Per Dev

1963 – Hans Seyle conducted a study on hormonal changes in rats. He discovered that rats reacted to
stress brought by their experience.

Hans Seyle - “Father of Stress Research”

Stress – the non-specific response of the body to any demand. A body’s reaction to pressure, challenge,
or situation whether physical, mental, or emotional as defined by Seyle.

Stressor – stimulus that triggers the body to respond

Positive Stress – response to stimuli makes a person more alert, productive, and motivated

Negative Stress – response to stimuli causes damage to your health, relationships, productivity, and
other aspects of life.

Kinds of Stress:

- Acute Stress; the most common and recognizable kind of stress. Everyday situations that a
person encounters, making it very manageable. Short-term, the body’s immediate response to
demands and pressures of recent or future events. Positive or negative depending on
perception.
- Episodic Acute Stress; persistent acute stress
- Chronic Stress; most damaging type with long term effects. Brought by traumatic experiences
in the past
Biological Foundations:

Hypothalamus – releases the hormones adrenaline and cortisol into the bloodstream to allow a physical
response addressed towards the stressor

Prefrontal Cortex – part of the brain known for decisions-making, adapting and flexibility, judgement,
organizing and planning, setting goals, and controlling impulses

Sources of Adolescent’s Stress

- Social Pressures
- Family Relationships
- Academic Pressure
- Self-Doubt

Long Term Effects of Stress

Physical Health:

- Musculoskeletal System: common reflex when stressed is for muscles to tighten up and feel
tense.

- Respiratory System: a person under stress to have trouble breathing. Can trigger asthma or
panic attacks. A stressful situation can worsen lung problems. Lung diseases such as
emphysema, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and chronic bronchitis may become more
complicated due to the long-term stress surrounding a person.

- Cardiovascular System: under stress a person’s heart rate, blood pressure, and levels of stress
hormones. However, if you continuously experience constant stress, your coronary arteries may
swell which can lead to a heart attack. Other long-term heart and blood vessel problems may
also arise. Long-term exposure to stress increases fat levels. The body responds to cholesterol,
which can block blood vessels, and increases the probability of heart disease to strike. One also
becomes at risk for hypertension and stroke.

- Endocrine System: the brain produces cortisol and adrenaline glands produce epinephrine as a
response to stress. The liver produces more glucose (blood sugar) for energy. Continuous
exposure makes you vulnerable to diseases such as diabetes

- Digestive System: increase in appetite or loss of it. May lead to obesity or malnutrition. Stress
makes your brain more sensitive to your stomach, continuous experience of stress may lead to
ulcers or chronic stomach pain.
- Reproductive System: affects testosterone and sperm production in males which may lead to
impotence or erectile dysfunction. Stress may lead to irregularity in menstrual cycle or
menstrual disorders which can cause infertility in women
 - Other Physical Problems: worsening skin conditions, hair loss. Chronic stress affects your
immune system, overstimulating disease fighting hormones and making them less effective.
May also inhibit the release of certain chemicals that your body needs to fight illnesses.

Mental Health

In the previous lesson, it was discussed how the adolescent brain is vulnerable to the effects of stress
because it is at the stage where it is continuing to develop and mature. Because the prefrontal cortex is
not yet fully developed, the brain cannot calm down and shut down the stress responses of the body,
which causes you to experience the stress more quickly and for longer periods of time. Recent studies
show that because of this, there are indeed links between continuous exposure to stress and mental
health issues in adolescents, such as depression, bipolar disorders, schizophrenia, substance abuse, and
anxiety disorders.

Coping Strategies

- Manage your time

- Talk it out
- Laugh
- Rest
- Move
- Be Positive
- Meditate

Brain Power

Brain - It is a delicate, gel-like organ that is considered as the most powerful part of the human body

A. Forebrain - considered as the biggest part of the brain. Consisting mostly of the cerebrum
- Cerebrum - controls speech, reasoning, learning, emotional control, and memory.

Parts of the Cerebrum:

The Limbic System:

- Hippocampus – focuses on learning and memory

- Amygdala – center of emotions like aggression and anger
- Hypothalamus – responsible for basic processes like the control of hunger, temperature
regulation, thirst, circadian rhythms. Responds to sunlight and temperature
- Thalamus – main job is to control the flow of information going into the cerebral cortex, which
is distributed to the muscles and senses, and vice versa.

Cerebral Cortex – outer thin layer of the cerebrum. Divided into four loves that govern specific
functions.
 B. Midbrain – between the forebrain and the hindbrain. Responsible for hand eye movement and
auditory information. Link in the signal transmissions between the forebrain and the hindbrain.
C. Hindbrain – composed of the cerebellum and pons
- Cerebellum – also known as the “little brain”, controls movement and balance
- Pons – responsible for arousal and the sleep and waking up cycle

Medulla oblongata – extension of the spinal cord that is found in the skull. It regulates circulation and
other involuntary processes like heart rate, blood pressure regulation, salivation, sneezing, breathing,
vomiting, and coughing.

Four Lobes of the Brain

1. Frontal Lobe – found at the front of the brain. Responsible for the higher level thinking
processes like problem-solving, learning, and organizing. It regulates attention memory, and
mobility
2. Parietal Lobe – at the back of the frontal lobe. This region integrates sensory data like touch,
pain, pressure, and temeperature. Also helps in kinesthesia or the perception that the limbs or
body is moving
3. Temporal Lobe – found near the ears. Main focus is to process auditory signals and information.
Important component in understanding language. Involve in long-term memory encoding. The
presence of a tumor can give rise to a hallucination in this lobe.
4. Occipital Lobe – lower back of the cortex. Processes visual information including the detection
and identification of colors, movement, and other visual stimuli. Gets information from the eyes
and uses them to form perceptions or interpretations.

Hemispheres of the Brain

Corpus callosum – acts as the relay center between the left and right hemisphere. Part that receives
neural messages from each hemisphere and sends the message to the other half

Left/Right Brain Dominance Theory

The two hemispheres control the body in a contralateral way. The left side of the brain has direct
influence on the right side of the body while the right side of the brain has direct control over the left
side of the body. If the right side of the brain is injured, it will have a direct impact on the left side of the
body.

Whole Brain Theory

Ned Herrmann - He was General Electric’s head of the Management Development department when he
created this model. With the use of brain studies made by himself and other specialists, he discovered
that four patterns were used by the brain in terms of perceiving and processing data. This finding
brought forth The Whole Brain Model which identified and described the four modes of thinking styles.
Whole Brain Thinking Model - This model emphasizes the different thinking styles used by people.
Moreover, it added that some styles are more dominant as compared to others. Nevertheless, this did
not eliminate the possibility that people have access to all four thinking modes. In other words, the
inherent ability to use all four styles allows people to be flexible and use all the other modes in order to
adapt and improve their performance in any area.

Quadrant A (Analytical Thinking). People who use this mode of thinking like to read textbooks, collect
data, listen to informative lectures or talks, make use of criteria or facts when evaluating ideas or
situations, and apply logical reasoning.

Quadrant B (Practical Thinking). People who use this style prefer detailed instructions, make use of time
management, follow directions easily, observe schedule and plan and organize activities.

Quadrant C (Relational Thinking). People who use this model like to find meaning in what they do. They
are cooperative, like to listen and share ideas, and prefer win-win situations.

Quadrant D (Experimental Thinking). People who use this style look at the whole picture and not at the
details. They like brainstorming and they take initiative in doing things. They are not afraid to ask “What
if” questions, and they like simulation
 Earth & Life Science

Life Science – collection of disciplines that is made up of theories and priciples that tackle living
organisms.

Characteristics of Organisms

Response to Environment – Living things respond to changes aroud them to survive

Growth and Development – Growth is an increa in size, development is the differentiation of cells for
specialization

Capable of Reproduction – Reproduction refers to the creation of offspring

Exhibit Metabolism – refers to the chemical reactions in an organism

Maintain Homeostatis – is the body’s state of equilibrium

Made of cells – All organisms are made of cells which are the basic units of life

Spontaneous Generation – theory that described that life comes from lieless or nonliving material
through a mysterious process

Panspermia – staes that life on eart was seeded from a celestial source

Primordial Soup Theory – life started in a primordial soup of organic molecules

Classical Experiments that Led to the Discovery of First Life

Electrical Discharge Experiment – by Miller and Urey. They were able to prove the formation of amino
acids and carbohydrates from the mixture of organic substances. The purpose was to explore the early
conditions of Earth

Thermal Synthesis Experiment – demonstrated the origin of life by Sidney W. Fox.

- Fox’s Experiment – after heating the mixture, an aqueous solution was formed and cooled into
microscopic globules called proteinoid microspheres. The structures seemed to be budding,
which is a form of reproduction seen in some microorganisms.

Protocell Experiment – Jack Szotak built lipid sacs made in fatty acids and a replicase – an RNA molecule
that catalyzes its own replication in a test tube.

- Szostak’s Experiment – lipid sacs with more RNA grew faster. This suggested that early form of
life with just a single gene which is an RNA gene.
Early Forms of Life

Evidence of Early Life:

- Earth; was formed about 4.5 billion years ago

- The first lifeform; emerged 3.7 billion years ago

Timeline of Life

- 3.7 billion years ago: photosynthetic organisms

- 1.85 billion years ago: eukaryotes
- 525 million years ago: Cambrian explosion

Cyanobacteria – or blue green algae are prokaryotic organisms that lack nuclei in their cells. They are
photosynthetic

Red Algae – first multicellular organisms are thought to be red algae that appeared 1.2 billion years ago

Trilobites – ancient arthropods that are now extinct. Dominant species during the Cambrian

Anomalocaris – one of the most dominant animals of the Cambrian Period. Reached up to 6 feet in
length

Plants:

- 450 million years ago; plants began to thrive on land

- 430 million years ago; vascular plants appeared
- 300 million years ago; conifers appeared

Terrestrial Vertebrates – most ancient terrestrial vertebrates were the walking fish. 400 mya, the first
tetrapods appeared.

Connections and Interaction Among Living Things

Homeostasis – the preservation of the stable internal conditions in an organism

Biodiversity – refers to the diversity of life

Evolution – refers to the change in the inherited traits of an organism over generations which leads to
creation of new species

Ecosystem – consist of biotic or living components and abiotic or nonliving components.

Food Chain – represents how energy is transferred across a series of organisms in the form of food.
Food Sources:

- Autotrophs – also known as producers since they can make their own food
- Heterotrophs – also known as consumers since they consume other organisms for food

Trophic Levels – organisms are classified based on the hierarchy in the food chain

Food Web – made up of multiple linked together food chains

Commensalism – one organism benefits while the other is unaffected

Mutualism – both organisms benefit

Competition – Organisms compete for resources

Predation – A predator feeds on prey

Parasitism – A parasite relis on a host for survival

Reproduction in Plants

Alternation of Generations – Plants alternate between diploid and haploid stages

- The haploid generation is called the gametophyte

- The diploid generation is called the sporophyte

Mosses – are small plants that lack well-developed vascular systems, are spore-producing and are non-
flowering

- Life cycle starts with the sporophyte, followed by the gametophyte and then the next
sporophyte generation
- Gametophye is the larger more obvious stage

Life Cycle of a Moss

1. A gametophyte moss produces sex cells.

- Female structure is called the archegonium
- Male structure is called the anteridium

2. Antherozoids are released when the antheridia are ripe and get wet in the rain
3. Fertilization occurs in the archegonium forming a diploid zygote
4. The sporophyte begins to grow by mitosis
 5. The embryonic sporophyte develops the foot, seta, and capsule
6. Transfer cells develop at the sporophyte-gametophyte boundary
7. Spores are released when they are mature via peristome
8. Spores germinate if they fall into damp ground
- A protonema grows directly from the germinating spore

Ferns – one of the oldest groups of plants on earth and are commonly found in wet climates such as
tropical regions and temperate zones.

Part of a Fern:

- Frond – the entire leaf of the fern that we see most

- Rhizomes – are the underground stems from which new leaves are produced
- Sporangia – are miniature sacks that produce spores and can be seen as bumps on the
underside of fronds

Life Cycle of a Fern

1. Mature spores are released and will grow into a small heart-shaped plant called a gametophyte
or prothallus
2. Gametophyte will develop either both male (antheridia) and female (archegonia) sex organs or
separately
3. Sperms swim in water to meet an egg
4. The embryo sporophyte then develops a foot to get nourishment
5. Sori is formed on the underside of leaves- They are clumps holding reproductive spores
6. The sporangia releases spores produced via meiosis

Gymnosperms – do not bear flower. Contains “naked seeds” called cones

Parts of a cone:
Life Cycle of Gymnosperms – Gymnosperms reproduce sexually and follows:

1. Pollination
2. Fertilization
3. Post-fertilization

Gymnospers can also reproduce asexually

1. The wind carries the pollen from the male cones to the female cones
2. A sticky substance secreted by the ovule collects the pollen
3. The ovule closes and seals the pollen

During fertilization, the egg becomes fertilized when the pollen reaches an ovule through the elongation
of the pollen tube

The result is an embryo that starts to grow, protected by the sporophytic tissue. A developing
gymnosperm takes over a year to mature.

For seed dispersal, the scales on the cone of some species of gymnosperms escape from the cone when
fully developed during post-fertilization.

Cone seeds have wings attached to them that help in their proper dispersal. When seeds land, they
germinate if the conditions are favorable

Angiosperms – bear flowers. Contains seeds enclosed in an ovary in the form of fruits

Parts of a Flower:

- Androecium (Male) - consists of whorls of stamen

- Stamen; comprised of the filament and the anther
- Filament; long, slender stalk that holds the anther
- Anther; produces the pollen grains (male reproductive cells)
 - Gynoecium (Female)
- Style; is a slender stalk that supports the stigma
- Stigma; the sticky part that receives the pollen
- ovary; the basal sac that contains the ovules (female reproductive cells)

Life Cycle of Angiosperm

Autogamy – pollen is transferred to the stigma of the same flower

Geitonogamy – pollen is transferred to the stigma of another flower but of the same plant

Xenogamy – cross-pollination

Fertilization takes place when the sperm (germinated pollen) unites with the egg (ovule) forming a
fertilized egg called a zygote

Reproduction in Animals

Invertebrates – organisms that do not possess a vertebral column or backbone

- Mostly lack an endoskeleton

- Capable of sexual and asexual reproduction
- Majority reproduces sexually

Grouped into:

- Poriferans
- Cnidarians
- Annelids
- Mollusks
- Arthropods
- Echinoderms

Poriferans – consists of sponged and is among the simplest of all invertebrates

- Do not display tissue-level organization

- Sessile adult sponges
- Most reproduce sexually
- Hermaphroditic, produce both sperm and egg at different times
Life Cycle of a Sponge

Budding – a type of asexual reproduction that happens when an outgrowth called a bud, gows and
develops from the parent animal

External bud – separates and grows into a new individual

Internal budding – associated with the gemmule formation

Gemmules – a mass of unspecialized cells that acts as a survival pod

Cnidarians – Diploblastic and exhibit tissue level of organization

- Has distinct body plans called the polyp (stalk) and medusa (bell)
- Polyp forms are sessile
- Medusa forms are motile
- Corals asexually reproduce through budding
Annelids – exhibit organ system level of body organization

- Segmented bodies
- Has a coelom where internal organs form
- Consists of two classes:
- Polychaetes (marine worms)
- Clitellata;
- Subclass oligochaeta (earthworms)
- Subclass hirudinea (leeches)
- Asexual reproduction is by budding or fission

Fission - is when two individuals will form as the parent divides

Mollusks – covered with a calacareous shell and unsegmented

- Has distinct head, muscular foot and visceral mass

- Can be dioecious or hermaphroditic
- Generally classified into:
- Gastropod (snails and slugs)
- Bivalve (oysters, clams, and mussels)
- Cephalopod (squids and octopi)
- Mostly sexual, capable of asexual reproduction
- Can self-fertilize
- Most have a trochophore larva stage, some have a veliger stage
Insects – have an exoskeleton

- Bodies are divided into three regions namely, the head, thorax, and abdomen
- High fecundity and high fertility
- Metamorphosis is the significant developmental change as organisms grow from immature to
adults
- Can be complete or incomplete

Complete metamorphosis – is an insect development in which the egg, larva, pupa, and adult stages
greatly differ in morphology

- Very active, ravenously eating larva, inactive pupa

- Larva is the immature form, remains similar in form but increases in size
- Exoskeleton is completely molted
Incomplete metamorphosis – is an insect development in which gradual changes occur in the insect
during its life cycle

- Has a nymph or naiad which resembles a miniature adult

- Certain portions of the exoskeleton remain throughout the lifetime

Parthenogenesis – reproduction of offspring without fertilization commonly seen in bees

- Produce haploid drones or males and diploid female workers in bees

Echinoderms – have distinct water vascular system

- Have an endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles

- Reproduce asexually through fission and fragmentation

Fission – when two individuals will form as the parent divides in half
Fragmentation –the breaking of body parts into fragments, followed by regeneration and regrowth of
lost parts

Autonomy or self-amputations – is a defensive mechanism by which an organism detaches a part of

itself to escape a predator rather than being eaten

Vertebrates – possess a vertebral column or backbone

- Categorized into mammals, reptiles, birds, amphibians, and fishes

- Majority reproduce sexually via internal or external fetilization

Oviparity – has eggs fertilized internally, but they will complete their development outside the mother’s
body

- Eggs receive their nourishment through their yolk

Ovoviviparity – has zygotes growing into embryos, which receive their nourishment through the yolk

- Organisms are fully developed when hatched and released by the mother

Viviparity – has eggs that are fertilized internally

- Embryos receive nourishment directly from their mother’s blood through the placenta, rather
than from the yolk
External Fertilization – Male and Female release gametes in water and fertilization occurs externally

- Common to aquatic organisms which help prevent eggs from drying out