Lec.

2 Biology

Precautions:

For new science learners, the laboratory looks interesting place with many
new things to discover and learn , safety procedures to follow, rules to be obeyed,
hazards to contend with, new safety equipment to use, etc,.

General Safety Precautions:

⌑ Protective clothing

▪ All students must wear a lab coat.

▪ gloves if required.

▪ goggles if risk of splash during lab sessions

⌑ Wash hands before leaving the lab.

⌑ Spills

▪ Very important to notify if anything is spilled so appropriate cleanup

can occur.
▪ acids or bases need to be neutralized to avoid burning others.

▪ solvents may cause fires if a burner is lit etc.

⌑ Disposal

▪ Important to dispose of properly to avoid injury or

spread of disease to others who cleanup the lab.

⌑ No eating or drinking in the lab.

⌑ Suitable footwear: no open toes or heels

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⌑ Report all cuts, scrapes, burns or other injuries to the instructor.

⌑ Keep fingers and objects away from your mouth and eyes!

⌑ Familiarize yourself with the location and proper use of the following:

▪ Safety showers

▪ Fire extinguishers

▪ Eye wash stations

▪ Fire alarms

▪ Electrical shutoff (not in all rooms)

Biological and chemical Waste disposal

⌑ Biological hazards:
Biological Hazards are organisms or products of organisms that present a
health hazard to humans, they can be found anywhere in the environment,
including home, school, or work.
⌑ The most common biological hazards include:

▪ Bacteria

▪ Viruses

▪ Fungi

⌑ Biological waste:
Bioogical waste is any material that contains or has been contaminated by a
biohazardous agent. Biological waste includes, but is not limited to, Petri

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dishes, surgical wraps, culture tubes, syringes, needles, blood vials,

absorbent material, personal protective equipment and pipette tips.
▪ Sharps are items that are capable of puncturing, cutting or abrading
the skin. Sharps include, but are not limited to; glass and plastic
pipettes, broken glass, test tubes, razor blades, syringes, and needles.

Biological versus chemical waste:

Biological waste must be managed separately from chemical waste. When both
chemical and biological waste types exist, the biological agent(s) should be treated
first. Once the biological agents have been deactivated by either autoclave or
chemical disinfection, the remaining chemical waste should be handled carefully.

▪ SHARPS
All sharps should be placed into properly labeled closed sharps containers or
other rigid, puncture-proof containers.

▪ Liquid waste
● Liquid biological waste should be collected in containers for autoclaving
or chemical disinfection. Autoclaved or chemically disinfected liquid
wastes can be disposed via the laboratory sink.
● Do not pour melted agarose down the drain. Allow it to cool and solidify,
then dispose of it as solid waste in biohazardous waste bags.
Solid waste:
Solid biological waste, including solidified agarose gels, should be collected in
appropriate biohazardous waste autoclave bags. Once the waste has been
autoclaved or chemically disinfected, the autoclave bags should be taped or tied
shut and placed inside of the cardboard box.

Autoclave:
⌑ What is Autoclaving?

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Autoclaving is a sterilization method that uses high-pressure steam. The

autoclaving process works by the concept that the boiling point of water (or
steam) increases when it is under pressure.

How an Autoclave Works

Items to be autoclaved are subjected to gradual temperature increases under high
pressure until 121 °C is reached and then steamed for around 15–20 minutes.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=owdlFP1Qu1A

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fpQMYBJcHjg

Classification of Microorganisms:

Microbes can be classified into four major groups:

1- Protozoa
2- Bacteria.

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3- Fung
4- Viruses

1- The Protozoa:
These are unicellular organisms with protoplasm differentiated into nucleus and
cytoplasm.
Diameters in the range of 2-100 μm.
The most important groups of medical protozoa are:
A-Amoeba: Entamoeba species.
Mode of Motility: pseudopodia

`
Trophozoite cyst
Entamoeba histolytica

B- Mastigophora:
Mode of Motility: the Flagella.
Ex. Gastrointestinal flagellates: Giardia intestinalis

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Giardia intestinalis

C- Ciliophora: motile by cilia.

Example: Balantidium coli.

D- Sporozoa: intracellular infection.

Example: Plasmodium that cause Malaria.

Plasmodium

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2- The bacteria:
Bacteria are unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms that multiply by binary fission.
Bacteria can be classified according to:
● Morphology
● Arrangement
● Staining reaction
Into the following groups:
1- Filamentous bacteria.

ex: Streptomyces

2- True bacteria:
A- Cocci
● Gram positive
● Gram negative
B- Bacilli
● Gram positive
● Gram negative

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3- Spirochetes:

.
5- Mycoplasma: The Smallest bacteria that lack of a rigid cell wall.

6- Rickettsiae and Chlamydiae: intracellular parasites

3- The Fungi:
These are saprophytic or parasitic organisms possessing relatively rigid cell
walls.

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● Medical fungi can be divided into:

1- Mould:
● Branching filaments; hyphae, mycelium. Usually 2 to 10 μm in width.
Example: Aspergillus.

2- True Yeasts: these are ovoid or spherical cells that reproduce asexually by
budding and sexually with formation of spores.
Example : Cryptococcus spp.

3- Dimorphic fungi:
Produce a vegetative mycelium sometimes, but are yeast like in others
depending on the media are used , temperature..etc

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Example: Histoplasma.

4- Yeast- like fungi: Example: Candida ( Pseudomycelium).

Pseudomycelium: in which cells cling together in chains resembling small true
mycelia.

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