Bahir Dar University

Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

MSc in Communications Systems Engineering

Optical Fiber Communication Assignment

By:
Dessie Fikir
Email: dfaddis30@gmail.com
Submitted to Dr. Fekadu Mihret (PhD)

February 13, 2024

1 Signal Attenuation or Signal Loss in Fiber
Attenuation is a measure of decay of signal strength or loss of light power that occurs as
light pulses propagate through the length of the fiber. It measures the amount of light lost
between input and output. It also indicates loss of fiber where light intensity decreases over a
distance. Total attenuation is the sum of all losses. The fiber’s attenuation is governed by the
materials from which it is fabricated, the manufacturing process, and the chosen refractive
index profile. Attenuation loss is measured in dB/km. Attenuation loss refers to the loss of
signal between input and output. It is one of the important characteristics of a fiber. This
characteristic plays a major role in determining the maximum distance between the transmitter
and receiver without repeaters. Attenuation leads to a loss of power along the fiber, the output
power is significantly less than the coupled power [1][2].
The attenuation unit is expressed in terms of a logarithmic unit of the decibel. The decibel is
the input optical power Pi ratio to the output optical power P0 . Let the coupled optical power is
P0 i.e. at origin (z = 0). Then the power at distance z is given by

1.1 Attenuation Coefficient

In the above diagram αP is the fiber attenuation coefficient (fiber attenuation constant) (per
km). It is a measure of how quickly the intensity of an optical signal attenuates or decreases as
it travels through an optical fiber. It quantifies the rate at which the light energy is lost per unit
of distance. The attenuation coefficient is used to calculate the total signal loss in a fiber link
and assess the system’s performance in terms of signal integrity, reach, and signal-to-noise ratio.
Higher attenuation coefficients result in more significant signal loss over distance, affecting
the efficiency and reliability of optical communication systems. characterizes the rate at which
optical signals weaken as they propagate through the fiber. Understanding and managing the

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attenuation coefficient is essential in designing efficient and reliable optical communication
systems, where minimizing signal loss and maximizing signal strength are critical for high-
performance data transmission and communication applications [3].
The mathematical expressions for Attenuation coefficient is described below:

This parameter is known as fiber loss or fiber attenuation. And αP : Attenuation coefficient
Attenuation is also a function of wavelength, optical fiber wavelength as a function of Wave-
length is shown in Fig. 1.

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 Figure 1: Attenuation as the function of wavelength in Optical Communication [3]

The above figure shows the attenuation variation concerning wavelength in optical communica-
tion. It shows the nominal value of 0.5 dB/km at 1300 nm and 0.3 dB at 1550 nm for standard
single-mode fiber (solid line). The dashed line shows characteristics for all wave fibers.

1.2 Material Absorption

Material absorption is a loss mechanism related to both the material composition and the
fabrication process for the fiber, which results in the dissipation of some of the transmitted
optical power as heat in the waveguide. The optical power is lost as heat in the fiber. It is
caused by the absorption of photons within the fiber. The photons move the valence electrons
to higher energy levels. Hence photons are destroyed and the radiant energy is transferred into
electric potential energy [1]. The following are types of material absorption:

• Absorption by atomic defects in the fiber materials.

• Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms of the fiber material.

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 • Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in the fiber material.

Absorption by Atomic Defects

This type of absorption is caused by atomic defects (i.e. improper atomic structure) like missing
molecules, clusters of atoms, and imperfection of the atomic structure of the fiber material. This
type of absorption has a very small value, the value is mostly negligible when compared with
intrinsic and extrinsic absorption.
Intrinsic Absorption
Intrinsic absorption occurs when the material is in absolutely pure state with no impurities,
which means caused by basic fiber material properties by the interactions with one or more
of the components of the glass (fiber). If an optical fiber is pure, with no imperfections or
impurities then all absorption will be intrinsic. It occurs when a light particle (photon) interacts
with an electron and excites it to a higher energy level. Intrinsic absorption has two types:

• Intrinsic absorption due to ultraviolet fail.

• Intrinsic absorption due to infrared absorption fail

The optical communication wavelength range in terms of µm is 0.8 µm to 1.7 µm. In silica
fibers, intrinsic absorption will occur above 1.5 µm. The photons of light energy are converted
into random mechanical vibration infrared absorption. Maximum IR peak value at 0.8 µm and
minimum peak value at 3.2, 3.8, and 4.4 µm. In the visible region losses at 1.5 µm are less
than 0.5 dB/km. The optical loss is determined by calculating the presence of OH ions and
the inherent infrared absorption of the constituent material. The inherent absorption will occur
because of the interaction between the vibrating bond and the EM field of the optical signal
results. The transfer of energy between the vibrating bond and the field gives rise to absorption.
The empirical expression for the infrared absorption for GeO2 –SiO2 glass is given by:

Intrinsic absorption also depends upon the electronic absorption bands in the ultraviolet region.
Ultraviolet absorption decays exponentially with increasing wavelength at 0.8 µm the ultravi-
olet absorption having the value of 0.3 dB/km. Thus in the case of silica fiber, it will act as a
transmission window from 1 µm to 1.6 µm.

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 Figure 2: Intrinsic absorption in IR and UV [4]

Extrinsic Absorption (by Impurity Atoms)

It is caused by impurities within the glass. Extrinsic absorption is due to metal impurities
such as iron, chromium, copper, manganese, and nickel during fabrication. It is caused
by the electronic transition of these metal ions from one energy level to another energy
level. This type of absorption is more pronounce in direct melt methods because, in that type
of fabrication method, the dopants are added directly to the silica. In the case of Vapour Axial
Deposition (VAD), the impurity level ranges from 1 to 5 parts per billion. The transmission
metal ions produce loss at 0.8 µm. Impurity absorption also results from OH ions. This OH
impurity results from the oxyhydrogen flame used for the hydrolysis reaction of the SiCl4,
GeCl4, and PoCl3. This type of absorption is reduced by reducing the water content in the fiber
below one ppb (parts per billion).

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 Figure 3: Extrinsic Absorption

1.3 Rayleigh scattering

Rayleigh scattering results from random inhomogeneities that are small in size compared
with the wavelength [4].

These inhomogeneities exist as refractive index fluctuations frozen into the amorphous glass
fiber upon fiber pulling. Such fluctuations always exist and cannot be avoided! Rayleigh scat-
tering results in an attenuation (dB/km) ∝ λ14 .
This loss occurs in the ultraviolet region. Its tail extends up to the infrared region. It arises
from the microscopic inhomogeneities present in the fiber material. Inhomogeneities may arise
from density fluctuations, reflective fluctuations, and compositional variations. It is caused by
small-scale (small compared with the wavelength of the light wave) Inhomogeneities produced
in the fiber fabrication process. It is a form of elastic scattering that occurs when particles are
much smaller than the wavelength of the incident light, such as random inhomogeneities in
the glass lattice. Thus Rayleigh scattering is the wavelength of light and becomes significant
at shorter wavelengths comparable to the size of the structures in the glass. It is caused
by variations in density and composition that are built into the fiber during the manufacturing

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process.
Rayleigh scattering is the dominant intrinsic loss mechanism in the low absorption window
between the ultraviolet and infrared absorption tails. It results from inhomogeneities of a
random nature occurring on a small scale compared with the wavelength of the light. These
inhomogeneities manifest themselves as refractive index fluctuations and arise from density
and compositional variations which are frozen into the glass lattice on cooling. For SiO2 fiber,
Rayleigh loss is given by:

Where,
n - Refractive index of silica
p- Photo elastic co-efficient of silica
βc - Isothermal compressibility
TF - Fictive temperature at which solidification of glass takes place or simply annealing temper-
ature.
The transmission loss due to Rayleigh scattering is given as:

Where, L - length of fiber At high wavelengths, Rayleigh scattering loss will be reduced. It is
an elastic scattering because there is no change in frequency.

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 Figure 4: Illustrations of Rayleigh scattering [5]

1.4 Waveguide imperfections

Waveguide imperfections in fiber attenuation refer to any irregularities or defects in the de-
sign or manufacture of fiber optic waveguides that can lead to signal loss or attenuation.
Which decreases the signal strength as light travels through the fiber. These imperfections can
result from various factors, including core size, shape, refractive index, material impurities,
structural defects, bends (micro bends and macro bends), splices, and local fluctuations in
the density of the material in the fiber. Imperfections in the waveguide structure of the fiber,

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such as non-uniformity in the size and shape of the core, perturbations in the core-cladding
boundary, and defects in the core or cladding, can be generated in the manufacturing pro-
cess[4].

• Environmentally induced effects, such as stress and temperature variations, also cause
imperfections.

• The imperfections in a fiber waveguide result in additional scattering losses. They can
also induce coupling between different guided modes.

Waveguide imperfections can cause light to scatter or be absorbed as it travels through the fiber,
leading to a reduction in signal strength over distance. This can result in decreased data trans-
mission speeds and compromised network performance.
Material Impurities: Impurities within the fiber core or cladding can absorb and scatter light,
leading to signal loss.
Structural Defects: Structural variations such as irregularities in the core-cladding interface or
variations in core diameter can cause light leakage and increase attenuation.
Bends and Curvatures: Bending the fiber beyond its minimum radius of curvature can cause
signal loss due to microbending and macrobending effects.
Splices and Connectors: Imperfect fusion splices or poorly aligned connectors can introduce
reflection and scattering, leading to signal attenuation.
Mode Coupling: Imperfections in the waveguide structure can cause mode coupling between
different guided modes, resulting in power loss as light transitions between modes.
Inhomogeneities and Stress: Inhomogeneities in the fiber core or stress along the fiber length
can cause light scattering and absorption, contributing to attenuation.

Figure 5: Different types of losses in optical fiber [6]

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2 Nonlinear Optical Effects
In Optical Communication Nonlinear effects take place due to the interaction of propagating
light with Fiber Optics. It can result when the power is increased, or when it is concentrated in
a small area such as the core of the optical fiber. It is also due to the intensity dependence of
the refractive index of the medium or due to the inelastic-scattering phenomenon. Nonlinear
effects in Optical communication will be weak at low power and can be strong when the light
pulse reaches a certain threshold value, which can occur when the power is increased, these
effects will also be dependent on the transmission distance as well and will be increased by
increasing the distance. Nonlinear effects in optical fibers impose different limitations on the
communications link, and an understanding of such effects is almost a prerequisite for actual
light wave-system designers. On the other hand, they offer a variety of possibilities for all-
optical signal processing, amplification, and regeneration [7][8][9].
Major Nonlinear Effects in Optical Fibers
Stimulated Light scattering

• Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)

• Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)

Nonlinear Phase Modulation

• Self-Phase Modulation (SPM)

• Cross-Phase Modulation (XPM)

Stimulated Light scattering

Stimulated Light Scattering is a phenomenon in which an incident light wave interacts with a
medium containing certain microscopic structures or imperfections, causing the scattered light
to exhibit specific characteristics. It is a process where the interaction between light and a
medium results in the scattering of light at frequencies related to the incident light.
Stimulated Raman Scattering
Stimulated Raman scattering arises from the interaction of light with the vibrational modes of
the constituent molecules in the scattering medium; equivalently this can be considered as the
scattering of light from optical phonons. Stimulated Raman Scattering process caused by the
interaction of light with vibration modes of a molecule of lattice vibration of the crystal.
SRS is an inelastic process that occurs when a pump photon, excites a molecule up to a
virtual level (intermediate level). It is a Scattering of light from vibrating silica molecules.
Stimulated: when the pump power exceeds a certain threshold level. It is also an inelastic
process where a photon of the incident optical signal (pump) stimulates molecular vibration of

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the material and loses part of its energy. Because of the energy loss, the photon reemits in a
lower frequency. The introduced vibrational energy of the molecules is referred to as an optical
phonon. Consequently, through the SRS process, pump photons are progressively absorbed by
the fiber, whereas new photons, called Stokes photons, are created at a downshifted frequency.
where the Stokes wave only propagates in the backward direction, the Stokes waves produced
by the SRS process propagate in both forward and backward directions. If an electron is excited
from a vibrational level, it reaches an excited state with higher energy. When the electron falls to
the ground level, the scattered photon has a higher frequency than the incident photon, resulting
in a shorter wavelength. This type of Raman scattering is called Anti-Stokes scattering [10].

Figure 6: Stimulated Raman Scattering [10]

Raman scattering is a result of the interaction between the optical wave and the molecules of
the material. Therefore, no phase-matching condition is needed. The scattered wave could be
shifted down (Stokes) or up (anti-Stokes) in frequency. In optical fibers, the intensity of the
downshifted wave is much higher Scattering mainly in the propagation direction. The channels
with a higher carrier frequency deliver a part of their power to the channels with a lower carrier
frequency. In terms of wavelength, the channel with higher wavelength is amplified at, the
channel with a higher wavelength is amplified at the expense of the channel with a lower carrier
wavelength [8].
• The amorphous nature of silica turns the vibrational state into a band.

• Raman gain spectrum extends over 40 THz or so.

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 • Raman gain is maximum near 13 THz.

• Scattered light red-shifted by 100 nm in the 1.5 µm region.

Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)

Stimulated Brillouin scattering arises from the interaction of light with propagating density
waves or acoustic photons. It is a nonlinear process in an optical fiber that occurs from the
interaction between intense pump light and acoustic wave, generating a backward propa-
gation frequency shifted light. It is also a result of the interaction between the optical wave
scatterings by the interaction between the optical wave and the propagating density fluctuations
in the fiber, due to thermo-elastic motions of the molecules, which can be regarded as acoustic
waves, traveling through the fiber at the speed of sound. It is an Inelastic scattering of light
caused by acoustic phonons [11].

Brillouin scattering is a light–sound interaction process. The coupling of optical fields and
acoustic waves occurs via electrostriction.

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 Figure 7: SBS process [11]

• Scattering of light from acoustic waves

• Becomes a stimulated process when the input power exceeds a threshold level

• Low threshold power for long fibers (5 mW)

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 Figure 8: Scattered power in SBS [12]

Most of the power is reflected backward after the SBS threshold is reached!
Pump produces density variations through electrostriction, resulting in an index grating which
generates Stokes wave through Bragg diffraction. Energy and momentum conservation re-
quires:

Acoustic waves satisfy the dispersion relation:

Finally, the Brillouin frequency shift is given by:

At high enough input powers, SBS will convert transmitted light in the fiber to a scattered,
Stokes-shifted (down-shifted) reflection well above typical Rayleigh scattering power levels.
This phenomenon arises from the interaction between the optical field and acoustic phonons

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in the fiber, driven through an electrostrictive process where the medium becomes denser in
regions of high optical density. An incident optical field of sufficient intensity interferes with
ubiquitously scattered optical fields, which gives rise to density and pressure variations (elec-
trostriction). The incident optical field then scatters off the refractive index perturbations as a
result of the aforementioned density variations. The scattered light is Stokes shifted and will
add constructively with the Stokes radiation which produces the acoustic disturbance. The in-
cident light can add energy to the acoustic waves as it interferes with the scattered Stokes light
and thus significantly increases the probability of scattering more of the incident light through
Bragg diffraction [12].
Nonlinear Phase Modulation
It arisess from the Power/Intensity dependence of the variations of refractive index in the optical
fiber. The nonlinear part of the refractive index significantly affects modern lightwave systems
due to the long fiber lengths. In particular, it leads to the phenomena of self-phase modulation
(SPM) and cross-phase modulation (XPM). Both SPM and XPM produce a phase alteration of
the pulse, which leads to a change in its spectrum. SPM determines a broadening of the pulse
spectrum due to its intensity. SPM is a nonlinear phenomenon affecting the phase of a propa-
gating wave and does not involve other waves. Waves with different wavelengths propagating
in the same fiber can interact with each other since the refractive index that a wave experiences
depends on the intensities of all other waves. Phase variations are converted in amplitude fluc-
tuations due to the fiber dispersion, which considerably affects the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
of multichannel systems. communication systems; modulation techniques; nonlinear optics
[7][9][12].
SPM Self-Phase Modulation
In Selph Phase Modulation light beam with High optical intensity change its own phase by
changing the refractive index of the medium. It is a Phase modulation of light caused by an in-
stant change in the light intensity to gradually broaden the signal spectrum, which means Phase
alteration causes a spectral broadening of the pulses.

• Optical field modifies its own phase (SPM) inside an optical fiber.

• It leads to a phase alteration of the wave due to its own intensity

• Phase shift varies with time for pulses

• Since the nonlinear phase shift varies with time, each optical pulse becomes chirped.

• Chirping manifests as spectral broadening in the frequency domain.

• As a pulse propagates along the fiber, its spectrum changes because of Selp Phase Mod-
ulation.

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The output spectrum depends on the shape and chirp of input pulses. Even spectral compression
can occur for suitably chirped pulses.

Figure 9: Self-phase modulation [8]

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 • 90-ps pulses transmitted through a 100-m-long fiber

• Spectra are labeled using ϕmax = γP0 L.

• Number M of spectral peaks: ϕmax = (M − 21 )π

Figure 10: SPM-Induced Spectral Broadening [8]

SPM-induced spectral broadening along the length of a silica fiber. SPM-induced spectral
broadening can degrade the performance of a lightwave system. SPM can lead to modu-
lation instability that enhances system noise. However, it has a positive side, used for fast
optical switching. Modulation instability can be used to produce ultrashort pulses at high repe-
tition rates. SPM is useful for the all-optical regeneration of WDM channels. Other applications
include pulse compression, chirped-pulse amplification, passive mode-locking, etc.
Impact on Optical Signals:
- Phase Shift: SPM leads to a phase shift in the optical signal as it travels through the fiber,
causing spectral broadening and changes in the signal’s waveform.

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- Chirp Generation: SPM can induce chirping effects in the signal, where different frequency
components experience varying phase shifts, distorting the signal’s temporal profile.
Cross-phase modulation (XPM)
Cross-phase modulation (XPM) is a non-linear optical process where the wavelength of one
light source affects the phase of another wave. Optical cross-phase modulation is brought
about by the optical Kerr effect - a non-linear optical phenomenon in which the refractive
indices of non-linear materials change when an ultra-short pulse propagates through them.
Interaction Between Signals: In XPM, the phase of one optical signal influences the phase
of another signal propagating in the same fiber. When two signals with different frequencies
travel through the fiber, they induce a refractive index change in the fiber material, causing
a phase modulation effect on each other [8][12].
Broadening of Optical Spectra: Phase-Dependent Frequency Shift: Due to XPM, the phase
modulation induced by one signal affects the frequency and phase of the other signal. This
interaction can lead to spectral broadening of the optical signals.
Consider two optical fields propagating simultaneously:
The nonlinear refractive index seen by one wave depends on the intensity of the other wave as:

Total nonlinear phase shift in a fiber of length L:

• An optical beam modifies not only its own phase but also of other co-propagating beams
(XPM)

• XPM induces nonlinear coupling among overlapping optical pulses.

• Fiber dispersion affects the XPM considerably

• Pulses belonging to different WDM channels travel at different speeds

• XPM occurs only when pulses overlap

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 Figure 11: Cross phase modulation when pulses overlap [8]

Impact on Optical Signals:

Phase Interference: XPM can cause phase interference between signals, leading to changes in
the phase relationship and signal quality.
Nonlinear Crosstalk: In wavelength-division multiplexing systems, XPM can introduce crosstalk
between different optical channels, affecting transmission quality.
XPM leads to inter-channel crosstalk in WDM systems
It can produce amplitude and timing jitter
Cross Phase Modulation can be used for:

• Nonlinear Pulse Compression

• Passive mode locking

• Ultrafast optical switching

• De-multiplexing of OTDM channels

• Wavelength conversion of WDM channels

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