Microbiology: Bacteria and

Viruses
Laboratory activities
#5 & #6
I. Classification of Bacteria

A. All bacteria are prokaryotic cells

1. Prokaryotes are
the smallest living
organisms and they
lack a nucleus and
organelles
B. Bacteria are separated into 2 kingdoms: Eubacteria and
Archeabacteria
1. Eubacteria are the largest group of bacteria and live almost
everywhere
a. Generally surrounded by a cell wall made of
peptidoglycan, and have a cell membrane
2. Archeabacteria are structurally different from eubacteria because
they lack peptidoglycan in their cell walls and their DNA is more
closely related to eukaryotes
a. Live in extremely harsh environments such as: hot
springs, salty environments, digestive tracts of animals
C. Bacteria are identified 4 ways: By their shape, Cell walls, Movement,
and ways they obtain energy
1. Shape: There are 3 different shapes bacilli (rod), cocci (sphere),
and spirilla (spiral)
a. These bacteria can then arrange themselves in different
ways: long chains or clusters
2. Cell Walls- Eubacteria have 2 different types of cell wall and these
can be distinguished by a test called Gram Staining
1. Gram-positive bacteria turn violet or purple due to their cell wall
containing mainly peptidoglycan
2. Gram-negative bacteria have an extra outer layer that absorbs red
stain, so they appear pink to red.
Gram Staining

• Gram Staining is the process used to differentiate between types of cell walls

There are 2 dyes used in Gram Staining:

• Crystal Violet (dye)- all cells turn violet. This is
absorbed by peptidoglycan in the cell wall
• Methyl Red (dye)- dyes cells red.
This is absorbed by the outer cell wall that is rich in
carbohydrates and lipids
Gram + or Gram -?
Cocci or bacilli?
 3. Movement: Bacteria move in
different ways or they may not
move at all

a. Flagella are whip-like structures that propel a

bacteria forward
b. Cilia are small hair-like structures that create a
current
c. Bacteria can also lash, snake, or spiral forward
4. Obtaining Energy: Prokaryotes can be classified as either
autotrophs or heterotrophs

a. Autotrophs make their own food using either the energy from light
(photoautotrophs) or the energy from chemicals (chemoautotrophs)
b. Heterotrophs obtain energy from absorbing food
c. Photoheterotrophs are unique organisms that make their own food
by photosynthesis, but also need to take in organic compounds for
nutrition.
 D. Bacteria also release energy by either cellular respiration or
fermentation

1. Aerobes require oxygen to live and anaerobes do not require

oxygen
a. Obligate anaerobes cannot live in the presence of oxygen.

→Botulism is produced by this type of organism

b. Facultative anaerobes can switch between cellular respiration and

fermentation
E. Prokaryotes can multiply in as quickly as 20 minutes - in 48 hours they
would be 4000x the mass of the Earth!

1. They reproduce by binary fission - does not exchange DNA with

other bacteria so this is asexual reproduction.
2. Conjugation is how bacteria genetically recombine their DNA
and increase diversity
a. a hollow bridge connects 2 bacteria
3. Bacteria can produce spores when conditions are not favorable. It
is a thick internal wall that encloses DNA and cytoplasm and allows the
cell to remain dormant
II. Bacteria in Nature

A. Bacteria are decomposers and are responsible for recycling essential

nutrients through the ecosystem
1. Bacteria break down and digest dead tissues into simpler
substances, which are then released into soil.
2. Decomposition is essential for breaking down human sewage.
B. Nitrogen is essential to making amino acids and proteins, but
cannot be directly taken from the atmospheric form

1. Bacteria are responsible for nitrogen fixation - they convert

atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia and other forms that plants
can absorb through their roots.
2. In some cases bacteria live in the roots of plants and do nitrogen
fixation and the plant absorbs the ammonia.
C. Some bacteria are pathogens, meaning they cause disease

1. Disease is caused by 2 means: damaging the tissue they are

eating or releasing toxins
a. Tetanus is a bacterial disease that causes muscles to tighten and severe
muscle spasms.

→ This can lead to breathing problems and be life-threatening and occurs when
bacteria enters an open wound
b.

→ Cause by a bacteria that infects the tissue around

muscles and destroys the tissues. This can be fatal.
c. Tooth decay: Bacteria can make acid in the presence
of sugars and carbohydrates and the acid will eat
through the enamel of a tooth
d. Chlamydia is a sexually transmitted bacterial infection
that can cause damage to the reproductive organs,
sterilization, discharge,
and a burning sensation.
e. Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted disease cause by bacteria.
Symptoms include discharge, burning sensations, and swelling.
2. Antibiotics prevent the growth and reproduction of bacteria and can cure
many bacterial diseases.

a. Bacteria can be resistant to antibiotics

 b. Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a staph
infection that occurs in healthy people and appears as a skin infection.
→S. aureus is resistant to many common antibiotics.
D. Humans are now able to use bacteria to their
advantage

1. Bacteria are used in the production of many

foods: sourdough, cheese, yogurt, pickles
2. Bacteria can be used in industry to remove waste, break down toxins,
cleaning up oil spills, and synthesizing drugs
E. Sterilization kills bacteria with heat or chemical products

1. Most cannot withstand high temperatures

2. Refrigeration slows the growth of bacteria
Controlling Bacteria

• Most bacteria are harmless, and many are beneficial. However, the
risks of bacterial infections are great enough to warrant efforts to
control bacterial growth.
• SO, WHAT IS THE BEST WAY TO PREVENT BACTERAL INFECTION IN
YOU?
WASH YOUR HANDS WELL FOR AT LEAST 20
SECONDS WITH SOAP
III. Viruses

A. Viruses are not living things, but are defined as a piece of nucleic acid
encased in protein
1. Viruses must infect a cell to reproduce
2. Viruses can be many different shapes and sizes
• They are particles of nucleic acid, proteins, and lipids that reproduces
only by infecting other organisms.
B. The structure of a viruses is either DNA or RNA, which contain between 1
and 100+ genes, and a protein coat called a capsid that surrounds the DNA
center
1. The capsid allows viruses to attach to other cells and inject them with
the DNA or RNA
C. Viruses are very specific to the type of cell they infect

1. Viruses bind to specific proteins in cells

2. Plant viruses usually cannot infect animal cells
3. Viruses that infect bacteria are call bacteriophages
D. Viral Infections occur when a virus breaks into a cell and takes over the
cell, which destroys the cell in the process
1. In the lytic cycle a virus enters a cell, makes copies of itself, and causes
the cell to burst
a. At the end of the lytic cycle the infected cell is destroyed
immediately
2. In the lysogenic cycle, the viral DNA is inserted into the cell’s DNA and
when the cell’s DNA is copied, so is the viral DNA.
a. Lysogenic cycle does not destroy the cell immediately
E. Viral Diseases- When viruses attack cells, the cells are destroyed, which
causes symptoms.

1. Polio is a viral infection that can cause flu-like symptoms or can cause
muscle paralysis and death. It was eradicated in the western hemisphere
2. Influenza Virus causes fever, headache, muscle and body aches, sore
throat, dry cough, stuffy nose, and extreme tiredness.

a. This is contagious and can lead to death

3. Herpes Simplex 1 is a virus that causes cold sores, painful blisters found
on or around the mouth.
4. Herpes Simplex 2 is a sexually transmitted disease and is expressed as
blisters around the genitals that can rupture and lead to painful sores- there
is NO cure.
5. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) kills and damages cell’s of
the body’s immune system and leaves people unable to fight off
illness and cancers
a. HIV/AIDS is a retrovirus- a retrovirus contains RNA as
the genetic information and inserts a copy of itself into the
DNA of a host cell
b. Retroviruses are incurable
Why are some flu strains just a nuisance,
while others are dangerous?
Because of the way our immune system
identifies and attacks pathogens.
 6. Oncogenic viruses carry genes that interrupt the cell
growth and division, which can lead to cancer and HPV
in eukaryotes.

F. The best way to treat viral infections is prevention!

Vaccines are weakened or killed viral proteins that

stimulate an immune response and produce protection
against the disease.