope may be

necessary if higher accuracy is required. (John and Bill 2010).

3- Transit-Stadia Transit-stadia topographic surveys are performed similarly to transit-

tape surveys describe above. The only difference is that distances to offset topographic points

are measured by stadia “trigonometry “Using the distance proportionate ratio of the

horizontal crosshairs in the transit telescope. The multiple horizontal crosshairs in the transit

scope can be used to determine distance when observations are made on a level rod at the

remote point. This distance measurement technique is the basis of plane table survey distance

measurement. The three horizontal crosshairs in transit are spaced such that the upper and

lower crosshair will read 1.0ft on a rod 100ft distance from the transit: (John and Bill 2010).

2.4.2 Modern Topographic Surveying Methods

This involves the use of more modern instrument and techniques to carry out this type of

survey. Examples of the instruments used are; total stations, GPS equipment and so on. Some

of the instruments are discussed below by (John and Bill, 2010).

1- Total Stations these instruments sensed horizontal and vertical angles electronically

instead of optically, and combined them with an EDM slope distance to output the X-Y-Z

coordinates of a point relative to the instrument’s X-Y-Z coordinates. An EDM device is

added to the theodolite and allows for simultaneous measurements of the angle and the

distance. With the addition of a data collector, the total station interfaces directly with

onboard microprocessors, external PCs, and software. The ability to perform all
measurements and to record the data with a single device has revolutionized topographic

surveying.

2- Real Time Kinematic (RTK) GPS kinematic surveying is a GPS carrier phase

surveying techniques that allows the user to rapidly and accurately measure baseline while

moving from one points to the next, stopping only briefly at the unknown points, or in

dynamic motion. A reference receiver is set up at a known station and a remote, or rover,

receiver traverses between the unknown points to be positioned. The data is collected and

processed (either in real-time or post-time) to obtain accurate positions at the centimeter

level.

3- Terrestrial LIDAR (laser) scanning Laser scanning instruments have been developed

that will provide topographic detail of structures and facilities at an extremely high density.

This tripod-mounted instrument operates similarly to a reflector less total station. However,

they are capable of scanning the entire field of view with centimeter-level pixel density in

some cases. A full 3D model of a project site or facility results from the scan.

2.4.3 Reasons for topographic survey

According to (John and Bill, 2010) A topographic study may be made for a variety of reasons

among which includes:

I. Military planning and geological exploration have been primary motivators to start

survey program

II. It furnishes complete information regarding the elevation of points shown on the

map.

III. For proper detailing information about terrain and construction of any major civil

engineering, public works or reclamation projects.

 IV. Map users can easily interpret the map as a model of the ground.

V. It also helps to enable a general outpost, offensive or defensive position to be taken

up.

2.5 Topographic Map

A topographic map is used to depict terrain relief showing ground elevation, usually through

either contour lines or spot elevations. The map represents the horizontal and vertical positions

of the features represented. The scale of the topographic survey will conform to the needs of the

client. A smaller contour interval will result in more field measurements and higher cost. The

end-product of a topographical survey is the production of either a topographical map or plan.

There are no clear distinctions between a topographical map and plan, but it is generally

accepted that in a plan, details are drawn such that it is true to scale, while in a map many

features have to be represented by symbols, the scale being small, hence, details are generalized.

Elevation information can be added either as spot heights, which are the individual height of the

points, or as contours, which gives less detail but more features representation of the area.

Frequently spot heights only are shown on plans. Plans tend to be used for engineering design

and administration purposes only, but maps have a variety of uses such as navigational,

recreational, geographical, geological, military, exploration their scale ranging from 1:25000 to

1:1000000 (Nationwide Surveying, 2013).

2.6 Review of Related Works

Suleiman Simeon Bakwo, conducted a topographical Mapping of Aqua Resort center in

Kukwa District, Federal Capital Territory-Abuja, and concluded that the project provides

necessary practical experience on the topographical survey and also adequate exposure on the
use of various modern surveying instruments and techniques. The project work demonstrated

a digital method of topographical and detail map compilation both in the field and office

work (Sulaiman, 2018).

Yakusak Jullius Dauda, carried out Digital topographical survey of Ahmadu Bello

University Teaching Hospital, Shika, Zaria, and concluded that the study has been able to

showcase a topographic information system as a necessary tool for managing environmental

issues and abate some environmental related problems (Yakusak, 2008).

Antonio O. O. conducted a topographical mapping of parts of Tsaunin Kura Residential

Layout, Sabon Tasha, Kaduna State, and concluded that the use of GPS and total station and

AutoCAD software in the mapping of the project area has actually proven that there is an

ease in topographical mapping and also that good accuracy can be achieved when used

(Antonio, 2018).

Olubunmi Nike Anjorin, conducted a topographical survey of a parcel of land, along Umaru

Musa Yar’adua expressway, trade fair bus stops, Lugbe, Cadastral zone, Abuja and

concluded that the project procedures were successful and that the instruments and

methodology adopted with compliance to survey regulations and department instructions had

been a major motivation that aided the completion of the project (Olubunmi N. A 2017).
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1 Materials Used

The following equipment’s are needed for the Success of this Research:

i. Global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (hi-target v90 rtk)

ii. Tripod

iii. Reflectors (2)

iv. Steel Tape (30 m)

v. Record Book

vi. Pegs(20)

3.1.1 Hardware used

i. Laptop Computer (HP Notebook 650: 4gb RAM, Core i5)

ii. Mouse

iii. USB Cable (to download output data from the instrument)

3.1.2 Software

i. Arc-GIS version 10.8

ii. Surfer 10.

iii. Microsoft Office Suite 2016.

iv. AutoCAD 2014

3.2 Method

The workflow diagram in Figure 3.1 depicts the methods adopted during the execution of the

project.
Figure 3.1: Work Flow of the Method (Source: Author).
3.2.1 Reconnaissance Survey

This can be described as the planning of the process of survey project or operations to be

carried out in order to have a clear view of the study area and to achieve predetermined goals

and objectives.
3.2.2 Office Reconnaissance

Office reconnaissance is one of the major aspects of survey, which must be carried out so as

to enhance the execution of the survey project at hand. During office reconnaissance,

information about the availability of existing controls that will be used was obtained, the

instruments to be used, when to carry out the project, time it will take and the amount of man

power needed. Lastly financial implication is also of great concern.

3.2.3 Field Reconnaissance

This was done by walking round the area to be surveyed with the aim of getting the general

view of the overall picture of the area. During this process, the method that best suit the

survey was identified, the most suitable position for stations was determined.

The processes below were successfully carried out during the field reconnaissance.

3.2.4 Instrument Test

The instrument was tested for data acquisition, available space, battery capability and the

possibility of signal reception and transmission between the two receivers. In order to test the

data acquisition, the instrument was mounted on a known control for 20 minutes and it was

discovered that the instrument was ok (i.e. in good condition).

3.2.5.1Insitu Check

Table 3.1: In-situ Check (Source: Author)

Point ID Easting Northing Height (m)
pt1 351717.6 1232612 661.8796

pt2 351573.8 1232682 660.5309

pt3 351510.7 1232730 662.9758

pt4 351522.8 1232749 663.629

pt5 351534.8 1232764 664.3029

pt6 351547.2 1232772 664.6102

pt7 351492.8 1232714 662.0557

pt8 351406.5 1232781 660.6187

pt9 351352.6 1232836 663.3488

pt10 351263.6 1232892 662.3126

pt11 351081.2 1233076 668.3942

pt12 350957.9 1233192 669.2643

pt13 350847.8 1233369 670.1602

pt14 350887 1233515 670.6858

pt15 350777.7 1233695 667.5223

pt16 350795.3 1233792 669.3551

pt17 350824.7 1233836 669.6091

pt18 350939.6 1233749 675.3957

pt19 352198.3 1233022 660.1063

pt20 352147.1 1232761 657.328

pt21 352023.6 1232548 658.786

3.2.4.2 Perimeter Survey

After the establishment of the proposed selected control points, I carried out the perimeter

survey by coordinating the selected points. With regards positioning of points, some points

were made inter-visible while others were not. The stop and go method of observation was

actually adopted to coordinate beacons around the perimeter. During the process TL02 was

used as the base station from which TL/SB1, TL/SB2, TL/SB3 and TL/SB4 were established.
3.2.4.3 Coordinate Measurement Using Total Station

The coordinate measurement function of the Total Station was used in part of the project

especially in areas where the GPS proved difficult i.e. a total station is suitable to carry out

surveys where GPS cannot cover.

The procedure adopted was as follows:

(i). Centre the instrument on the tripod over a station of known x, y, z, coordinate and level

the circular and plate bubbles. If the screen of the instrument display ‘out of range’ that

means the instrument is not level otherwise it will display horizontal and vertical angle.

(ii). from the measuring mode, press the coordinate soft key and select station orientation.

(iii). Enter the northing, easting and height of the control occupied. Measure the instrument

height and the reflector height with a precision tape and enter accordingly. Press enter then

OK.

(iv). Select “set H angle” and then select back then press “edit: then input the x, y, z,

coordinates are displayed. Press ok again and horizontal and vertical angles are displayed.

(v). Bisect the back-sight station and press Yes. The instrument is now oriented, the x, y, z

coordinate of any point sighted after these procedures will thus obtained.

3.3 Observation Procedures

The method of observation, detailing using Total station, is the same for traversing, detailing

and topographic data collection and is stated as follows:

(i). Set up the tripod on the survey station and make sure the legs are spaced at equal interval

and the head is approximately level.

(ii). Set the instrument on top of the tripod supporting it with one hand tightening the

centering screw on the bottom of the instrument with the other hand.

(iii). Center the circular level bubble and the horizontal plate bubble. Turn the instrument to

see if the bubbles are in the same position. If not, repeat the leveling procedures.

(iv). Measure the height of the instrument and the reflector with a precision tape.

(v). Switch the instrument if “out of range” is displayed; the instrument tilt sensor is

indicating the instrument is out of range. Repeat the leveling procedure. The horizontal and

vertical angles are displayed if the instrument is perfectly set.

3.3.1 Some Precautions taken During the Observation some of the precautions taken were
as follows:

(i). Great care was taken in centering the instrument and the targets over the controls, ensure

proper centering and leveling of the instrument.

(ii). Final movement of slow motion screw was always clockwise to avoid hack slash.

(iii). to ensure stability of the instrument, the tribrach was firmly fixed.

(iv). the leg fixing screw of the tripod in which the instrument was mounted securely

tightened to avoid the tripod from collapsing.

The detailing started from the two coordinate points, TL/SB1 and TL/SB2. Detail survey was

run within the boundary of the project site especially at places where the use of GPS was

difficult. Furthermore, some control points were established within the project site so that

they can be used in the orientation of the instrument while carrying out topographic data

collection and detailing. Some property beacons that were located around the boundary were

also coordinated.
3.3.2 Topographical Data Observation

The topographical data are normally collected so that the relief of the terrain could be

portrayed on topographical maps in form of contours. The spot heights (X, Y, Z) were

collected using random method of observation. The method for the interpolation of contour is

usually considered when planning for data collection. The interpolation of contours in this

project was carried out using AutoCAD Civil 3D. The software recognizes the x, y, z

coordinates of spots heights and automatically interpolates the contours. The random method

of observing spot height was used.

3.3.2.1Detailing

The details whose positions were taken include building, roads, trees and drainages. The

coordinates of the edges of the building were observed so that they could be plotted directly

from coordinates. The edges of road were also observed in order to define the horizontal

alignment of the roads. Most points were taken along the horizontal curves so that the curves

could be drawn to certain degree of accuracy. The location data of features; both man-made

and natural features were mapped out using a precise GPS and a Total station. The Total

station really helped to cover places where the GPS had observational challenges.

3.3.2.2 Attribute Data Acquisition

Non- spatial data of the features observed were collected and recorded on the field book

through social survey method within the study area. This has to do with the names of the

roads, street, buildings and trees amongst others.

3.4 Spot Heightening by Method of Radiation

In surveying different method are used to acquire data for developing the terrain model of

any area. The techniques employed are a function of the type of survey equipment used; the

detail required and specified elevation accuracy. I adopted a Reduced Level extracted from

the Topo sheet, used height of collimation method to establish reduced levels for controls

before further spreading of other heights.

In this project the instrument used was Leica TCR 307 total station, adopting ray method.

The procedure employed for spot heightening involves setting up the total station on a control

station, the necessary temporary adjustment and orientation were nmade, then the tracking

rod and reflector were moved randomly within the space and the instrument is used to locate

the reflector and observations were made, the coordinates of each point is observed and

recorded.

3.5 Plotting the Details

The plotting of the detail was done using their coordinates obtained from field. The

coordinates of corner of buildings were also used with the line command to plot the building.

Horizontal alignment of roads and drainages were also plotted using their coordinates.

3.5 Preparing layout

Preparation of the layout, this is where the layout of the Map is prepared which include

setting of scale, north arrow, legend title of the map etc. This is done in the layout view. Most

importantly, the choice of a scale may be a major factor to be considered in computerized

map compilation. The map being stored in a softcopy can be printed in any scale depending

on the user’s demand. However, the final copy of this map was drawn to the scale of 1: 2000.

3.5.1 Data Analysis

Analysis involves the selective search, manipulation and output of data without the

requirement to modify the geographical location of the features involved Most often with

produced spatial data, mathematical analysis are made to give more perspective on their

applications. Retrieval operations occur on both spatial and attribute data. Often data is

selected by an attribute sub set and viewed graphically. With this project, analysis was

performed on basically the spatial coordinates with the objective of trying to show how

coordinates were generated

REFERENCES

Abdussalam, A. (2019). “Topographic Analysis of farm land located at Tsauni along Kura-
madobi Road, Kura LGA, Kano State”. Retrieved from Ahmadu BelloUniversity Zaria,
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Antonio, O. O. (2018). “Topographical mapping of parts of Tsaunin Kura Residential Layout,
Sabon Tasha, Kaduna State”. Retrieved from Ahmadu BelloUniversity Zaria,
Department of Geomatics library, Project Report.
Bawa. S. (2010). ‘Digital Terrain Model Zaria, Kaduna State. (Project Reports in Geomatics,
2010). Retrieved from: Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Department of Geomatics
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Charles, D. G, Paul, R.W. (2012). “Elementary Survey: An introduction to Geomatics 13 th
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Ekpo, R., Abaje, B. I., Oloko, M., & Laah, G.J. (2020). Influence of Rainfall and Temperature
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