Activity 2

Answer the following questions. Write legibly on separate sheet of paper and submit your output at
fermilangelo100288@gmail.com
1. Define each of the following terms:
a. Balance of nature
b. Community
c. Stability
d. Variety
e. Potential pest
f. Nutrient cycles
g. Resurgence
h. Pest Outbreaks
i. Ecological succession
j. Endogenous pest
k. Exogenous pest
2. Discuss how do the following practices and external inputs affect or change the functioning of the
ecosystems.
a. Tillage b. Pesticide c. Irrigation
d. Fertilizer e. Cropping system

Activity 3
Answer the following questions. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.
1. What is the goal and importance of regulatory control?
2. Why is it important to have or conduct pest risk analysis for plants and plant products prior to its
domestic movement?
3. Why is it important to consider or understand the life cycle of an introduce pest in planning for
regulatory control program.
4. What are benefits of the following in quarantine and eradication program?
a. environment
b. farmer beneficiaries
c. government

Activity 4
Answer the following questions. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.
1. What are the general considerations for breeding resistance to plant disease pathogens and insect
pests?
2. What are the different challenges of breeding for pest resistance?
3. Identify the advantages and disadvantages of the following breeding methods for crop improvement.
a. Pedigree
b. Back cross
c. Bulk population
d. Mass selection
e. Multi line breeding
4. Identify the different factors affecting the expression of disease and insect resistance.
5. Explain the role of biotechnology in the development of pest resistance in crops.

Module Overview
Human Behavior and Decision-Making Concepts of IPM

Introduction

IPM is a decision support system for the selection and use of pest control tactics, singly
or harmoniously coordinated into a management strategy, based on cost/benefit
analyses that take into account the interests of and impacts on producers, society, and
the environment. A farm is said to be as multi-enterprise in nature having substantial
interdependency in decision across crops. In other words, the type of control a farmer
applies to his main crop influences his control decision for the second crop. Similarly, his
control practices in the previous season greatly affect his decision in both present and
future cropping. IPM offers changes in farming methods, hence, changes also in the
farmer's way of life. Its introduction demands that farmers be provided not only with
the material farm inputs, but also sets of decision-making tools; what resistant variety
to use, when to use pesticides, what pesticides to use, etc. The IPM approach requires
regular field monitoring, and farmers are encouraged to define what the economic
threshold level, without which judicious is and economical use of pesticides will never
be realized.

Objectives
At the end of the module the students must able to
1. Learn the importance of effective decision making for pest management
2. Outline the basic steps in decision making process for IPM
3. Identify the factors of farm level decision making

Duration
Chapter 5: Human Behavior and Decision-Making = 2 hours
Concepts of IPM (1.5 hours discussion; 30
minutes assessment)

Lesson Proper

Human Behavior

Behavior can be defined as a response/s which is observed directly/indirectly.

 Direct observation is possible by studying the responses of people to a work
environment.
 Indirect observations are decision making processes and attitudes, in terms of results
or how people describe them verbally.
Human behavior is very much unpredictable. It refers to the array of every physical
action and observable emotion associated with individuals; experienced throughout
an individual’s entire lifetime and it includes the way they act based on factors such as
attitude, social norms, faith and culture. Understanding behavior one can predict direct,
change and control behavior of individuals or group.

Decision Making

Decision – an act of choice, wherein an executive form a conclusion about what must
be done in a given situation.

Decision-making can be regarded as a problem-solving activity terminated by a

solution deemed to be satisfactory. It is a mental process resulting in the selection of an
action among several alternative solutions.

Decision-making starts with the identification of a problem, which requires the collection
of all relevant information for critical analysis of the problem. This analysis leads to
development of a set of available alternative courses of actions to solve the problem;
only realistic solutions should be selected considering multiple criteria e.g. effectiveness,
benefits, costs and the constraints e.g. ease of implementation and technical or
legislative constraints. Based on this analysis, the best solution is selected, and the
decision is converted into an action.

Typical steps in the integrated pest management decision process

1. Proper identification of problems

This is essential to gather information about its biology, ecology, and
behavior and monitoring population levels. If the identity is not correctly
established, then the information on the biology and ecology of the pest used to
make decisions will be incorrect. Mistaking a disease problem for an insect
problem, for example, can lead to an unnecessary use of an insecticide or
continued planting of disease-susceptible crop varieties. Confusing a nutritional
deficiency for herbicide injury or a disease ailment can likewise lead to incorrect
actions.

2. Determine the severity of the problem

Once the pest is correctly identified, the next question arises: Is there a risk of
significant loss? What is the extent of the damage? Is the problem a growing
threat? Scientific sampling and or crop monitoring techniques have been
developed for assessing the damage potential of many pests.
 Correct sampling helps eliminate the guesswork in pest control by providing a
means to quantify an old problem or discover a new one. Use sampling
knowledge and information on pest and crop biology to make better
management decisions.

3. Analysis to assess problem importance

Analyze the identification and sampling information and evaluating the need for a
pest control action. Decide how bad the problem really is. Is the potential control
measure more costly than the damage potential? Weigh economic,
environmental, and time concerns. What impact will current pest control decision
have on future crop management decisions? Compare the observed frequency of
a given pest to its “action threshold.”

An action threshold is the level at which action must be taken so that the pest
will not significantly damage the crop. Action thresholds are based on research
and growers’ experiences with similar problems. During the analysis stage,
consider the relative vigor of the plants, plant populations, and value of the crop
and potential yield. Depending on the crop and pests type light pest populations
may actually increase yields by causing the plant to compensate.

4. Selection of appropriate management alternative

When an action is needed, choose a strategy that fits with the short- and long-
term plans, labor force, capital, equipment, and finances of the farm. Evaluate
the costs, benefits, and risks of employing various management options. Look for
opportunities to integrate different pest control strategies. What are the cultural,
mechanical, biological and chemical control options? Which is the most practical,
economical, effective choice?

5. Proper implementation of management option

Implement the control carefully and at the right time. If pesticides are used,
always follow label recommendations. Cultivation or using herbicides on weeds
must be done at the right stage of weed and crop development for greatest
impact. Pay close attention to the quality control of pest control actions, such as
correct calibration of the application equipment and label recommendations. If
appropriate, leave small, untreated areas to evaluate control effectiveness.
Conduct management action with precision and thoroughness.

6. Evaluation of effectiveness of management action

After a pest control action is taken, review what went right—and equally as
important, what went wrong or could be improved. Did the control work? Scout
the field again and compare pest activity before and after treatment. Was the
problem identified properly? Was the field sampling unbiased? Was threshold
guideline used and was it used correctly? Was the choice of control based on
sound judgment or outside pressure? What changes to the system would make it
better?
 Enter this information as part of an updated field history. This evaluation step is
a very important part of the IPM process since it enables you to learn from
experience and find ways to improve management skills and impact.

Economic Threshold Level (ETL) IPM based decision-making

The economic threshold (ET) is probably the best-known term and most widely used
index in making pest management decisions. The most widespread use of ET (Economic
Threshold), has been where curative (therapeutic) management tactics (mainly
insecticides) are used. Here insect populations are sampled on a regular basis and when
needed, suppressive action is taken.

If a pest population is growing as the season progresses, growth rates are predicted,
and the ETL is set below the EIL. By setting the ETL at a low value, we are predicting
that once the population reaches the ETL, chances are good that it will grow to exceed
the EIL. Therefore, it is appropriate for us to take action on an earlier date (before we
accrue losses in reaching the EIL).

IPM decision-making has traditionally depended heavily on economic threshold levels

that are based on three factors;
a. management cost
b. commodity price
c. damage coefficients

These are highly variable and thus have not been found useful under most conditions
where economic and ecological considerations are of equal importance for stable
production. Therefore, decision-making is based on weighing potential management
costs against potential losses. Costs and losses, however, can include not only economic
costs and losses but can also have an impact on natural enemies, health and the
environment while taking into consideration the general condition of the crop.
Obviously, a crop under drought or flood stress is going to require a different decision
from that for one under optimal conditions.

The first level of decision-making therefore begins with the first principle of IPM - to
create a healthy soil and crop through proper soil fertility management, healthy seed
and appropriate varieties, strong seedling management, proper soil preparation, correct
time of planting, etc. A robust healthy crop has fewer pests in most cases and can
recover from pest damage. This principle applies throughout the cropping season and
even beyond, when issues such as crop rotation, cover cropping and green manuring
are taken into consideration

The second level of decision-making is based not on traditional pest-scouting but on

whole-field observation including soil, water, plant, pests, natural enemies and weather
patterns. Potential losses are weighed against potential management costs – a
traditional
aspect of farming that becomes refined with improved observation skills and ecological
understanding gained during IPM training courses

Pesticide application may occasionally be one decision outcome, especially in higher

fertilizer input systems, but is by no means the only possibility. Decisions taken may
include soil, water and plant management actions such as increasing or reducing
fertilizer usage in response to pest or weather damage. Decision processes take into
account the impact of activities on natural enemies and plant compensation factors
(e.g. will a spray remove natural enemies and actually cause greater pest populations?).
Selecting the least toxic solutions in order to prevent health problems is also a factor in
decision making.

Categories of Economic Thresholds (ETs) pest management decision rules

1. No thresholds - "identify and spray" conventional practice; decisions under this category
was common in applied entomology. Although using thresholds is considered an
advance for most insect problems today, there are at least five situations where they
are not appropriate:
a. Pest sampling cannot be done economically,
b. Practical response to cure problem cannot be implemented in a timely way
c. Once detected, the problem cannot be cured
d. ET is immeasurably low (some quality losses, disease transmission, rapid growth
potential)
e. Populations are intense where general level of fluctuation is always above the
EIL.

Management implementation in these situations usually must depend on

prevention, rather than cure. When insecticides are used for prevention,
scheduled treatments according to calendar date or cultural operation are the
rule.

2. Nominal thresholds: represents decision rules that are declared on the basis of
manager's experience. Historically, these were first thresholds used and are still the
most frequent type implemented. Although sometimes criticized for not based on
rigorous research, nominal thresholds are an advance over using none at all, because
such decision rules tend to be conservative (i.e., resulted in reduced insecticide
applications).

3. Simple thresholds: type of threshold where levels are calculated on the basis of average
responses of hosts to injury caused by an insect. The four major inputs of market value,
management costs, tissue destroyed (or damage done) per insect, and yield (or quality)
reduction per tissue destroyed are used to make calculations. Although these thresholds
may be our best current practice, they usually fail to consider possible interactions of
several pests and changes in the cropping environment that influence decisions.
 4. Comprehensive thresholds: Decision rules in this category await future development.
These addresses topics like effects of insect and weed interactions on plant stress and
include weather factors in calculating EILs. At the core of establishing truly
comprehensive thresholds for crops in an intimate understanding of the host plant and
its reaction to combined factors, both biotic and physical.

Farm level decision making level

For an IPM strategy to be successful, it must enter the farm level decision
making process and be adopted as the course of action. Adoption will occur because a
strategy ranks highest within a possible set of action. An IPM strategy will be adopted,
then, either because of profitability or because of constraints imposed. IPM strategies
must be defined with this in mind.

Farmer’s decision regarding pest management is determined by the following factors:

 problem in terms of the pest, the level of attack, and the damage caused
 options available to the farmer, such as cultural practices, resistant crop varieties
or breeds of livestock, and pesticides
 farmer's perceptions, of the problem and of the availability and effectiveness of the
options, and
 farmer's objectives, including monetary goals and his or her attitude to financial
risks, health hazards, and community values

References:

Radcliffe, E.B., Hutchinson, W.D., Cancelado, R.E. (2009). Integrated Pest Management
Concepts, Tactics, Strategies and Case Studies. Cambridge University Press. pp 25-47
Retrieved from. https://pestcontrol.ru/assets/files/biblioteka/file/10-
radcliffe_e_b_hutchison_w_d_cancelado_r_e_eds_-integrated_pest_management-
cup_2009.pdf

http://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/13938/1/Unit-6.pdf

Singh, N. and Gupta, N. (2017). Decision Making in Integrated Pest Management and
Bayesian Network International Journal of Computer Science & Information Technology
(IJCSIT) Vol 9, No 2, Retrieved from.
https://aircconline.com/ijcsit/V9N2/9217ijcsit03.pdf

https://nrcca.cals.cornell.edu/Pest%20Management%20Guide%20final%2010-26-
2016.pdf

https://ipm.tamu.edu/about/strategies/

http://www.fao.org/tempref/docrep/fao/004/y6159t/y6159t02.pdf
Module Overview
Regulatory Control of IPM

Introduction
Pest prevention programs aimed to prevent introduction, colonization, and
establishment of pests that would cause significant agricultural, environmental,
and or societal harm in an area where the pest does not already occur.
Regulatory pest management program could be achieved in various pest
management techniques such as exclusion, detection, eradication, mitigation and
public education. It requires limiting movement of commodities and materials,
and treating them as well as the environment. Hence, equitable and orderly
domestic and international trade is a major challenge.

Specific Objectives
At the end of the module the students must able to:
1. Understand the basic principles of regulatory control.
2. Discuss the strategies of regulatory control of pests.
3. Differentiate quarantine and eradication as tool for regulatory control of pests.

Duration
Chapter 6: Regulatory Control of IPM = 2 hours
(1.5 hours discussion; 30
minutes assessment)

Lesson Proper

Regulatory Pest

Control

Measures preventing the entry and establishment of foreign plant and animal
pests in a country or area and eradication or suppression of pests established in a
limited area. It requires limiting movement of commodities and materials, and
treating commodities, materials, and the environment. Regulatory control
programs are designed to reduce the movement of infested materials to a low
level so that the likelihood of an exotic pest becoming established will be minimal,
but they are not a guarantee of protection.

Regulatory pest management measures may be taken if:

1. The pest poses an actual or expected threat.
2. The objective is reasonably attainable.
3. The economic gains outweigh the costs of application of control measures.
Factors in a Regulatory Control Program
In developing regulatory control program, the following factors may be considered;
1. Population densities.
2. Reproduction and mortality rates.
3. Age distributions.
4. The pest’s vigor.
5. The potential for growth and spread of the pest given the new environmental
conditions.

Control or eradication programs must evaluate all life stages of the introduced
pest to identify vulnerable life stages. It is necessary to know what effects factors
such as pesticides, parasites, predators, and host resistance have on all life stages
of the new pest.
For example, pesticide that only kills one stage of a pest may decrease a
population temporarily but will not decrease the population over the long term if
other measures are not taken to control other life stages. Studies of the introduced
pest’s life cycle can often identify critical life stages and other factors that are
important in producing significant population changes. By recognizing these key
factors, we can develop control measures that can have a significant impact on
reducing the population.

Introduction and Spread of Pest

Exotic pest

Refer to any organisms that are introduced to a new, non-native location, and are likely
to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health. Exotic species,
especially those that were introduced to an area with no natural predators or
competitors, will flourish in their new habitats. Once established, introduced species can
become aggressive and dangerously invasive.

Understanding the environmental requirements of the introduced pest is necessary to

evaluate its potential threats. The new location may be more or less favorable in terms
of environmental conditions. For instance, it may have more or fewer predators and
parasites than its native habitat.

Natural vs. Artificial spread

Natural spread is movement that the pest is capable of without human intervention.
Some pests may be capable of moving only short distances each year, while others may
spread long distances by the movement of wind, water, and birds or other wildlife. In
general, quarantines are not effective at controlling the natural spread of pests. For
example, winged insects and some pathogens can be spread great distances on wind
currents. Some soil-borne pests can be transported over long distances in water.
Natural barriers such as oceans, deserts, and mountain ranges can slow natural spread.

Artificial spread of pests is the movement of pests by people via aircraft, buses,
ships, trains, trucks, and automobiles. Modern shipping methods can allow pests to
travel quickly and arrive at their destination in a viable condition. Preventing the
artificial spread of pests is a primary objective of regulatory pest control programs. It is
not possible to intercept every exotic pest’s. Introductions can occur by way of infested
or infected agricultural commodities imported into the country.

Pests can also be found in non-agricultural products such as within boxes or crates used
for shipping many different types of products. Ships infested with pests such as Asian
gypsy moth could have adults’ moths fly from the ship toward lights on shore without
ever docking at a port.

Strategies for Regulatory Control

The success of any plant and animal pest control often depends on the combination of
skills and consideration of different strategies implementing the pest management
programs. In general, as pests become established one strategy is being replaced by
the next strategy.

1. Identification of risk
A pest risk analysis (PRA) is used to determine the probability for harm. It is the
technical tool used to identify appropriate phytosanitary measures. Regulatory
agencies look at the pests already present in the area; the life cycles and host
ranges of quarantine pests of concern; when, where, why and how harm could
occur and to what degree; how the pest could be introduced; and the likelihood of
colonization and establishment
A PRA may be initiated when “there is an intention to import for selection and/or
scientific research a plant species or cultivar not yet introduced that could potentially
be a host of pests”. It is the responsibility of the importer to prepare the PRA and to
communicate any recommendations from this PRA to the exporter.
In preparing a PRA, a number of factors should be considered including the
category of the pest, the economic impact of the pest, the potential for
establishment and spread of the pest, and the proposed uses of the plants or plant
products. The conclusion of the pest risk management stage will be whether or not
appropriate phytosanitary measures adequate to reduce the pest risk to an
acceptable level are available, cost-effective and feasible. If the pest risk is
considered unacceptable and there are no measures available to mitigate the risk,
then the import can be prohibited.
 At the other end of the spectrum, if the pest risk is considered negligible, the import
may be permitted with few if any phytosanitary measures.
Quarantine pest is “a pest of potential economic importance to the area
endangered thereby and not yet present there, or present but not widely distributed
and being officially controlled” (International Plant Protection Convention)
Regulated non-quarantine pest is defined as “a non-quarantine pest whose
presence in plants for planting affects the intended use of those plants with an
economically unacceptable impact and which is therefore regulated within the
territory of the importing contracting party”.
An importing country has the right to impose phytosanitary measures for
regulated pests only, whether they are quarantine or non-quarantine pests.
Management risk is one of the fundamental principles of the International Plant
Protection Convention (IPPC), recognizing that there is always a risk of spread and
introduction of pests when importing plants and plant products and that importing
countries should only institute phytosanitary measures consistent with the pest risk
involved.

Table 1. Some of the regulated pests in the Philippines

Scientific Name Common Category Commodi Legislation/
Name ty Regulations/
Rules
Brontispa longissima Coconut leaf Quarantine coconut BPI Special
Gestro, 1885 beetle (QP) Quarantine
(Brontispa castanea, B. coconut hispine Order No. 01
froggatti, beetle Series of 2007
B. longissima var. Javana, coconut leaf
B. reicherti, hispid
B. longissima var. new Hebrides
selebensis, B. simmondsi, coconut hispid
Oxycephala longipennis, O.
longissima)
Chlorotic ringspot Chlorotic ring QP oil palm BPI Special
spot Quarantine
(anillo clorótico) Order No. 02
Series of
2005; MO No.
22 Series of
2008
Scotinophara spp Rice black bug Regulated rice DA Special
Scotinophara coarctata black rice bug Non- Quarantine AO
(Fabricius) Malayan black Quarantine No. 1 Series of
Cimex coarctatus bug Pest (RNQP) 1993;
Podops coarctata
 paddy, bug, BPI AO No. D-
black 2 Series of
black rice shield 1982
bug
black bug
RBB
Papaya ring spot virus Papaya ring QP papaya BPI
(papaya ringspot potyvirus spot virus Administrative
papaya distortion ringspot papaya PRSV - Order No. 16
virus strain P: papaya Series of 1989
papaw distortion ringspot cucurbits PRSV -
virus strain W:
papaw mosaic virus watermelon
papaw ringspot virus
papaya distortion mosaic
virus
papaya leaf distortion
virus)
Ceratitis capitata Mediterranean QP Fruits and BPI AO No. 23
(Wiedemann) fruitfly vegetables Series of 1988
Ceratitis hispanica Breme medfly
Tephritis capitata Mexican fruitfly
Wiedemann Fruitfly
Ceratitis citriperda MacLeay Queensland
Pardalaspis asparagi Bezzi fruitfly

Anastrepha
ludens(Loew)
Trypeta ludens(Loew)
Acrotoxa ludensLoew

Dacus tryoni(Froggatt)
(Bactrocera (Bactrocera)
tryoni(Froggatt)
Chaetodacus
tryoni(Froggatt)
Chaetodacus
sarcocephaliTryon
Strumeta melas
Perkins&May
Strumeta tryoni(Froggatt)
Dacus ferrugineus
tryoni(Froggatt)
Tephritis tryoniFroggatt)
Coconut cadang cadang Coconut cadang QP coconut BPI AO No. 15
viroid cadang Series of
(Palm cadang cadang Cadang cadang 1988; BPI
viroid) disease Quarantine AO
Yellow mottling No. 13 Series
disease of 2004
Globodera rostochiensis Golden cyst QP potato BPI AO No. 14
(Wollenweber, 1923) nematode Series of 1988
Behrens, 1975 yellow potato
(Heterodera schachtii solani cyst nematode
Zimmerman, 1927 potato cyst
Heterodera schachtii nematode
rostochiensisWollenweber, potato golden
1923 nematode
Heterodera (Globodera) golden
rostochiensisWollenweber, nematode
1923 (Skarbilovich, 1959) eelworm
Globodera eelworm,
rostochiensis(Wollenweber, golden
1923) Mulvey & Stone, nematode of
1976 potato, golden
Heterodera eelworm, potato
rostochiensisWollenweber, root
1923) golden eelworm
golden
nematode of
potato
golden potato
cyst nematode
golden
nematode
potato root
eelworm
SternochetusfrigidusFa Mango pulp QP mango BPI AO No. 20
bricius, 1787 weevil Series of 1987
(Acryptorhynchus frigidus Mango fruit
Sternochetus weevil
gravis(Fabricius) Mango weevil
Cryptorrhynchus gravis Mango flesh
Fabricius weevil
Curculio frigidus Fabricius Northern mango
Cryptorhynchus frigidus weevil
(Fabricius) Mango seed
Acryptorrhynchus weevil
frigidus(Fabricius)
Sternochetus Mango stone
mangiferae(Fabricius,1775) weevil
Sternochetus Mango weevil
mangiferae(Fabricius,1775)
Sternochetus
mangiferae
(Fabricius,1775)
(Cryptorhynchus
mangiferae (Fabricius)
Acryptorhynchus
mangiferae (Fabricius)
Curculio mangiferae
Sternochetus ineffectus()
Ampularia gigasStyx Golden apple RNQP rice BPI AO No. 18
(Pomacea canaliculata) snail Series of 1987
Salvinia molesta Giant salvinia, QP Rice BPI AO No. D-
Water fern, 1 Series of
Salvinia, Kariba 1985
weed, Aquarium
watermoss,
velvet weed
Palm lethal yellowing Lethal yellowing QP coconut BPI AO No. 1-
phytoplasma of coconut 2 Series of
(coconut lethal yellowing 1982
phytoplasma
Coconut lethal yellowing
mycoplasma-like organism)
Mango malformation or Mango QP mango BPI AO No. 1-
bunchy top; malformation or 1 Series of
Woody gall bunchy top; 1982
Scaly bark Woody gall
Scaly bark
Citrushuanglongbing Citrus greening RNQP citrus BPI AO No. 2
(greening) disease greening Series of 1969
Citrus greening bacterium yellow branch
Liberobacter disease
asiaticum[Candidatus]Moni yellow shoot
queGarnier leaf mottling of
Liberobacter Citrus
africanum[Candidatus]Moni blotchy mottle
que Garnier disease of Citrus
Huanglong bingbacterium
Greening bacterium
Asian greening
 African greening
Liberobacter asiaticum
Liberobacter africanum
Candidatus Liberobacter
asiaticum Monique Garnier
Candidatus Liberobacter
africanum Monique Garnier
Candidatus Liberibacter
africanus
Candidatus Liberibacter
asiaticus
South American greening
Liberibacter africanus
subsp capensis(Candidatus)
Liberibacter
americanus(Candidatus)
Canna indica Indian Shot, RNQP abaca BPI AO No. 1
Maranta arundinacea Canna or Series of 1961
bandeara-
española;
arrowroot
Microcyclus South American QP rubber BPI AO No. 13
ulei(Henn.)Arx[teleomorph leaf blight of Series of 1949
] rubber
(Dothidella ulei Henn.
[teleomorph]
Hypothenemus Coffee berry QP coffee BPI AO No. 5-
hampei(Ferrari,1867) borer 1 Series of
Coffee seed 1946
borer
Source:
https://www.ippc.int/static/media/files/publications/en/1310181095_23_Philippines.pdf

2. Prevention of entry
The primary strategy to exclude pest entry is through the use of quarantines.
Quarantine inspection programs at ports of entry are designed to prevent the
introduction and establishment of pests. Quarantine may totally prohibit the
importation of specific agricultural products (or planting containers) for specific
pathogen threats, or may allow the importation of agricultural products that are
inspected prior to entry. It may be imposed for entire countries, regions, or states of
provinces. The prevention of both the introduction and interstate movement of
disease and pests is an essential responsibility of regulatory agencies. Inspectors
work cooperatively with other border inspection agencies in the examination of
passengers,
baggage, and vessels of transport. Certain agricultural products are restricted from
entry unless accompanied by documentation to verify freedom from pests. Other
agricultural products are prohibited from entry when disinfestations techniques are
not available or are not effective at controlling potentially harmful pests.
Quarantines in and of themselves are generally not 100% effective at excluding
exotic pests. However, quarantine can be effective at reducing the incidence of pest
introduction and reduce any incidents of introduction to a manageable population
that can be eradicated.

3. Survey and detection

Early detection and rapid response are essential to an effective and cost-efficient
pest control program. Survey and detection are also important when pests
penetrate the pest exclusion barrier and become established. The goal of pest
detection is to discover infestations while they are still small enough to eliminate.
Where previously unknown pests are found, the information must be reported to
the appropriate regulatory agency. Once an exotic pest is found, additional visual
surveys and/or trapping programs are performed to determine if an infestation
exists; and, if so, how extensive it is. Surveys help determine the feasibility of
eradication. Surveys are also needed to identify the areas where eradicative
treatments and quarantine measures need to be applied.

4. Eradication
Eradication generally means using all available viable options, which often
includes the application of pesticides. If prevention is not successful and an
introduction occurs, the immediate objective of the control program is to
eradicate the pest. Other pest control measures may include elimination of the
pest’s food source in the limited area where the outbreak has occurred, or
changing the pest’s habitat so that the pest cannot survive. Mass trapping and
mating disruption with pheromones also help reducing insect pest populations.
In disease, eradication involves the reduction of initial inoculum at the
source. This involves the burial, burning, or removal of crop debris at the source.
The removal of alternative weed hosts or alternate hosts that serve as potential
sources of initial inoculum (at the field site) also fall under the principle of
eradication. Other practices that reduce initial inoculum at the source include
crop rotation, the introduction of biological control agents, soil fumigation, steam
sterilization or pasteurization, solarization, green manure crops, trap crops, and
the incorporation of crop residues from other crop species.
Eradication efforts must be implemented quickly and d decisively to achieve
the goal of eliminating the pests. The goal of eradication can be difficult to
achieve because small populations of the pest can sometimes survive the
eradication efforts in numbers not easily detected by surveys. Over time, these
small populations can reproduce and may cause significant damage or spread
through artificial means to a variety of areas. It is important to monitor for the
presence of
 the pest after the goal of eradication is thought to have been achieved to assure
that the pest has actually been eliminated.

5. Mitigation of losses and retardation of spread

If the pest becomes firmly established and eradication is not feasible, the next
practice is to slow or prevent the spread and to mitigate losses. Inspections and
pest control treatments may help to reduce the spread. Treatments to slow the
spread of the pest and to mitigate losses in the infested area might include:
a. The use of pesticides
b. The release of parasites or predators
c. The release of sterile mates
d. The removal of the host.
e. Use of varieties that are resistant to the pests.

6. Diagnosis and record keeping

Diagnosis is the investigation or analysis of the cause or nature of a condition,
situation, or problem. Timely and accurate pest diagnostics is extremely
important for a successful pest prevention program. Specimens and samples
collected in the performance of the exclusion and detection work need to be
quickly identified and recorded. Recordkeeping is also very important because
interception and detection records are essential for making valid and meaningful
pest pathway studies, risk analysis, and quarantine evaluations.

7. Public information and education

Effective pest prevention programs require an educated and supportive public.
The public must know what quarantine restrictions exist and why they exist in
order to be motivated to comply with them and to support funding for them.

The Philippine Quarantine System

Presidential Decree No. 1433 also known as "Promulgating the Plant Quarantine Law of
1978, Thereby Revising and Consolidating Existing Plant Quarantine Laws to Further
Improve and Strengthen the Plant Quarantine Service of the Bureau of Plant Industry"
enacted on June 10, 1978. It was created to address issues related to the significant
economic losses brought about by plant pests; provide regulatory procedures in
preventing the introduction, incursion and establishment and spread of plant pests
during international and domestic movements of plants and plant products; and to
serve as the frontline defense against the destructive effects of pests to agricultural
crops.

Importation and exportation of plants and plant products are important activities in
trade that facilitated and governed by quarantine procedures. Essential quarantine
activities include, among others, restriction, removal or transfer, inspection, verification
and certification, and release or discharge. These activities are essential to assure that
the
plants and plant products and other materials capable of harboring plant pests are free
from maladies or quarantine significance. Moreover, inspection and verification are
important in the assessment of the phytosanitary conditions of such plants and plant
products and the eventual issuance of Phytosanitary of Plant Certificate.

Plant products that require permit to import.

1. living plants
2. nursery stocks as propagating materials
3. seeds and nuts for planting
4. fresh fruits, vegetables and other plant products which have been declared are
prohibited or restricted imports under Special Quarantine Orders
5. Pure cultures of fungi, bacteria, virus, nematode and other phytopathogenic
materials
6. mushroom cultures including spawn
7. algae cultures, rhizobial cultures as legume inoculants
8. soil and plant materials for isolation of organism
9. other plant cultures
10. Genetically Modified plants, planting materials and plant products
11. Wood packaging materials and other packing materials capable of harboring plant pests.
12. Frozen/chilled fruits and vegetables including diced vegetables and processed fruits
13. Milled rice, corn and other grains and cereals
14. grasses for animals and aqua feeds
15. Other plants, planting materials and plant products under Category 2, 3, and 4

Plant Quarantine involved legal restriction of movements of plants and plant

materials between countries and between states within the country to prevent
introduction and spread of pests and diseases where they do not exist.
In the Philippines, plant quarantine is being enforced by the Bureau of Plant Industry -
National Plant Quarantine Services Division (BPI-NPQSD) by virtue of Presidential
Decree 1433, as amended otherwise known as the Plant Quarantine Law of 1978.
The Plant Quarantine Service (PQS) of the Bureau of Plant Industry is the regulatory
arm of the Philippine Department of Agriculture when it comes to matters of import,
export, domestic movement as well as market access of plants and plant products. It
aims to prevent the entry of foreign pests into the country, prevent spread of pests
already existing in the country and comply with the international standards. Plant
quarantine stations are located strategically in different regions, major seaports and
airports nationwide.

Quarantine Administrative Circular No. 1 Series of 2014 rationalized the regulation of

commodities of plant origin in relation to the requirements for Phytosanitary Certificate,
Sanitary, and Phytosanitary Import Clearance (SPSIC) and employment of necessary
treatment.

Categorization of Commodities of plant origin (DA Circular No. 04 s. 2016)

Category 1 – includes commodities that had been processed reaching a point where they
are not capable to be infested with quarantine pests and therefore not be regulated.
SPSIC not require but importers must secure PQSC or Processed Product Certificate or
equivalent document at the point of entry prior release of commodity.

Category 2 – commodities are processed to the point that they remain capable of
being infested and are intended for consumption of further processing. Require
Phytosanitary Certificate and SPSIC from the country of origin. BPI PQS determine the
need for pest risk analysis.
Category 3 – fresh fruits and vegetables, legumes, flowers cut and timber, or logs.
These are not processed but are imported for consumption and processing. Require
SPSIC, a Phytosanitary Certificate and RPA.
Category 4 – cover plants, cuttings, seeds, leaves and other parts and materials
intended for planting. Require SPSIC, a Phytosanitary Certificate and RPA.

Eradication
Eradication is the application of phytosanitary measures to eliminate a pest from an
area or geographic region (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2005). Technological
advances including sterile insect release and pheromone traps made eradication of
many species feasible.

References:
Jenkins, E., Randall, C., and McCumber, E., (2006). Regulatory Pest Management: A
Guide for Commercial Applicators Category 9. Michigan State University Extension.
Retrieved from
https://www.canr.msu.edu/ipm/uploads/files/TrainingManuals_Regulatory/ReducedSize.
pdf

Joshi, R.C., . Invasive alien species (IAS):Concerns and Status in the Philippines.
PhilRice Maligaya, Science City of Muñoz NE. Retrieved from
https://www.fftc.org.tw/htmlarea_file/activities/20110826121346/paper-729213301.pdf

https://apsaseed.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/3_Phyto-3-Joselito-Antioquia.pdf

http://eagri.org/eagri50/ENTO232/lec15.pdf

https://www.ippc.int/static/media/files/publications/en/1310181095_23_Philippines.pdf
 https://www.ippc.int/static/media/files/publications/en/
2013/06/06/1329129099_ippc_2 011-12-01_reformatted.pdf

https://www.promusa.org/Quarantine+pest#Pest_risk_analysis

http://bpi.da.gov.ph/bpi/images/PDF_file/DA%20DEPT%20CIRCULAR%2004.pdf

Module Overview
Chapter 2
The Concepts of Integrated Pest Management

Introduction

One of the major challenges of the 21st century is to provide food for its ever-
growing population. It has a pushed food production systems to maximum efficiency
and the demand requires farmers to produce more crops on existing farmland that
needs continuous improvement of agricultural technologies to minimize crop losses.
Pest problem exists when organism referred as pest, interferes with human activities
or desire, or otherwise competes with man. In recent years chemical control played
a significant role in reducing pest population providing remarkable result within a
short period of time. However, over reliance and indiscriminate use of pesticides
consequently accumulated in a series of problems in the agricultural landscape
primarily, the development of resistance in insects to insecticides, resurgence,
outbreak of secondary pests into primary nature, environmental degradation,
destruction of natural enemies of insect pests, among others. All these problems
contributed to a new way of thinking concerning pest control practices - the
integrated approach of pest control.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Learn the basic concepts of integrated pest management/pest management.

2. Discuss the various management tactics and strategies for pest management.
3. Analyze the trends and developments in pest management.

Duration

Chapter 1: Concept of Integrated Pest = 3 hours

Management (2.5 hours discussion; 30
minutes assessment)
Lesson Proper

A. The Current Concepts of IPM

A.1 Goals and Scope of IPM

The goals and scope of IPM or PM could be understood based on the following
assumptions:

1. Organisms that cause economic damage are the ones of interest in pest
management

2. Control pests, not eradicate entire population.

Some pests are tolerable and essential so that their natural enemies remain in
the crop. Rather, the aim is to reduce pest populations to less than damaging
numbers. It is usually beneficial to allow some portion of the pest population
to survive so the population of natural enemies is preserved as well. Chemical
pesticides, too, are not eliminated in the IPM process, but used with
discrimination rather than the only alternative.

3. Treatments are not made according to a predetermined schedule.

Control measures are instituted when and if monitoring has indicated a pest
will cause unacceptable economic, medical or aesthetic damage. The control
measures chosen for treatment are timed to be most effective and least
disruptive to natural pest controls.

4. Based on results of monitoring to determine if and when treatments are necessary,

employing physical, mechanical, cultural and biological methods to reduce and
maintain low pest population levels. The goal of IPM is to manage pests while
balancing costs, benefits of control, public health and environmental quality.

5. Treatments are chosen & timed to be most effective & least disruptive to natural
pest controls
6. Pest management is only one aspect of overall crop production that needs to be
considered by a farmer. It cannot be considered on its own – overall management of
the crop by the farmer affects pest management, vice versa. Simply, grow a healthy
crop first which is able to withstand the effects of the pests compared to a weak crop
under stress.

7. Pest management does not increase the potential of a crop to produce a high yield.

8. IPM goal is to provide the most cost effective, environmentally sound and socially
acceptable method of managing diseases, insects, weeds and other pests according
to local conditions.
 A.2 Pest Management Strategy

Pest management strategy is the total approach to eliminate or reduce a real or

perceived pest problem. The development of particular strategy is influenced by the
biology and ecology of the pest and its interaction with a host or environment.

Types of strategies developed based on pest characteristics and economic management

(Pedigo and Rice 2006)

1. The do-nothing strategy

The host plants and animals are able to tolerate small amounts of injury
without suffering economic injury/losses. If the pest density is below the
economic threshold, then the do-nothing strategy is the correct approach;
otherwise, money would be expended on control that would not result in a
net benefit. Frequently used when insects cause indirect injury to a host, or
when a successful pest management program reduces the pest population
and only surveillance of the remaining population is necessary

2. Strategy of reducing pest problem

Often employed in a therapeutic manner when populations reach the
economic threshold or in a preventive manner based on historical problems
(Pedigo & Rice, 2006). The objectives of reducing pest problems are to
diminish the population peaks of the pest; and to lower the highest peak
populations by never reaching the economic threshold. In order to reduce
pest numbers tactics including resistant hosts, insecticides, pheromones,
mechanical trapping, natural enemies, insect growth regulators, release of
sterilized insects and modification of the environment can be use.

3. Strategy of “reducing host susceptibility to the pest injury”

This strategy involves the modification of the host or host’s relationship and
interaction with the pest to make it less susceptible to a potentially damaging
pest population. Tolerance is the common form of this strategy where in a
plant or animal does not reduce the attacking pest population, but the injury
caused by the pests has less of a detrimental effect on the host (i.e. yield loss
in plants or weight loss in animals) than it does on a similar host without the
tolerance. Other component to this strategy, ecological modification of factors
that influence the distribution or abundance of a pest, also can reduce host
susceptibility.

4. Strategy of “combining reducing pest population with reducing host susceptibility to

the pest injury”
This strategy combines the objectives of the previous strategies as a logical
step in the development of a pest management program. It is a multifaceted
approach and more likely to produce greater consistency than a single
strategy using a single tactic. The use of multiple strategies and tactics is the
basic principle in developing an IPM program.
A.3 Pest Management Rules

Integrated Pest Management is not a single control method but, rather, a series of
pest management evaluations decisions and control. In practice, farmers who are
aware of the potential pest infestations follow a series of approach. The four steps
include:

1. Set action thresholds - IPM first sets an action threshold, a point at which pest
populations or environmental conditions indicate that pest control action must be
taken. Sighting a single pest does not always mean control is needed. The level at
which pests will either become an economic threat is critical to guide future pest
control decisions.

2. Monitor and identify pests - Not all insects, weeds, and other living organisms require
control. Many organisms are innocuous, and some are even beneficial. IPM programs
work to monitor for pests and identify them accurately, so that appropriate control
decisions can be made in conjunction with action thresholds. This monitoring and
identification remove the possibility that pesticides will be used when they are not
really needed or that the wrong kind of pesticide will be used.

3. Prevention - As a first line of pest control, IPM programs work to manage the crop,
lawn, or indoor space to prevent pests from becoming a threat. In an agricultural
crop, this may mean using cultural methods, such as rotating between different
crops, selecting pest-resistant varieties, and planting pest- free rootstock. These
control methods can be very effective and cost-efficient and present little to no risk to
people or the environment.

4. Control - Once monitoring, identification, and action thresholds indicate that pest
control is required, and preventive methods are no longer effective or available, IPM
programs then evaluate the proper control method both for effectiveness and risk.
Effective, less risky pest controls are chosen first, including highly targeted chemicals,
such as pheromones to disrupt pest mating, or mechanical control, such as trapping
or weeding. If further monitoring, identifications and action thresholds indicate that
less risky controls are not working, then additional pest control methods would be
employed, such as targeted spraying of pesticides. Broadcast spraying of non-specific
pesticides is a last resort.

A.4 Pest Management Tactics

Pest management tactics are the methods implementing pest management

strategy (e.g., physical, cultural, chemical, biological etc.,) or simply referring to
single/individual control options. In relation to crop production, these tactics are
essential on producing a healthy crop or environment that is unfavorable to pest
populations. Some or most of these methods can be implemented along with famer’s
crop production practices. The available techniques for controlling single or
population of pest problems are conveniently categorized as;
1. Physical or mechanical control - involves the use of machines or other tools; the
direct or indirect (non-chemical) measures that completely eliminate pests, or make
the environment unsuitable for their entry, dispersal, survival and reproduction.
Techniques of physical control include;
a. Soil cultivation and tillage, which physically kills some pests, buries them, or
exposes them to drying conditions on the soil surface or as food for birds or
other predators.
b. Traps, such as rat traps and sticky insect traps.
c. Hand collection of insects, leaves/fruits that are diseased, with insect eggs, or
infested with insect pests, etc.
d. Hand weeding

2. Cultural control - includes practices that optimize plant growing conditions, or

produce unfavorable conditions for pests. Optimal growing conditions provide a
healthy crop that is more able to resist pest attack. Below are some management
practices for cultural control.
a. Crop rotation
b. Land preparation
c. Use of clean, certified seed and planting material
d. Time of sowing
e. Plant spacing
f. Timing and amount of fertilizer
g. Weeding
h. Origin, timing and amount of irrigation water

3. Chemical control - the use of chemical pesticides which kills pest, control their
activity (this particular mode of action is often included under biological or ‘bio-
rational control, e.g., use of insect sex pheromones), or prevent them from causing
damage.

4. Biological control - involves the use of natural enemies of pests –predators and
parasites (also called beneficial insects) and disease-causing organisms – and
encouraging their development. Use of predators and parasites as biocontrol for
pests are handled in one or more of 3 ways;

a. conservation and encouragement of naturally occurring biocontrol

organisms by cultural techniques or at least avoidance of harming them

b. augmentation of naturally occurring species by purchasing and releasing

more of the same

c. "classical" biological control in which new biocontrol species specific to

pests are sought and introduced

Natural control – often refer to the enhancement of naturally occurring

pest management methods.
 5. Genetic manipulation/Host Resistance - manipulation of the genetic make- up of the
host so that it is resistant to pest attack is called host plant resistance.

6. Regulatory control - Regulatory control refers to the role played by government

agencies by preventing the entry and establishment of foreign plants and animal
pests in a country or-area, and eradicating, containing or suppressing pests already
established in limited areas.

Each of the many methods in insect control has its place in IPM. There
are many situations where two or more can be used in an integrated
program. Not all methods, however, are suitable for use in every
situation.

A.5 Features of IPM

IPM combines natural forms of control, taking advantage of ecological relationships

in the agricultural system, with economically derived rules for the application of
pesticides. However, pesticide use in IPM differs from the approach used in
conventional pest control. When possible, IPM relies on selective pesticides that
target specific pests, can be applied at lower rates, and are less toxic to beneficial
organisms.

1. IPM is not a static, unyielding system. It is dynamic, ever-changing as we develop a

better understanding of all factors that affect the system. These factors include
climate, alternate host plants, beneficial insects and man's activities. In a narrow
sense, IPM means the management of the few important pests generally found on
our crops, but consciously or not it must include all insect pests, not only the "key"
ones but also the secondary pests, which seldom do any harm. If this were not so,
we might suddenly find some of these minor insect pests or even non-pests elevated
to the status of serious insect pests because of our failure to consider them in the
total scheme.
2. Environmentally sound - An integrated pest management (IPM) approach integrates
preventive and corrective measures to keep pests form causing significant problems,
with minimum risk or hazard to humans and desirable components of their
environment. IPM programs have proven a track record of significantly reducing the
risks and related to pesticides, while improving quality, health and welfare of the
environment.
3. Economically feasible - adoption of IPM strategies provides economic benefits due to
sustained development, increased productivity and reduced pest damage. The
options that IPM can offer make sole reliance upon synthetic pesticides a thing of the
past. In the long-term, everyone benefits through a healthier environment.
4. Socially acceptable
B. Historical Trends in IPM/PM

B.1 Pre-IPM era

 2500 BC (4500 years ago) first records of insecticides; Sumerians used sulfur
compounds to control insects and mites. It was observed that the element sulfur
controlled some insects and mites and several fungal diseases that damaged crops.
 200 BC Romans advocated oil sprays for pest control.
 300 AD First records of biological controls; Chinese used. predatory ants in citrus
orchards to control caterpillar and beetle pests
 1880 First commercial spraying machine
 1930 Introduction of synthetic organic compounds for plant pathogen control

B.2 Emergence of the Early Concepts of IPM

The concept of IPM emerged about 60 years ago when entomologists from
California, USA observed that the sole use of chemical pesticides could not be the
solution to insect pests’ problem. Insect resistance to organosynthetic insecticides,
resurgence of primary pests, upsurges of secondary pests, and environmental
pollution initiated the notion of IPM. It has been emphasized that chemical control
should be employed to reduce a pest population only when natural controls are
inadequate. Intervention to control pest should also be made when populations rise
to levels that cause economic damage. Additionally, the cost of control must cover
the amount lost due to the pest damage and negative effect on the ecosystem, due
to the application of pesticide, and should be to the minimum.

The supervised insect control by Californian entomologists in which insect control

was to be supervised entails periodic monitoring of both pest and natural enemy
populations and application of insecticides only when necessary – in contrast to
calendar-based or insurance treatments.

The conceptual basis for "integrated control” that University of California

entomologist articulated in the 1950s.

1. Integrated control sought to identify the best mix of chemical and biological controls
for a given insect pest.

2. 1939 (dawn of the modern insecticide era): DDT recognized as an effective insect
control DDT (Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane) for mosquitoes spreading malaria
among army troops and civilians

3. Late 1940s (post WWII): the advent of “chemical” pesticides including 2,4-D, became
very popular broadleaf herbicide in U. S. corn and sorghum production, and lead a
revolution in developing herbicides used for selective weed control.
Decade later, the problems with indiscriminate use of insecticides were becoming
evident, including pest resistance, target pest resurgence, secondary pest outbreaks
and environmental contamination.

B.3 Pest Management

The concept of 'pest management' was proposed in 1961 (Geier and Clark, 1961)
along with the widespread pest resistance in 1950’s to DDT and other pesticides.
In the year 1967, the term Integrated Pest Management (IPM) was introduced by
R.F. Smith and R. van den Bosch and was formalized by the US National Academy of
Sciences in 1969. IPM was adopted as policy by various world governments during
the 70's and 80's, including the USA.
Over the years IPM underwent several changes in its focus and approaches. Some of
the key approaches are:
1. Damage threshold –The basic IPM principle relied on the damage boundary/
economic damage relationship i.e no injury level below the damage boundary merits
suppression, but injury predicted to result in economic damage does.

2. Economic Injury Level- is the most basic of the decision rules; it is a theoretical value
that, if actually attained by a pest population, will result in economic damage.

B.4 The ETL – based IPM

The level of pest population is very important consideration for taking up control
measures. Pest population must be maintained at levels below those causing
economic injury. The determination of these thresholds is a pre-requisite to the
development of any pest management strategy.

Economic Threshold Level (ETL) - The point below the economic injury level at which
a decision is made to treat or not to treat. The pest density at which management
action should be taken to prevent an increasing pest population from reaching the
EIL. The following are important consideration in determining the ETL.
a. Know how to identify the pest
b. know how to sample the crop environment

Economic Injury Level - the lowest population density of a pest that will cause
economic damage; or the amount of pest injury which will justify the cost of control”
(Stern et.al., 1959).

B.5 The "Package of the Technology" IPM

The concept of integrated pest management (IPM) originated almost 60 years ago in
response to the negative impacts of pesticides. These drawbacks of the unwise use
of pesticides inspired entomologist to think of integrated pest management (IPM) in
1959 as a new paradigm of insect control. IPM uses all suitable techniques to keep
pests
 below levels that cause unacceptable crop loss. The use of this various techniques
actually depends on the crop and pest situation, and also to some extent on the
infrastructure under which the crop is produced, as well as the availability of
resources. It is also important to remember that any crop is a dynamic system – it is
constantly changing. It is changing within a season due to the natural growth stages
of the crop (seedling, vegetative, reproductive stages), as a result of the farmers
management practices (thinning, weeding, fertilizer application, irrigation etc), and
as a result of changes in pest types and numbers. The implementation of pest
management needs to take this dynamic situation into account.

Components of Integrated Pest Management

1. Cultural method or use of agronomic practices
2. Host plant resistance
3. Mechanical and Physical methods of pest control
4. Biological methods
5. Chemical methods
6. Behavioral methods
7. Genetic or Biotechnology method
8. Regulatory method

B.6 Emerging concepts of IPM

Economic Level - it is the level of the pest population, as determined by valid
sampling procedures, at which some additional control or management practice
must be used to prevent yield or quality loss.
Damage threshold - this principle relied on the damage boundary/ economic
damage relationship i.e no injury level below the damage boundary merits
suppression, but injury predicted to result in economic damage does.

Economic Injury Level - The EIL is the most basic of the decision rules; it is a
theoretical value that, if actually attained by a pest population, will result in
economic damage.

References/Additional Resources/Readings

Trainee Manual Introduction to Integrated Pest Management (accessed 2016

November 11). https://croplife.org/wp-content/uploads/pdf_files/IPM-Trainee-
Manual-2011-update.pdf

IPM (Integrated Pest Management) Pesticide Control Program New Jersey

Department of Environmental Protection (accessed 2020 September 18).
https://www.state.nj.us/dep/enforcement/pcp/bpo/pem/handouts/Doc15_IPM.pdf

Integrated Pest Management Concepts, Tactics, Strategies and Case Studies

Radcliffe E, Hutchison D, Cancelado R. 2009 (accessed 2016 November 19).
https://pestcontrol.ru/assets/files/biblioteka/file/10radcliffe_e_b_hutchison_w_d_can
celado_r_e_eds_-integrated_pest_management-cup_2009.pdf

Principles and Concepts of Integrated Pest Management (accessed 2016 November

19). https://niphm.gov.in/Recruitments/ASO-Pathology.pdf
http://www.fao.org/3/x5048e/x5048E08.htm

Integrated Pest Management (accessed 2020 September 18).

https://cals.ncsu.edu/crop-and-soil-sciences/integrated-pest
management/#:~:text=Integrated%20pest%20management%20(IPM)%20is,and%
20economically%20practical%20crop%20protection.&text=We%20generally%20thi
nk%20of%20pests,other%20than%20insects%2C%20and%20vertebrates
 Learner’s Feedback Form
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Module Overview
Biological Control

Introduction
The interactions between insects and their natural enemies are essential ecological
processes that contribute to the regulation of insect populations.
Biological control is the action of parasitoids, predators, or pathogens in maintaining another
organism’s population density at a lower average that would occur in their absence (Debach,
1964). It can be distinguished from all other forms of pest control by means of density-
dependent manner where in the natural enemies increase in intensity and destroy a larger
portion of the population as the density of that population increases. According to Altiere,
biological control can be considered a strategy to restore functional biodiversity in
agroecosystems by adding, through classical and/or augmentative biocontrol techniques,
missing entomophagous insects or by enhancing naturally occurring predators and
parasitoids through conservation and habitat management.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the module the students must able to:

1. Understand the concept of biological control.
2. Discuss the various approaches and methods for biological control of pest.

Lesson Proper Biological Control

The rich community of beneficial arthropods including parasites, parasitoids, predators as
well as the insect pathogens (entomopathogens), serves as the backbone of the modern
integrated pest management programs. Biological control is the science of insect population
ecology that relies on the interaction between predator-prey populations.
The entomophagous insects’ parasitoids and predators, and entomopathogens are utilized in
the control programs. A parasitoid is only parasitic during its immature stage, its larva
develops either within (endoparasite) or on (ectoparasite) a host. All or most of the host are
consumed during parasitoids larval development. The adult is free living, mobile and being
better able to disperse, find a mate and find healthy hosts for development of their progeny.
Parasitoids are exemplified in order Hymenoptera and Diptera.

Entomophagous predators, on the other hand, prey on all stages of the host (egg, larva,
nymph, pupa and adult). Predators that feed on broad range of prey are called generalist or
polyphagous they can persist in a system when the pest is not present, therefore when pest
increases or disperses into the habitat, the predators are already present. However,
generalists usually do not respond to prey populations in a density-dependent manner and
might cause undesirable effects if feeding on alternate prey.
In contrast, specialists are predators feeding on single species (monophagous) or only limited
variety (oligophagous) of prey. Specialists do not persist as well in an environment once the
prey are gone. Predators are common among orders Coleptera, Odonata, Neuroptera,
Hemiptera, Hymenoptera and Diptera.
Entomopathogens are microbial insecticides that may serve as an alternative to broad
spectrum insecticides. Microbial agents are easily manipulated for field use and can be mass
produced.
Characteristics of an effective natural enemies for biological control
An effective natural enemy is the one capable of regulating the population density of a pest,
maintaining it below the economic damage level established for a given crop.
In general, the most effective natural enemies should present the following characteristics:
1. Adaptability to environmental physical conditions changes;
2. A certain specificity degree to a given host/prey;
3. Having high capacity of population increases in relation to its host/prey;
4. High searching capacity, especially at low densities of host/prey;
5. Seasonal synchronization with its host/prey and the ability to survive in the absence
of the host/prey; and
6. Ability to change its action as function of its own density and that of the host/prey,
i.e., to demonstrate reciprocal density.

Approaches to Biological Control

A. Classical
Classical biological control involves the introduction of natural enemies from the center of
origin of an insect herbivore that has become an exotic pest elsewhere (van Driesche &
Bellows, 1996). The organisms are released with the aim of long-term control without
additional releases. The primary step involved prior to release, is to ensure that the target
pest is present in sufficient numbers at an appropriate life stage at the different release sites.
Classical approach has been strongly criticized for its potential non-target impacts Simberloff
and Stiling (1996) summarized the controversy and highlighted potential risks such as
predation or parasitism of non-target species, competition with native species, community
and ecosystem effects, and unexpected effects such as loss of species dependent on the
target of biological control efforts.

An ideal sequence of events involved in the introduction of such natural enemies is outlined
in Table 1.
Table. 1 Summary of steps normally part of programs for introduction of natural enemies
(from van Driesche and Bellows, 1996).
Step Objectives
1. Target selection and assessment Identify target pest, define biological, economic and
social attributes which related to biological control; establish objectives for introduction
program;
resolve any conflict of interest
2. Preliminary taxonomic and survey work Determine current stage of taxonomic
knowledge of pest and natural enemies of target species and relatives; survey in target area
for any existing natural
enemies
3. Selecting areas for exploration Define native home of target pest and other
possible areas of search for
natural enemies
2. Selecting natural enemies for collection Choose which of various candidate
natural enemies encountered maybe appropriate to collect for further study
in quarantine
3. Exploration, collection and shipment of candidate natural
enemies Obtain and introduce into quarantine candidate natural enemies
4. Quarantine and exclusion Process shipped material to destroy and undesirable
organisms
5. Testing and selecting of natural
enemies for additional work Conduct research as necessary in
quarantine of natural enemies
6. Field colonization and evaluation of effectiveness Release natural enemies in field and
monitor for establishment and efficacy
7. Agent efficacy and program
evaluation Evaluate degree of achievement of
overall program goals and objectives

Release
B. Augmentation
This includes activities in which natural enemy populations are increased through mass
culture, periodic release (either inoculative or inundative) and colonization, for suppression
of native or non-native pests. It has been widely recognized by the general public.

a. Inoculative - the intentional release of a living organism as a biological control agent

with the expectation that it will multiply and control the pest for an extended period, but not
permanently. Exotic organisms are released with the aim of temporary control and
additional releases are needed.
b. Inundative - the use of living organisms to control pests where control is achieved
exclusively by the released organisms themselves, not their progeny.Any mass- release with
the expectation of immediate effects by the individuals released is inundative biocontrol. The
biocontrol agent is not expected to reproduce or persist in the environment. Agents used for
inundative releases, especially micro- organisms are also commonly called biopesticides or
bioherbicides.
C. Conservation
The Modification of the environment or existing practices to protect and enhance specific
natural enemies or other organisms to reduce the effect of pests. It can be distinguished
from other strategies of biological control in that natural enemies are not released. It
employs the combination of protecting biocontrol agents and providing resources so that
they can be more effective. DeBach (1964) considered conservation biological control to be
environmental modification to protect and enhance natural enemies.
Strategies of conservation
a. Pesticide Modification
Pesticide application probably the most common pest management activity that negatively
impacts beneficial organisms in agroecosystems. Pesticide use can be modified to favor
natural enemies in a variety of ways:
1. including treating only when economic thresholds dictate
2. use of active ingredients and formulations that are selectively less toxic to natural
enemies
3. use of the lowest effective rates of pesticides
4. temporal and spatial separation of natural enemies and pesticides
In IPM programs the used of pesticide are typically based on sampling pest populations to
determine if they have reached economic threshold levels (ETL)
b. Manipulation or management of habitat
Habitat manipulation is an ecologically based approach aimed at favoring natural enemies
and enhancing biological control in agricultural systems. It aims to create a suitable
ecological infrastructure within the agricultural landscape to provide resources such as food
for adult natural enemies, alternative prey or hosts, and shelter from adverse conditions.
Furthermore, manipulating the habitats improve the availability of alternative hosts or prey
of important natural enemies.

Other approaches to conservation biological control have been studied, and are
comparatively complex including management of soil water and crop residue, modification
of cropping patterns, manipulation of non-crop vegetation and direct provision of resources
to natural enemies. In general, these approaches are aimed at enhancing the density of
resident natural enemy populations or communities to increase their effectiveness in pest
suppression.

Some predators used for biological control

Lady beetles (Order Coleoptera: Family Coccinellidae) also called ladybugs or ladybird beetles
experts at eating small, soft-bodied prey such as aphids, whiteflies, mites, mealybugs, and
scale insect.
True bugs (Order Himeptera) commonly called “bugs; often general feeders, both immatures
and adults eating eggs, immatures and adults of diversity of insects and mites.
Lacewings (Order Neuroptera) larvae of these insects are the most important predatory
stage of interest for pest control.
Predatory mites (Class Arachnida: Order Acarina) differ from insects having eight legs, two
body parts and no antennae. Under magnification predatory mites are long-legged and are
often pear-shaped and shiny.
Predatory flies (Order Diptera) larval stages of only a few types of flies have received most of
the attention
Praying mantids (Order Mantodea) often 5-10 cm (2-4 in); sit and wait predators, often
sitting by flowers and eating insects like bees, flies, parasitic wasp etc., generalist hence,
generally not considered very effective for controlling very effective for controlling specific
pests.

Methods of biological control for plant diseases

Biological control in the management of plant diseases employ the use of microorganisms
that compete with, parasitize or are antagonistic to the pathogen.

1. Cross protection – refers to the protection of a plant by a mild virus infection by

another strain of that same virus which is more virulent and causes more severe symptoms.
2. Interference – infection or colonization by mycorrhiza seem to be protected from
infection against Fusarium, Phytium, and other pathogens. The mycorrhizae may provide a
barrier to infection by interference.
3. Bacteriophages – the use of bacterial pathogen by mixing bacterial inoculum with the
phage. Low success rate.

4. Use of parasites or antagonists of pathogens

5. Use of resistant varieties
a. Selection
Man during the early years developed several resistant varieties simply by planting seeds
from resistant plants in the field survived the onslaught of a disease.
b. Gene pyramiding
Involves the incorporation of several resistance genes in hist variety so that it would take the
pathogen a long time to be able to overcome the resistance. This variety will reduce the
initial effective inoculum because chances are that only a very minute proportion of the
pathogen population might infect it. The pathogen may however, still overcome the
resistance eventually. Some believe that gene pyramiding might lead to the development of
a “super pathogen”

Methods of Biological Control of Weeds

Basis of biological control of weeds lies in the fact that there are in nature some enemy
organisms capable of controlling some weed species.
The following are the qualities of a good biological agent:
1. Ability to kill the plant or prevent its reproduction in some direct or indirect manner.
2. High ability to disperse successfully and locate its host plant.
3. Good adaptation to the weed host and the environmental conditions over a
maximum part of the area infested by weeds.
4. Sufficient reproductive capacity to overtake the increase of its host plant when
unfavorable weather occurs.
Biological agents require that it should be specific to the weed species and that there should
be a synchrony in their life cycles. The agent specific to a weed species should not be forced
to feed on other plants when host population is eradicated.

Examples:

a. Insect control of Opuntia in Australia, Hypericum in the Mainland USA,

Lantana camara and Tribulus in Hawaii.
b. Pathogen, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Pens.) Sacc. f. sp (forma specialis)
aeschynomene for the control of Aeschynomena virginia (L) B.S.P and Colletotrichum
gloesporioides (Pens) f. sp. jussia for the control of Ludwigia decurrens Walt.
c. Fish. When herbivorous fish are stocked in the field, weed control enhanced. Grass
carp (Ctenopharyngodon Idella Val.) for the control of Salvinia molesta.

Interaction of Biological Control with other IPM tactics

In integrated pest management programs, specific tactics often do not act independently of
one another. This may be especially so far biological control since the agents of insect
biological control such as parasitoids and predators are susceptible to environmental
perturbations such as pesticide.

1. Population monitoring
Pesticide use decisions for insect pests are typically based on sampling pest populations to
determine if they have reached economic threshold levels. Sampling for natural enemy
populations or their effect on pests can be used to revise economic thresholds to more
accurately determine the need or timing for pesticide applications within a pest generation
(Ostlie and Pedigo, 1987), or to predict the need for treatment of a future pest generation

2. Cultural Control
A variety of cultural practices such as management of cropping patterns, soil, crop residue,
and non-crop vegetation are used in management of insect pests.
These practices in some cases can be manipulated to enhance natural enemies of insect
pests. In general, these approaches are aimed at increasing the density of resident natural
enemy populations or communities to increase their effectiveness in pest suppression.

3. Crop Rotation
Crop rotation is a foundation for pest management in some cropping systems. This is the
planting of different kinds of crops in sequence. Placement of rotated crops in relation to
prevailing wind direction and previous year’s crops may influence the ability of parasitoids to
locate and colonize the new crop. In weed management, crops should be rotated to reduce
the build-up of certain species associated with one crop. By crop rotation, no one weed
species or group of species can have undistributed development and, therefore, the
population is reduced.

4. Intercropping
Increasing the vegetational diversity as a possible means to reduce pest discovery and
retention in crops, and to enhance natural enemy populations and activity. The responses of
both pest and beneficial insects to intercropping are not well understood, because the
underlying mechanisms at the behavioral level have not been well studied.

5. Trap crop
Trap crops are deployed to intercept dispersing pests before they can enter the main crop,
allowing control measures to take place in a smaller area (Hokkanen, 1991). The effects may
be positive, where natural enemy populations are able to build up on concentrated pest
populations and then move into the main crop although this does not necessarily lead to
increased pest reductions in the main crop. Trap crops may also act as a sink for insect pest
populations as a result of increased natural enemy activity (Tillman, 2006).

The main impact of trap cropping on beneficial insects may be the reduction in pesticide
usage in the main crop resulting in conservation of beneficial insect populations.

2. Cover cropping
Cover crops are employed in crop production systems for a variety of reasons including soil
fertility, erosion control, and in some cases, pest management. In a number of agricultural
systems, cover crops have been shown to disrupt behavior of pest insects and reduce their
abundance. When mulched, cover crops can provide microhabitats favorable to insect
natural enemies and increase their numbers.

3. Mechanical and Physical controls

Tillage is the primary means of disturbance in agroecosystems, and is central to many
agricultural practices such as preparation of seedbeds, incorporation of organic material and
fertilizer, and suppression of weeds and some diseases and insect pests. Tillage practices can
have significant influences on arthropod populations, including natural enemies, and in turn
pest management. In conservation tillage has been shown to increase natural enemy
populations.
For example, the carabid populations can be affected through direct mortality from tillage
events, or indirectly through loss of prey resources and changes in microclimate. Tillage has
also been found to affect foliage dwelling arthropod predators as well as parasitoids either
directly from soil disturbance, or indirectly by altering weed communities.
Other practices used to manage crop residues can affect natural enemies e.g., leaving crop
residues behind, in cases where there is no good pest management (or other) reason to
remove them through tillage or other means, can conserve populations of parasitoids and
predators.

4. Plant Breeding and Transgenic crops

Pest resistant plants can have a variety of positive and negative influences on natural
enemies. Natural enemies can contribute to the sustainability of plant resistance by slowing
pest adaptation to resistant plants (Gould et al., 1991; Gould, 1998). The use of
conventionally resistant bred affect natural enemies either directly through chemical or
physical plant traits such as trichomes, or indirectly through plant mediated effects on host
or prey characteristics such as quality. Most attention in this field has been focused recently
on genetically-modified or transgenic plants. The deployment of transgenic crops has
resulted in lower insecticide use that may have indirect or lethal effects on natural enemies
as well.
References:

Training Manual on Pest Management and Pesticide Safety

Dent, D., 2000. Insect Pest Management. 2nd Ed. CABI Publishing New York, NY 10016 USA
Module Overview
Chapter 3
Economic Concepts of IPM

Introduction

Pest infestations can affect crop yield which in turn will determine the profit
farmers received from marketing of their products. If effective pest control
techniques are available then farmers can increase their yields and their profits
provided, they know when it is economic to apply control measures. The economic
threshold concept is a relevant decision-making tool that is made when the level of
pest attack can be assessed through monitoring. The economic threshold, defined in
terms of the level of pest attack. If the level of attack is below the threshold, the
cost of treatment would exceed the benefits and the farmer would make a loss by
applying the treatment.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Identify the different types of crop losses
2. Understand the concept of economic threshold level (ETL) and economic injury
level (EIL)

Duration

Chapter 3: Economic Concepts of IPM = 2 hours

Lesson Proper

Types of Crop losses

Crop losses are usually defined as the reduction in either quantity or quality of
yield and these may be caused by abiotic and biotic factors, leading to the reduction
in crop productivity and lower actual yield than the attainable yield of crops. Losses
can occur at any stage of crop production in the field (pre-harvest) or even during
storage (postharvest). Direct yield losses caused by pathogens, animals and weeds
are altogether responsible for 20–40% loss of global agricultural productivity.

Figure 1. Abiotic and biotic factors causing crop losses, Oerke (2005)
 Figure. 2 Crop losses and yield levels, Oerke (2005)

Theoretical yield potential

– Refer to the yield obtained, when crops are grown under optimal environmental
conditions using all available production and pest control technologies to maximize
the yield.

Attainable yield
– Defined as the site-specific technical maximum, depending on abiotic growth
conditions, which in general is well below the yield potential. This is a theoretical
yield level that cannot be realized under practical growth conditions.

Actual yield
– The site-specific yield obtained, when crops are grown using practical cultivation and
plant protection practices at the farm level.

The difference between the attainable yield and the theoretical yield is
an unpreventable loss, while the difference between the actual yield and the
attainable yield is a preventable loss. Ideally actual yield should be the same as the
economic yield.

Quantitative losses
- result from reduced productivity, leading to a smaller yield per unit area.

Qualitative losses
-may result from the reduced content of valuable ingredients, reduced market quality,
e.g. due to aesthetic features (pigmentation), reduced storage characteristics, or due
 to the contamination of the harvested product with pests, parts of pests or toxic
products of the pests (e.g. mycotoxins).

Direct and Indirect Loss

a. Direct loss
Crop product itself is affected; can be one of quality, quantity or both. Generally
proportional to pest population density at low densities, approaches an upper limit
(100%) as pest population increases

b. Indirect loss
The pests attack plant parts other than the crop product. Indirect losses can be
characterized by the following;
a. removal of photosynthetic area
b. diversion of photosynthates and reduction of net assimilates
c. reduction of yield with multiple pests

Economic loss

Economic loss basically, is any reduction in economic benefits due to crop damage;
the economic loss should also consider the costs of labor, materials and inputs for
the control of pests and diseases applied to reduce damages (Savary et al., 2006b;
Cheatham et al., 2009; Avelino et al., 2011). It is also mentioned that the economic
loss should be calculated as the difference between the maximum economic profit
and the economic profit obtained with the actual yield (Zadoks and Schein, 1979;
Avelino
 et al., 2011). However, the assessment of the maximum economic profit (economic
yield) is rather difficult because it is not necessarily determined by a maximum yield
or by an attainable yield.

Economic threshold concept Injury Vs.

Damage

 injury is the physical harm or destruction to a valued commodity caused by the

presence or activities of a pest
 damage is the monetary value lost to the commodity as a result of injury by the
pest

Economic Threshold Levels

The Economic Threshold Level (ETL) is the density at which control measures should be
determined to prevent an increasing pest population from reaching the economic injury leve
(Stern et.al., 1959). These thresholds are pre-calculated by researchers, so all the farmer has to
do is take a proper sample of the pest to answer the question: Are we above or below the
Economic Threshold for pest?

To calculate Economic Threshold, you must:

1. Know how to identify the pest

2. Know how to sample the crop environment to assess level of infestation
3. Know stage of crop development and how that relates to severity of damage
4. Know approximate economic threshold levels
5. Consider how action threshold may vary with stage of crop development, value of
crop and cost of control.
 Economic Injury Level (EIL)

The pest population density where the cost of control equals the value of the damage prevented
if a control treatment is applied. Or, according to Stern et al. (1959): “The lowest population
density of a pest that will cause economic damage; or the amount of pest injury which will
justify the cost of control.” To help farmers decide when there are too many pests, the concept
of the "Economic Injury Level (EIL)" is used. The EIL allows the farmer to compare the value of
the damage the number of pests in the field might do to the crop with the cost of taking action
against the pest.

Economic thresholds in practice

Depending upon their flexibility and how they have determined economic threshold
can be of the following types.

Subjective vs. Objective ETs

Subjective determinations are the crudest approach to ET development. They are

not based on a calculated EIL; rather, they are based on a practitioner's experience.
These have been called nominal thresholds by Poston et al. (1983) and are not
formulated from objective criteria. Nominal thresholds probably represent the
majority of ETs found in extension publications and verbal recommendations.
Although static and possibly inaccurate, these still are more progressive than using
no ET at all because they require pest population assessment. Therefore, their use
can often result in reduced pesticide applications.

Objective ETs, on the other hand, are based on calculated EILs, and they change
with changes in the primary variables of the EILs (e.g., market values and
management costs). With objective ETs, a current EIL is calculated, and estimates
are made regarding potential of the pest population to exceed the EIL. The final
decision on action to be taken and timing is based on expected increases in injury
and logistical delays, as well as activity rates of the tactics used. Considering the
various types of
objective ETs, at least three can be described. These types can be termed 1) fixed
ETs, 2) descriptive ETs, and 3) dichotomous ETs.

Fixed ETs

The fixed ET is the most common type of objective ET. With this type, the ET is set
at a fixed percentage of the EIL, e.g., 50% or 75%. Use of the term "fixed" does not
mean that these are unchanging; it means only that the percentage of the EIL is
fixed. Fixed ET ignores differences in population growth and injury rates; however,
the percentages are usually set conservatively low; i.e., when they err, they err on
the side of taking action when it is not necessary. Fixed ETs are crude, but they may
be the highest level that can be developed when pest population dynamics is poorly
understood. (Pedigo et al. 1986).

Descriptive ETs

Descriptive ETs are more sophisticated than fixed ETs. With descriptive ETs, a
description of population growth is made, and need for, as well as timing of action is
based on expected future growth in injury rates. When larval numbers cause injury
to reach the damage boundary, a statistical model based on sampling data can be
applied to project future population growth. If these projections indicate that
numbers will exceed the EIL during the susceptible period, then action is taken; if
not, incremental sampling usually would be continued to detect any unexpected
population changes until the crop is no longer susceptible. This approach has the
advantage of using current sampling data to keep track of the injuriousness of the
pest population. Its weakness is in making projections from earlier injury rates; i.e.,
future rates may not show a strong relationship to past rates, giving errors in
decision making.

Factors Influencing ETL and EIL

Primary
d. Market value of crop
When crop value increases, EIL decreases and vice-versa

e. Management of injury per insect

When management costs increase, EIL also increases
Secondary

a. Degree of injury per insect

– Insects damaging leaves or reproductive parts have different EIL (Lower EIL
for Rep. part damages)
– If insects are vectors of disease EIL is very low even 1 or 2 insects if found -
management to be taken
– If insects found on fruits - Marketability reduced - EIL very low.
b. Crop susceptibility to injury
 – If crop can tolerate the injury and give good yield. EIL can be fixed at a higher
value
– When crop is older, it can withstand high pest population - EIL can be high

Tertiary factors

Weather, soil factors, biotic factors and human social environment. These tertiary
factors cause change in secondary factors thereby affect the ETL and EIL.

References

Oerke, E.C (2005). Crop Losses to Pests. Journal of Agricultural Science, 144, 31–43.
doi:10.1017/S0021859605005708

Dent, D. 2000. Insect Pest Management. 2nd ed. CABI Publishing. 73-80 pp.

https://farmdocdaily.illinois.edu/2018/10/integrated-pest-management-what-are-
economic-thresholds-and-how-are-they-developed.html

https://courses.cit.cornell.edu/ipm444/test/NotesEconomic.htm

https://agrimoon.com/wp-content/uploads/Insect-Ecology-Integrated-Pest-
Management.pdf

https://cropwatch.unl.edu/documents/Economic%20Thresholds.pdf

https://ipmworld.umn.edu/pedigo
Module Overview
Chapter 4
Ecological Concepts of IPM

Introduction

IPM is a highly complex technology and knowledge of the ecological basis of the
pest problem is essential in order to develop and implement tactics and programs
that attempt to alter the crop environment to reduce pest problems. Understanding
agroecology allows a practitioner to manipulate the numerous factors in an
agroecosystem to make the environment of a pest unfavorable while maintaining a
favorable environment for the crop. Selecting and balancing nonchemical controls
and pesticides to use in combination critical.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

a. Understand the ecological basis of IPM
b. Analyze interaction exist in the environment between the pests and the crops

Duration
Chapter 4: Ecological Concepts of IPM = 2 hours
 Lesson Proper

Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions that determine the distribution
and abundance of organisms (Krebs 1972). This branch of science involves the study
of living organisms and their surroundings. It studies the interrelationships between
organisms, and between organisms and non-living features of their environment.
The study of ecology utilizes scientific methodology via lab experiments to
understands how the different organisms grow, populate, how they interact with
other organisms either as parasites, predators, how the organisms die out as well as
how they evolve or adapt to changing climatic and environmental situations.

Levels of Ecological Organization

1. Population - group of individuals of the same species occupying a common

geographical area.

a. Population Density – population size per unit area

b. Birth rate (natality) – the rate at which new individuals are added to the
population by reproduction
c. Death rate (mortality) – rate at which individuals are lost by death
d. Population dynamics

r-selected organisms - put most of their energy into rapid growth and
reproduction. This is common of organisms that occupy unpredictable environments,
e.g. weeds are usually annuals with rapid growth and early reproduction. They
produce large number of seeds containing few stored nutrients.
K-selected organisms - put most of their energy into growth. They are common in
stable environments near carrying capacity, e.g., long lived trees such as redwoods
take many years of growth to reach reproductive age.
If a population lives under ideal conditions, it may display its biotic potential - the
maximum rate of increase under ideal conditions. Few populations live under ideal
conditions because a number of factors limit their growth

Limiting factor - any resource that is in short supply (e.g. food, minerals, light,
living space, refuge from predators, etc.

Carrying capacity – the maximum number of individuals of a species or population

a given environment can sustain. Each habitat or area can only support so many
individuals. Because of limiting factors populations rarely exhibit J shaped growth
curves.

Factors affecting population growth

a. Abiotic or density independent factors

 Physical factors - Temperature, light, wind, soil conditions influence
development, longevity, reproduction and fecundity of insects.
 Nutritional Factors
 Insects heterotrophic - cannot synthesize their own food - depend on
plants for food.
The quantity and quality of food/nutrition plays important role in survival,
longevity, distribution, reproduction and speed of development
 Host plants associated factors
Antixenosis or non-preference- Host plant not preferred by insects for
feeding, oviposition or shelter due to morphological characters like thorns,
wax, hairyness, etc. or done to presence of some chemicals (called
allelochemicals)
Antibiosis - This refers to adverse effect of the host plant on biology
(survival, dept, reproduction.) of insects and their progeny.
Tolerance - Ability of host plant to withstand insect population sufficient to
damage susceptible plants

b. Biotic or density dependent factors

 Competition - has negative effect on both organisms competing for a resource.
Because resources are limited in nature there will always be competition for
them. Competition is the driving force of evolution; those that win leave more
offspring.

Types of competition
a. Intraspecific - competition among individuals of the same species, e.g.
humans compete against other humans. Examples: reduction in fecundity
(egg laying) in rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae during overcrowding; crowding in
honeybees leads to swarming
b. Interspecific - competition between different species, e.g. humans compete
against a wide variety of species seeking to utilize our food resources.
Example: accidental introduction of oriental fruit fly Dacus dorsalis into
Hawaii eliminated Mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis capitata.

The theory of competitive exclusion maintains that species who utilize the same
resources cannot coexist indefinitely - the "one niche, one species".

Concept of resource partitioning - the resources are divided,

permitting species with similar requirements to use the same resources in
different areas, ways and/or times

 Predators and Parasites

Predators are free living organisms that feed on other animals, their prey,
devouring them completely and rapidly.

Parasites: An organism that is dependent for some essential metabolic

factor on another throughout its all-life stages, which is always larger than
itself.
 Parasitoid: An insect parasite of an arthropod that is parasitic in its
immature stage killing the host in the process of development and adults
are free living.

Interactions between predator and prey are different from the parasite
host relationship in that the predator and prey maintain equilibrium more
dynamically than the parasite and its host. The parasites in general when
the rate of parasitism is high, cause death and result in elimination of
hosts. But the predator never eliminates the prey completely.

2. Community - two or more populations of different species occupying the same

geographical area Populations and communities include only biotic factors.

Habitat - the physical place where an organism lives, e.g., a pine forest or fresh
water Lake

Niche - the functional role of an organism in a community, its job or position.

Each species has a potential niche - what they could do with no competitors or
resource limitations but due to competition and/or resource limitations, most
organisms occupy a realized niche, the part of the fundamental niche that a
species actually occupies in nature.

Types of species interactions

1. Neutral - two species that don't interact at all
2. Commensalism - beneficial to one species but neutral to another, e.g., birds that nest
in trees, epiphytes (plants that grow on other plants) such as tropical orchids
3. Mutualism - an interaction that is beneficial to both species, e.g., plants and their
pollinators, plants and animals that disperse their seeds, certain fungi and plant
roots
4. Parasitism - an interaction that benefits one species and is detrimental to another.
Note that the host is generally not killed.
5. Predation - an interaction beneficial to one species and detrimental to another. In
this case the prey is killed. Predators are those that kill and eat other animals.
Although many organisms eat plants they usually don’t kill them because they are a
constant supply of food. Prey are killed and eaten.

3. Ecosystem - a community of organisms interacting within a particular physical

environment or an ecosystem is a community plus its abiotic factors, e.g. soil, rain,
temperatures, etc.

 Primary producers are the autotrophs

 Consumers all other organisms.
o Herbivores plant eaters
o Carnivores’ meat eaters.
o Omnivores feed on both plants and animals.
o Decomposers, which includes fungi and bacteria, obtain their energy by
breaking down the remains or products of organisms
 o Detritivores are decomposers which eat detritus - organic wastes and dead
organisms.

Energy flows through ecosystems via food webs. Ecosystems are arranged by
trophic levels between various producers, the autotrophs, and consumers, and the
heterotrophs.

First trophic level - contains the autotrophs which build energy containing molecules.

Second trophic level - contains the primary consumers which eat the
primary producers including herbivores, decomposers and detritivores, e.g.
insects, grasshoppers, and deer.

Third trophic level - contains the secondary consumers, primary carnivores

which eat the herbivores, e.g. mice, spiders and many birds.

Fourth trophic level - contains the tertiary consumers, secondary

carnivores who eat the primary carnivores, e.g. weasel, owl, sharks and
wolves

4. Biosphere - the portion of the earth that contains living species. It includes the
atmosphere, oceans, soils and the physical and biological cycles that affect them

Key characteristics of biosphere

1. It is the layer consisting of air, water, and land, forming the ecosystem for living
organisms.
2. Transfer of energy, ie food chain.
3. It is made of different biomes.
4. It is made up of biotic, abiotic and energy components.

Basic Concept of Ecology

1. Diversity of living things: Plants and animals exist in a great variety of forms. They
can be observed and classified by their structure and (for animals) behavior. This
diversity is the result of each type of plant or animal adapting to its environment in
its own way.

Biodiversity refers to all of the variety of life that exists on Earth. Levels of biological
diversity are as follows;

a. Species diversity - refers to the number of different species in an ecosystem or on earth

as a whole.
b. Genetic diversity- refers to the variation in genes within all these species.
c. Ecosystem diversity - refers to the variety of ecosystems on earth. An ecosystem is a
system formed by populations of many different species interacting with each other and
their environment.
Species is a group of actually or potentially interbreeding organisms
 2. Interdependency of living things. All living things rely on and are affected by other
living organisms and by non-living features of their environments. All organisms in an
ecosystem depend upon each other. If the population of one organism rises or falls,
then this can affect the rest of the ecosystem. Often very small changes to
ecosystems have large consequences, which can be difficult to predict.

3. Resource and energy cycles: The interactions among the members of an ecological
community involve the exchange of energy and resources in continual cycles. Cycles
are all driven by a constant flow of solar energy.

Trophic levels provide a structure for understanding food chains and how
energy flows through an ecosystem. At the base of the pyramid are the
producers, who use photosynthesis or chemosynthesis to make their own food.
Herbivores or primary consumers make up the second level. Secondary and
tertiary consumers, omnivores and carnivores, follow in the subsequent sections
of the pyramid. At each step up the food chain, only 10 percent of the energy is
passed on to the next level, while approximately 90 percent of the energy is lost
as heat.

4. Nested Systems: Networks of interdependent organisms exist within other larger

networks (community to biosphere). Each network can be examined as a whole or as
a part of a larger whole.

5. Dynamic Balance: Each ecological network regulates and organizes itself by

maintaining a state of dynamic balance characterized by continual fluctuations.

Agroecosystems Concepts

Agroecosystems are described by the interacting features of environmental and

ecological characteristics of a farm and the surrounding area.

Based on current ecological and agronomic theory, low pest potentials may be
expected in agroecosystems that exhibit the following characteristics.

1. High crop diversity through mixing crops in time and space.

2. Discontinuity of monocultures in time through rotations, use of short maturing
varieties, use of crop-free or preferred host-free periods, etc.
3. Small, scattered fields creating a structural mosaic of adjoining crops and
uncultivated land which potentially provide shelter and alternative food for natural
enemies. Pests also may proliferate in these environments depending on plant
species composition. However, the presence of low levels of pest populations and/or
alternate hosts may be necessary to maintain natural enemies in the area.
4. Farms with a dominant perennial crop component. Orchards are considered to be
semipermanent ecosystems, and more stable than annual cropping systems. Since
orchards suffer fewer disturbances and are characterized by greater structural
diversity, possibilities for the establishment of biological control
 agents are generally higher, especially if floral undergrowth diversity is
encouraged.
5. High crop densities or the presence of tolerable levels of specific weed species.
6. High genetic diversity resulting from the use of variety mixtures or crop multilines. A
key feature of annual cropping systems is the nature and frequency of soil
disturbance regimes Periodic tillage and planting continually reverts the tilled area to
an earlier stage of ecological succession. Physical disturbance of the soil caused by
tillage and residue management is a crucial factor in determining soil biotic activity
and species diversity in agroecosystems.

Diversity in agroecosystems

The simplification of the structure of the environment over vast areas, replacing
nature’s diversity with a small number of cultivated plants and domesticated animals.
Degree of diversity in the form of polycultures and or agroforestry patterns are the
salient feature of traditional farming systems. In fact, the species richness of all
biotic components of traditional agroecosystems is comparable with that of many
natural ecosystems. Traditional, multiple cropping systems are estimated to still
provide as much as 15–20% of the world’s food supply.

In general, the degree of biodiversity in agroecosystems depends on four main

characteristics of the agroecosystem.

1. The diversity of vegetation within and around the agroecosystem.

2. The permanence of the various crops within the agroecosystem.
3. The intensity of management.
4. The extent of the isolation of the agroecosystem from natural vegetation

The biodiversity components of agroecosystems can be classified in relation to the

role they play in the functioning of cropping systems. (Fig. 2)
Figure. 2 The components, functions, and enhancement strategies of biodiversity in
agroecosystems (Altieri, 1994).

Categories of agricultural biodiversity according to Swift and Anderson (1993)

a. Productive biota: crops, trees and animals chosen by farmers which play a
determining role in the diversity and complexity of the agroecosystem.
b. Resource biota: organisms that contribute to productivity through pollination,
biological control, decomposition, etc.
c. Destructive biota: weeds, insect pests, microbial pathogens, etc. which farmers aim
at reducing through cultural management.

Distinct components of biodiversity recognized in agroecosystems (Fig. 3)

Vandermeer and Perfecto (1995)
1. Planned biodiversity is the biodiversity associated with the crops and livestock
purposely included in the agroecosystem by the farmer, and which will vary
depending on the management inputs and crop spatial/temporal arrangements.
2. Associated biodiversity, includes all soil flora and fauna, herbivores, carnivores,
decomposers, etc. that colonize the agroecosystem from surrounding
environments and that will thrive in the agroecosystem depending on its
management and structure.
 Figure. 3 The relationship between planned biodiversity (that which the farmer
determines, based on management of the agroecosystem) and associated (that
which colonizes the agroecosystem after it has been set up by the farmer) and
how the two promote ecosystem function (modified from Vandermeer and
Perfecto, 1995).

The key is to identify the type of biodiversity that is desirable to maintain and or
enhance in order to carry out ecological services, and then to determine the best
practices that will encourage the desired biodiversity components (Fig. 4). Apply the
best management practices in order to enhance or regenerate the kind of
biodiversity that can not only subsidize the sustainability of agroecosystems by
providing ecological services such as biological pest control, but also nutrient cycling,
water and soil conservation, etc.

Figure. 4 The effects of agroecosystem management and associated cultural

practices on the biodiversity of natural enemies and the abundance of insect
pests.
References:

Vold, T. Ecological Concepts, Principles and Applications to

Conservation.2008, Retrieved

from
http://www.biodiversitybc.org/assets/pressReleases/BBCPrinciplesWEB.pdf

Lancour, K.L. (2015). Green Generation Part One – General Principles of

Ecology Retrieve
from.https://www.soinc.org/sites/default/files/uploaded_files/GG_HANDOUT-P1-
ECOPRINCIPLES.pdf

Altiere, M.A (1999). The ecological role of biodiversity in agroecosystems.

Retrieved from . http://agroeco.org/doc/ecolrolebiodiv.pdf

FAO-UN, (1996) Community Based Rice Programme Development: A

Facilitator’s
Guide. 1st ed. Retrieved from.

http://www.fao.org/3/ca8298en/ca8298en.pdf

https://niphm.gov.in/Recruitments/ASO-Pathology.pdf

Module Overview Chemical Control

Introduction

The efficient, effective and safe pest management is not a case of “See a

pest – spray a pesticide”. It is a case of using all available techniques, all

of which play a part in keeping pests at levels below those which cause

economic damage or losses. Pesticides more often than not are an

integral component of an IPM program as they provide an effective and

quick reduction of pests when numbers reach economically damaging

levels, they can control several pests at the same time. In IPM, therefore,

pesticides are used only when pests are causing, or will cause economic

loss or damage along with or can be used in combination with other

tactics in an IPM program. Hence, in IPM does not advocate the complete

withdrawal of pesticides. IPM simply demands use of pesticide only when

necessary and at rates compatible with other strategies.

disadvantages of pesticides are that they provide only a temporary

solution, can be costly, involve a hazard in use and to the environment,

can kill natural enemies of pests, can kill pollinators such as bees, can

cause pest resurgence, excessive use can result in pest resistance, and

there is a potential risk to users and others

Specific Objectives

At the end of the module the students must able to:

1. Understand basic concept of chemical control of pests.

2. Identify the different classifications and formulations of pesticides.

3. Discuss the importance of application, proper handling and safety in

using pesticides.

Lesson Proper
Chemical control is the use of chemical pesticides which kill pests, control

their activity, or prevent them from causing damage. In an agricultural

production, pesticides are a regular component of most system, of

growing crops. During the advent of Green Revolution Era in the 1960s

the use of High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) begun as a new era in

agriculture coupled with the use of fertilizers and pesticides.

In rice for example, pesticides have become an integral part of modern

rice technology in Southeast Asia, not only for increasing and maintaining

high crop productivity, but also for saving human lives.

In the Philippines about 54% of insecticides sold were used in rice insect

pest control; 35% of the rice area was treated with granular insecticides,

and 25% with liquids

(Ishikura 1984). In the Philippines, application rates increased by 94%

insecticides, 74% herbicides, more than 50% fungicides.

Chemical insecticides are incredibly effective at killing their target pest. It

is perceived that when appropriate insecticide is selected, targets pest, at

proper timing, rate and number of applications is optimized in relation to

the application costs and with subsequent benefits achieved through

increased crop yield, then insecticides remain an efficient and economic

ways of controlling insect pests.

Classification of Pesticides

Pesticide used to be the most important way of controlling pests and still

is one of the most significant components of IPM. Pesticides are

substances, products or mixtures thereof including active ingredients,

adjuvants and pesticide formulations, intended to control, prevent,

destroy, repel or mitigate, directly or indirectly any pest.

Groupings are classified as follows:

A. According to type of pest they control

Acaricide mites, ticks and spiders

Avicide birds

Bactericide bacteria

Fungicide fungi

Herbicides weeds

Insecticide insects and sometimes related pests such as ticks and

mites

Larvicide larvae

Miticide mites, ticks and spiders

Molluscicidemollusks such as slugs and snails

Nematicide nematodes

Ovicide eggs

Piscicide fish

Predacide vertebrate pests

Rodenticide rodents such as rats, mice, gerbils

Termiticide termites and ants

B. Effect on pests

a. Anti-feedant – inhibits feeding while insects remain on the treated

plant; the insects eventually starve to death.

b. Anti-transpirant – reduces transpiration

c. Attractant – lures pests to treated location, e.g., sex attractants

d. Chemosterilant – destroys a pest’s ability to reproduce

e. Defoliant – removes unwanted plant growth without immediately

killing the whole plant

f. Desiccant – dries up plant parts and insects

g. Disinfectant – destroys or inactivates harmful organisms

h. Feeding stimulant – causes to feed more vigorously

i. Growth regulator – stops, speeds up or retards growth processes of

plants or insects

j. Repellent – drives pests away from treated object without killing

them

k. Semiochemicals – pheromone, allomones and kairomones;

substances emitted by plants or animals, which stimulate or inhibit certain

behavioral activities of insects

l. Synergist – enhances the effectiveness of an active agent

C. According to their mode of action against target pests

1. Stomach – generally enters a pest’s body through the mouth during

feeding

(ingestion) and are absorbed through the digestive tract.

2. Contact – generally penetrates a pest’s body as a result of contact

with the
legs or other external portions and treated surfaces such as sprayed

leaves

3. Fumigating – volatile and enter a pest’s body through the respiratory

system

and kill at lethal concentration

4. Systemic – characterized by high water solubility, by which property

they can readily be taken into the plant through its roots, stems or leaves.

Once inside the plant, systemics moves through the plant’s vascular

system to other untreated parts from where insect acquire the

translocated insecticide during feeding. These are effective against

sucking, boring and mining insects and nematodes.

Classification of Insecticides

Insecticides are compounds used for controlling insect pests. Among the

pesticides, insecticides probably deserve special consideration from the

standpoint of safety because of its more toxic nature. Insecticides may be

grouped according to their mode of action and chemical properties.

A. Classification based on Mode of Action

1. Stomach insecticides

These insecticides exert their toxic action only after they have been

introduced into the insects’ alimentary canal through feeding on treated

substrates. They may be then considered specific for destructive insects

feeding on plants
2. Contact Insecticides

These compounds penetrate the insect’s exoskeleton through the

respiratory system e.g., spiracles, break in the exoskeleton diffusions or

crystal penetration through the soft membrane and several other

pathways. They are then transported to the site of action via the

circulatory system. Generally, compounds with this type of activity have a

wide spectrum of toxicity and can also affect non-target organisms. All

synthetic organic insecticides have contact toxicity.

3. Systemic insecticides

These compounds are translocated to the untreated parts in

concentrations that make these translocation sites toxic to insects. Some

advantages of systemic insecticides are:

1. Protection is provided for as long as lethal concentration remains in

the plant parts;

2. Their having a degree of selectivity to pests attacking the crop; and;

3. Effects on beneficial organism is minimized

Systemic insecticides are not advisable for vegetables (especially leafy)

because residues may take longer time to be reduced to safe levels by

enzymatic activity.

B. Classification Based on Chemical Properties

1. Inorganic compounds – derived from naturally elements and do not

contain carbon. They are stable, non-volatile chemicals normally soluble

water
2. Organic compounds – man-made or extracted pesticides consisting

of carbon, hydrogen and one or more other elements such as chlorine,

oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus and nitrogen.

3. Botanicals – also known as “natural insecticide”, are toxicants that

have been

derived from plant materials.

a. Pyrethrum extracted from the flower petals of Chrysanthemum

species grown in Kenya, Ecuador and other countries

b. Azadiractins – extracted from seeds of the neem tree, Azadirachta

indica in tropical and subtropical parts of the world; often referred to as

neem insecticide believed to deter insect feeding and oviposition, interfere

with growth, development and reproduction

c. Nicotine – extractions of tobacco leaves was used as insecticide as

long ago as 1690; an alkaloid like caffeine, morphine and cocaine.

Nicotine sulfate is very toxic to insects and humans and the most

dangerous botanicals to apply; mostly sold as sprays

d. Rotenone – second-most used botanical; extracted from the

roots of the legume Derris sp.; Rotenone has been applied as an

insecticide since 1848 and as a fish poison by South American.

e. Other botanicals are Ryania and Sabadilla both materials contain

alkaloid.
4. Organochlorine compounds – these are synthetic organic insecticides

that contain carbon, chlorine, hydrogen and sometimes oxygen. Also

called ‘chlorinated hydrocarbons” or “chlorinated insecticides”.

Organochlorines usually have long residual life, low water solubility and

wide spectrum of insecticidal activity. Their persistence also makes them

undesirable from the standpoint of residues on crops but this could be

used to advantage like some organochlorines that are used for termite

proofing and soil insect control.

a. Diphenyl aliphatics. Examples: DDT, dicofol, metoxychlor

b. Bezene derivatives. Examples: BHC, HCH or

Gamma BHC; pentachlorophenol

c. Cyclodienes. Examples: endrin, heptachlor, merix

d. Polychloroterpenes. Example: toxaphene

5. Organophosphate (OPs) compounds

These are all esters of phosphoric acid (H3PO4) and are also called

phosphates or phosphorus esters. Organophosphates represent the

biggest group of insecticides at present. Hence, their diversity of biological

activity and stability. They range form highly toxic (parathion) to relatively

safe compounds (pirimiphos methyl and malathion), from the readily

degradable mevinphos to compounds with long residual activity like

diazinon and azinphos ethyl; plant systemics like demeton and mevinphos

to animal systemics like coumaphos.

Organophosphates are usually not as stable as organochlorines because

of several reactive sites in the molecule. Because of their polar nature,

organophosphates are not accumulated in animals’ fatty tissues and are

easily excreted through the urine.

a. Aliphatic organophosphates. Example: malathion

b. Phenyl organophosphates. Example: methyl parathion

c. Heterocyclic organophosphates. Example: pirimiphos-methyl,

tetradifon

6. Organosulphur compounds – contain a dominant sulfur atom and

commonly two phenyl rings.

7. Carbamates

These are esters of carbamic acid; resemble closely the organophosphates

in biological activity. Carbamates in general are rapidly metabolized in

animal system and excreted in the urine because they also are polar and

have several reactive sites. Carbamate’s insecticides are formulated in a

similar way to organophosphates with the most toxic ones (i.e., aldicarb

and carbofuran) being available only as granules.

a. Methyl carbamates with phenyl ring structure Examples: methiocarb,

aminocarb, BMPC, carbaryl

b. Methyl carbamates and dimethyl carbamates with heterocyclic

structure Examples: bendiocarb, carbofuran, dimetilan

c. Methyl carmbamates of oximes having a chain structure example:

aldicarb, methomyl, thiocarb

8. Formamidines

A class of insecticide-acaricide having the characteristics nitrogen

structure - N=CH-N. example: amitraz, formetanate

9. Organotins

These are tin-based organic compounds which generally exhibit miticidal

as well as fungicidal activity. Ex. Cythexatin, fenbutatin-oxide

10. Pyrethroids

These are synthetic compounds, the chemical structure of which is

patterned after pyrethrins (extracted from chrysanthemum flower), a

mixture of six esters named cinerin I and II, jasmolin I and II. Examples:

bifenthrin, fenpropathrin. Naturally occurring compounds are referred to

as rethrins.

Pyrethroids have distinct advantages compared to other insecticides

groups because o higher safety factor to mammals and higher biological

activity against insects. All pyrethroids are lipophilic compounds and are

insoluble in water. They are effective as contact and stomach insecticides.

Pyrethroids are all esters, therefore, they can be readily inactivated

through ester cleavage Examples: Cypermethrin, Permethrin

11. Biological insecticides

Biological insecticides are those insecticides based on biological

organisms. Synthetic derivatives of insect secretions or other organisms

naturally do not fall into this category.

1. Bacillus thuringensis (BT)

2. Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV) (not yet marketed in the

Philippines)

12. Insect Growth Regulators (IGR’s)

These are compounds that prevent chitin synthesis, the process in insects

responsible for the formation of exoskeleton or skin. For an insect to

grow, it sheds off its original and by chitin synthesis a new exoskeleton is

formed. An insect which is treated/affected by IGR cannot have a new

skin, hence it is subjected to environmental stresses and consequently

dies. Molting is likewise impaired without chitin synthesis hence as insects

grow there is the possibility of mechanical damage (being squeezed) to

insects. These groups of insecticides are sometimes called “insectstatics”

and have contact and stomach actions. Some specific groups in this

classification have translaminar and ovicidal properties. e.g., dimilin,

teflubenzuron, buprofezin

Classification of Fungicides

Fungicides are chemicals or substance used against fungus cuasing plant

disease but the term generally includes bactericides.

Two types of fungicides are generally recognized, those used to eradicate

the fungus and those used to protect the plant from the disease. They

may be applied to the foliage, the soil, or to the seeds.

By mode of action

1. Protectant fungicides – applied before the disease occurs in order to

prevent or inhibit the development of fungal spores or mycelia before they

can damage plant tissues. They do not penetrate into plant but when

applied as spray, dust or slurry, they provide a film of fungicide over the

surface of plants and seeds that kills fungal spores upon germination.

2. Curative or eradicant fungicides – kills fungus which has already

invaded a plant, fungicides need to exert a curative or chemotherapeutic

effectivity. Eradicants include systemic fungicides and those used for seed

dressings.

3. Systemic fungicide – these are fungicides which after application are

absorbed by the foliage or roots and are subsequently transported over

long distances within the plant (from root to shoot or from one leaf to

another).

By chemical nature

1. Inorganic sulfur fungicides – Sulfur is used or in combined with lime-

sulfur. It was the first foliar fungicide used to control powdery mildew of

peach and widely used in fruits and vegetables. Sulfur is a non- synthetic

protective fungicide and acaricide which is generally non-phytotoxic. It

acts both by direct contact and by fumigant action. Lime-sulfur has been

effective against scale insects dur to its softening action on the scale wax.

2. Inorganic Copper fungicides – compounds used mainly as wood and

seed preservative like copper sulfate, others as foliar fungicides for

vegetables and fruits.

a. Copper oxychloride – a green to bluish-green powder insoluble in

water but soluble, with decomposition, in dilute acids. It is also soluble in

ammonium hydroxide. Strongly corrosive to iron. Examples: Perenox,

Vitigran Blue

b. Bordeaux mixture – derived from Bordeaux region in France where it

was first accidentally discovered. This is made from by mixing sulfate

solution with suspension of hydrated lime. It I used as protective fungicide

for downy mildew, foliar fungicide for vegetables and fruit crops including

banana leaf spot. It has also a repellant effect on leafhoppers and other

insects.

3. Organic – synthetic fungicides

a. Dithiocarbamates – derivatives of the sulphur containing

dithiocarbamic acid. Example: maneb, thiram, mancozeb

4. Organometallic compounds

a. Mercury fungicide – effective against fungi; good disinfective

and protective action; suited for seed treatment. Has high mammalian

toxicity and are no longer available.

5. Systemic fungicides

These compounds are absorbed by the plant by translocation of the active

ingredient through the cuticle of leaves; hence they are taken into the

vascular system. These are transported via the sapstream towards the

foliage and the apical point.

a. Oxathiins – control many Basidiomycetes, a class of fungi which

includes such important pathogen as smuts and rusts of cereals, and the

soil fungus Rhizoctonia solani. Ex. Carboxin, fumecyclox, oxycarbon

b. Benzimidazoles and thiophanates – contains highly effective,

systemic, broad-spectrum fungicides which are widely used in many

tropical crops. Examples: thiabendazole, benomyl, carbendazim

c. Pyrimidines – Examples: dimethirimol, bupirimate, fenarimol

d. Acylalamines – Examples: furalaxyl, metalaxyl

e. Organophosphates – display protective as well as curative activity

because of their systemic property. Examples: edifenphos, trimiphos,

pyrozophos

f. Phenylamides and other fungicides against Oomycetes

Phenylamides – Examples: benalaxyl, metalaxyl, furalaxyl

Classification of Herbicides

Herbicides are chemicals used to control weeds. Weeds compete with

plants in terms of light and nutrients. They also harbor other pests. Weed

which are more aggressive than crops should be given special

consideration, especially on their control. Herbicides are usually hard to

handle being ineffective when applied underdose and destructive when

applied overdose.

1. Inorganic herbicides – mostly salts, are usually high-water soluble

and easily leach form the soil. They cause scorching of leaves by inducing

plasmolysis and desiccation int the plant cell. Examples: ammonium

sulfate; sulphuric acid, sodium borate, sodium chlorate

2. Organic herbicides – systhetic herbicides

3. Organic arsenicals – they act by inhibiting metabolic processes in the

plant as they complete with phosphate in essential chemical reaction.

Examples: DSMA, MSMA

4. Substituted amides – compounds effective for preemergence weed

control of grasses and broadleaved weeds. Some amide inhibits the

photosynthetic reaction probably by binding the enzyme involved in the

oxidation of water.

a. Amides – act primarily in the soil against annual gras weeds, causing

severe stunting of shoots. Examples: Chlorthiamid, diphenamid,

propyzamide, quinonamid

b. Anilides – these group varieties greatly in type of action and in ten

range of weeds they control. Examples: propanil, butachlor, alachor,

propachlor

5. Carbamates – esters of carbamic acid. These are effective in

controlling annual grasses and some annual broadleaved weeds. They act

through the inhibition of germination and cell division. Examples: asulam,

barban, propham

6. Thiocarbamates – these belongs to the group of carbamates which

contain sulphur. They are selective herbicides fro preemergence or

preplanting application. Because of their volativity, the compounds must

be incorporated into the soil. Examples: EPTC, molinate, thiobencarb

7. Aliphatic acids – exhibit systemic action after having been absorbed

by roots and leaves. They are effective against annual and perennial
grasses. Examples: trichloroacetic acid (TCA), dalapon

8. Phenol derivatives

a. Dinitrophenols – primarily contact herbicides, but have some effect

via the soil against annual broadleaved weeds. Examples: dinoseb, DNOC

b. Chlorinated phenols – Examples: PCP which is banned in the United

States

9. Benzonitrils – consist of benzene ring containing a cyanide radical.

They show broad spectrum activity, and act by various processes of

inhibition of growth and tissue disruption. Effective against annual grasses

and broadleaved weeds. Examples: bromoxynil, dichlobenil, ioxynil

a. Bipyridiliums – compounds that are non-selective, contact desiccants.

Herbicidal activity is due to formation of peroxide radicals highly toxic to

plant tissues. Bipyridiliums are not effective as preemergence herbicides

because they are rapidly absorbed and inactivated by soil materials.

Example: Paraquat

Classification of Rodenticides

It has been established fact that rodent problem in the country is of

moderate to high severity. Rodent infestation may just spell out the

difference between a good crop and a failure crop. In controlling pests of

agriculture, we greatly depend on chemicals despite some shortcomings

of chemical control.

In controlling rodents, we have to consider the following:

1. Toxicity and hazard

2. The pest species

3. Choice of formulation

4. Sociological consideration

Rodenticide Groups and Properties

1. Acute Toxicants

These are quick acting (animals die soon after ingestion of poison) and

highly toxic to mammals. Examples: Zinc phosphide, ANTU, HCN

2. Chronic Toxicants

Slow acting (takes a few to many days for death to occur), usually

referred to as anti-coagulant rodenticides. These chemicals inhibit the

clotting mechanism of the blood causing hemorrhage throughout the

body. They are effective at low concentration and has slow toxic action

which usually

takes several days and therefore “bait shyness” is unlikely to occur.

Examples: Warfarin, Diphacinone, Brodifacoum

3. Fumigants

Used under situation where rodents occupy burrows in paddy dikes and

elsewhere. Their effectiveness however, are limited by crack in the

burrows, and that they kill only rats inside burrows so that the cleared

areas are easily subject to reinvasion. However, the limitation is the

danger of inhalation of toxic does of gas during the operation. Examples:

hydrogen cyanide and phosphine gases

4. Chemosterilants

Compounds that sterilize rodents sexually to prevent reproduction when

taken in as baits by rat (such as when fen in baits). None of the currently

available compounds have shown sufficient effectiveness and there is the

tendency to induce bait invasion.

5. Attractants

These lure rodents from distances to trap or poison bait station. An

attractive odor in baits should increase the chance of a rodent species

finding the poisoned bait. Attractant odors could drastically reduce

number of baits normally needed in rodent poisoning program by

improving the efficiency of bait exposure.

6. Repellents

Repellents constitute a potentially low-hazard alternative to toxic

rodenticides. The use of repellents for rodents has limited success

because of minimal research activity in this field. Repellents are aimed at

discouraging rodent activity.

Application of Pesticides in the Field

Application is as important as identifying a pest and selecting the

appropriate solution to each problem. This has been sometimes

overlooked by the applicator and farmers due to the lack of understanding

the link between correct identification of a pest and selection of a pest

control tactic that must be adopted. Knowing the proper application

technique of chemical control for the selected pesticide will provide a

satisfactory control of the pest involve and that, when finally applied in

the field, the pesticide used will fulfill its purpose of controlling the pest

and the same time witl not cause any adverse effect to the environment.

For the effective application of pesticides in the field, the following key

actions must be considered:

a. Identify correctly the pest (problem)

b. Select the correct pesticide (solution)

c. Apply the pesticide correctly (application technique)

d. Wear recommended protective clothing (avoid exposure)

e. Observe proper hygiene (practice cleanliness)

Application technique is defined as the correct application of a pesticide

using appropriate application equipment to distribute the product in a

manner that it will enhance efficiency and biological efficacy and achieve

the purpose of managing pests without sacrificing safety and cost

effectivity. It involves the proper selection of application equipment ,

calibration, and pesticide calculations.

Equipment for pesticide application

a. Knapsack sprayers – most common and widely used application

equipment in Asia. They have the capacity of 10-20 liters. Operated

manually by hand pumping to build up the necessary pressure and break

the pressurized spray solution into correct spray droplets. Can modified to

suit the type of operation by replacing or modifying parts e.g., single

nozzle with double nozzle or boom for herbicide application

b. Mist blowers – this is used to apply spray solutions similar to those

applied by knapsack sprayers. This applicator is however, with a portable

engine integrated with the liquid is broken into droplets by high pressure.

The principle is similar to the carburetor of internal combustion engines.

c. Controlled Droplet Applicators (CDA) – are special equipment for

applying spray deposits of extremely uniform sizes. This involves the use

of special formulations using spray oils as carries (rarely water). The

droplets are formed by passing the spray liquid via the center of a

spinning disc which is operated by a battery.

Table 1. Comparison of various types of pesticide applicators

Application Equipment Application Rate l/ha Pesticide Spray

Uses

Conventional knapsack sprayer 100-500 Diluted in water

General pest as control for low canopied crop

Mist blower 50-100 Diluted in water For orchards

CDA 1-3 Pre-mixed (direct from bottle) General pest as

control. Where

water is scarce.

Types of Nozzles
a. Cone type – for foliage sprays (commonly used for insecticide and

fungicide)

b. Fan type (even fan, flat fan) – for gang sprays (commonly used for

herbicide application) or for directed insecticide application.

c. Spinning disc – application for ultra-low volume sprays or with

controlled droplet size.

Maintenance of sprayers

1. When purchasing a sprayer, obtain from supplier all available

information on its construction, operation and maintenance.

2. Drain the tank of remaining pesticide and fill (1/3 full) with detergent

solution, shake vigorously, operate the pump while spraying the rinse

solution. Pour out the remainder. Repeat at least 2 times, drain

completely and rinse with water. (Caution: Do not drain rinse solution into

irrigation canals)

3. After any use, all spray equipment should be dried thoroughly

(equipment positioned in such a way that any remaining water will either

drain out or evaporate)

Precautions

Check sprayers to make sure there no leaks, the nozzle is clear, all parts

are in good condition.

1. Do not use leaky equipment. Leaks will cause skin contamination and

will result in poor application and may cause crop damage.

2. Do not blow out clogged nozzles with mouth – clean them with water
or soft probe, such as grass stem.

3. Do not use poor quality and faulty equipment – it may be hazardous

and will give poor results and may cause crop damage and will be a waste

of time and money.

Pesticide Formulations

Pesticide manufactures market many of their products in concentrated

form. It is diluted in necessary amount of water to form a low-concentrate

spray. If proper rates of dilution are not used, the insecticide may be too

weak or too strong; the same goes with other chemical products. It may

not control the pest effectively, or it may damage plants or animals

respectively.

Common formulations of crop protection preparations and the methods of

diluting to obtain the desired concentration for field application:

A. Dusts – these are widely used in agriculture, especially where it is

difficult to obtain a large volume of water for spray dilution. Toxicant is

mixed or diluted with a carrier, such as talc, and mechanically blended by

the manufacturer. A low concentration of the toxicant is helpful in making

an even application. Dusts are applied with hand dusters, ground dusting

equipment, or aerial equipment, and are not intended to be mixed with

water or oil. In order to avoid drift, it is best to use dusts when there is

little wind, and the crops are wet from dew or rain. Because they contain

no solvents and no emulsifiers, dusts are least likely to harm delicate

plants.
B. Emulsifiable concentrates (EC) – oil-based liquid formulation

containing a high concentration of the pesticide. These concentrates

contain solvents, emulsifiers,

and wetting and sticking agents to make them readily emulsifiable in

water and allow the residue to adhere to the plants. Before use, they

must be diluted in water. They can be applied as liquid sprays with high or

low gallonage ground equipment or with aerial spray equipment.

C. Wettable powders (WP) – although similar in appearance to dusts,

contain a wetting agent which permits them to become dispersed and

suspended when mixed with water and applied as liquid spray. As

powders do not dissolve but stay in suspension, spray tanks must be

equipped with agitators to keep the particles in suspension. As wettable

powders contain no or solvent, they are safer than some emulsified

concentrates for use on plants with delicate foliage.

D. Aqueous concentrates (AC) – active materials that readily dissolve in

water but not in organic solvents are usually formulated as aqueous

concentrates. Upon mixing with water, aqueous concentrates form true

solutions which are homogenous mixtures or 2 or more substances.

E. Aerosols – the active ingredient is suspended in a container under

pressure

F. Water soluble powders (WSP) – active material that readily dissolve

in water may be prepared in powder form containing the active material

finely ground to increase the rate at which it will dissolve together with

wetting, spreading, sticking and a drying agent to prevent the resulting

powder from fusing into hard lumps when stored under humid conditions.
G. Fumigants – some active materials are formulated as dry solids or

liquids which, upon mixture with another substance, will liberate the toxic

materials in the form of gas, smoke or finely divide particles, Liquid

fumigants are highly volatile liquids, which will evaporate at quite low

temperatures to give a vapor that is toxic.

H. Granules (G) – granular formulations consist of free-flowing grains of

inert materials either mixed or impregnated with a pesticide. Granular

form offers the following advantages:

a. they do not need any further mixing or dilution

b. present no drift problem during application

c. granules (of low mammalian toxicity compounds) can be broadcast

directly by hand without any mechanical equipment

Terminologies used in formulation

1. Acid equivalent – the theoretical yield of parent acid from the active

ingredient content of a formulation

2. Active ingredient – the chemical in a formulated product that is

principally resp[onsible for the effects and that is shown as active

ingredient on labels.

3. Carrier – a gas, liquid or solid substances used to dilute, propel or

suspend an active material during application.

4. Deflocculating agent – material which keep particles away from each

other to prevent flocculation and to assure dispersion and to regard

settling of a solid within a liquid.

5. Diluent – any gas, liquid or solid materials used to reduce the

concentration of an active ingredient in a formulation

6. Emulsifier – a surface active agent which promotes the suspension of

one liquid in another

7. Inert ingredient – inactive part of a pesticide formulation. Any

material in a pestidice mixture which would not prevent damage or

destroy pests if used by itself.

8. Safener – material used to counteract the chemical characteristics of

a substance which may normally cause phytotoxic effects.

9. Spreader – material used to facilitate creeping or spreading over a

surface so that the area covered is increasingly greater.

10. Sticker – material which increases, adhesion to substrates; adhesive

material increases the tenacity of substances

11. Surfactant – material which favors or improves the emulsifying,

dispersing, spreading, weeting or aother surface modifying properties of

liquids

12. Technical material – the pesticide as it is first manufactured by the

company before formulation; it is almost pure.

13. Toxicant – a poison; the chemical in a pesticide formulation that can

injure or kill the pest as well as human beings, animals or plants.

14. Wetting agent – substance which serve to reduce interfacial tensions

and causes spray solutions or suspensions to make better contact with

created surfaces

15. Synergists – are chemicals that may or may not be toxic to insects by

themselves and, when added to another substance that enhanced

toxicity; added in a ratios of 8:1 to 10:1 (synergist:insecticide)

16. Solvents – added to the chemical to make it insoluble to water (e.g.,

kerosene, carbon tetrachloride, xylene)

Safety Precautions in Handling, Mixing and Application of Pesticides

Chemical products are pesticides designed to kill destructive pests, fungi

and weeds. Hence, therefore also harmful to humans when handled

incorrectly or carelessly. The risk of exposure is greatest when negligence

and precautions were not taken into account.

A. Mixing procedures

1. Liquid concentrates – can mix readily with water. The requirement

amount can be poured directly into sprayer tanks partly filled with water

then filled with water to the correct level.

2. Wettable powders – wettable powders should be mixed first with a

small amount of water to form a “creamy” or slurry state then poured into

sprayer tank. Water is then added to the correct level and then stirred

well.

3. Ready use products such as granules can be scoped from their packs

into plastic buckets for broadcast applications.

B. Precautions while mixing and measuring

1. Do not fill sprayers to full – may spill during use or while mounting

knapsack sprayers to shoulder.

2. Do not mix spray volume in excess to what can be applied during the

same day.

3. Avoid skin contamination.

4. Do not measure or mix pesticides in or near buildings where animals

are kept.

5. Keep children and animals away.

6. Do not contaminate water supplies and containers from which

animals may drink

7. Never use hands to scoop pesticides or stir pesticide spray mixtures

8. Use cleanest water available for diluting spray mixtures

9. Handle wettable powders carefully to avoid “fluffing”

10. Keep pesticides in closed original containers

11. Do not transfer liquid concentrates into empty soft drinks bottles or

other food containers.

12. Wash all measuring equipment after use.

C. Safety guidelines during applications

1. Wear appropriate protective clothing (e.g., sleeved shirt and long

pants made form cotton is recommended, face masks, googles, hat)

2. DO not spray during the presence of strong wind. Do not spray

against the wind to avoid inhalation of the spray droplets.

3. Never leave pesticide containers and equipment open and

unattended in the field.

4. Do not blow clogged nozzles or hoses with your mouth.

5. Never eat, drink or smoke when mixing or applying pesticides.

6. Keep all people and animals away.

7. Do not allow children to apply pesticides.

8. Always have plenty of water available for washing.

References:

Training Manual on Pest Management and Pesticide Safety

Dent, D., 2000. Insect Pest Management. 2nd Ed. CABI Publishing New

York, NY 10016 USA

Classification of Herbicides

A. Based on Time of Application

1. Pre-plant – any herbicides applied before the crop is seeded or

transplanted

a. Preplant foliar applied – herbicide is sprayed on the existing

vegetation to kill weeds before planting. Example: glyphosate

b. Preplant soil incorporated – herbicide is incorporated into the soil to

prevent volatilization losses to the soil or to place the chemical in the

zone where it is needed.

2. Pre-emergence – herbicide application before emergence of the

crop or weeds. The herbicide is applied to the soil surface. Example:

butachlor

3. Postemergence – any treatment made after emergence of a

particular crop or weed. Example: 2,4-D applied 30 days after

emergence (DAE)

B. Based on Biological Effect

1. According to mode of action

a. Contact herbicides – these are applied to the foliage and kill plant

tissues at or very close to the site of application

b. Translocated(systemic) herbicides - herbicides capable of

movement within the plant to exert herbicidal effect away from the site

of application. Glyphosate and 2,4-D are examples of translocated

herbicides.

2. According to selectivity

a. Selective herbicides – herbicides that kills or stunts some plants

with a little or no injury to others isa said to be selective. 2,4,-D applied

to rice 30 days after seeding to control broadleaved weeds and sedges is

an example to a selective herbicide.

b. Non-selective herbicides – toxic to all plants. General weed killers

such as glyphosate

Herbicides commonly used in rice

1. Anilides

a. Butachlor, pretilachlor:

Selective, pre-emergence, mainly for grass control. It inhibits protein

synthesis and cell division. Absorbed through germinating shoots

(mesocotyl and coleoptile), some by root absorption (radicle).

b. Prophanil

Selective, post-emergence, mainly for grass control. The most active at

1-4 leaf stage of grasses. It inhibits photosynthesis (Hill reaction). It has

a limited translocation, acts like a contact herbicide. It is incompatible

with organophosphate and carbamate insecticides because these

insecticides inhibit arylacylaminadase.

2. Dinitroanilines: pendimethalin

Selective, pre-emergence for grass control. Mitotic poison which inhibits

cell division. Easily volatilized and thus need soil incorporation. It is

absorbed through emerging shoots and radicles. It has limited

translocation.

3. Phenoxy’s: 2,4-D, MCPA

Selective, post-emergence, foliar applied for broadleaf and sedge control

(if applied pre-emergence wit not control grasses). It interferes with RNA

metabolism; hormones or auxin-type herbicide. Toxicity symptoms are

epinasty, callus formation and brittle stem. It is absorbed mainly through

leaves. Translocation through phloem tissues to meristematic regions

(growing points) with products of photosynthesis. Degraded in plants.

4. Carbamates: thiobencarb, molinate

Selective, pre-emergence; mainly for grass control. These are cell

division inhibitors and also inhibit lipid and protein synthesis. Toxicity

symptoms consists of leaf rolling or leaf seal. It is absorbed through

germinating shoots.

5. Aryloxyphenoxypropionate (APPs):fenoxaprop

Selective, post-emergence for grass control. Use very low rates. It

inhibits acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase (ACCase), a key enzyme in lipid

synthesis. It is absorbed through xylem and phloem from leaves to

meristematic tissues (growing points). It is degraded to polar,

hydroxylated compound. It has antagonism with phenoxys and

sulfonylureas.

6. Sulfonylureas: bensulfuron, pyrazosulfuran, nicosulfuran

Selective, pre-emergence herbicide for broadleaf and sedge control.

Used in very low rates. They inhibit acetolactate synthase (ALS or

AHAS), a key enzyme in synthesis of branched chain amino acids (valine,

leucine, isoleucine); results in inhibition of cell division. Absorption is

through shoots and roots. Are translocated through xylem and phloem

form leaves to meristematic tissues (growing points)

7. Bentazon
 Selective, post-emergence herbicide for broadleaf and sedge control. It

inhibits photosynthesis (Hill reaction). It is absorbed by shoots and also

by roots. It has limited translocation, through xylem and phloem form

leaves to other plant parts. It is degraded into hydroxybentazon;

conjugation with sugars in plant.

8. Qionoline carboxylic acid: quinclorac

Selective pre-emergence herbicide for grass control. An auxin-type mode

of action; interfere with growth processes i.e., cell division; in some

plants, auxin level is affected. Is absorbed by shoots and roots.

Translocated through xylem and phloem, from older leaves to younger

leaves and meristems in shoots and roots.

9. Glyphosate

A non-selective, translocated, broad-spectrum control herbicide. It is

applied post- emergence (foliar-applied). For use in no-till rice. Not

active if soil-applied (immobilized in soil). Absorbed through leaves. Is

translocated through phloem and also xylem to other plant parts,

especially to underground plant parts; thus,

effective on perennials. It inhibits EPSP synthase, enzyme involved in

synthesis of aromatic amino acids. Not extensively degraded in plants.

10. Paraquat

A non-selective, contact, broad spectrum herbicide. Applied postemergence (foliar-

applied). Has no soil activity; strongly absorbed to clay. It interferes with light

reaction (electron transport system) in photosynthesis. Absorbed through leaves.

Not translocated in plants; plant tissues are destroyed before they can metabolize
the herbicide. Needs light, oxygen and photosynthesis for maximum activity.