Chapter 6

On-Board Post-Combustion Emission

Control Strategies for Diesel Engine
in India to Meet Bharat Stage VI Norms

Rabinder Singh Bharj, Rajan Kumar and Gurkamal Nain Singh

Abstract Emissions from diesel vehicles are the main concern of air
pollution-related deaths worldwide. Its impacts are growing in most of the devel-
oping nations especially India, in spite of the regulatory limits. In 2016, the Indian
government declared that the nation would skip the Bharat Stage (BS) V norms
completely and adopt progressively stringent BS VI norms by 2020 in which the
level of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) emissions will be
reduced by 89 and 50%, respectively, from BS IV norms. Consequently, the
exhaust control technologies will play an important role to achieve these reduced
NOx and PM levels. The existing strategies to combat abatement of NOx and PM
emissions would not be able to resolve these issues. This chapter provides an
insight and suggests the ways and means to achieve BS VI emissions standards by
the Government of India.

Keywords Air pollution Diesel engines Emission norms Bharat Stage VI




norms On-board diagnostic Exhaust after-treatment strategies

6.1 Introduction

The quality of air is a life-threatening concern worldwide. While air quality is

affected by many sources, vehicular emissions are the key source for spoiling the air
quality of the numerous Indian cities since the rising income leads to an increase in
buying power of the customer which results in more population of vehicles. The
environmental protection (air) policies are progressively concentrating on regula-
tion of both fuel quality specifications and vehicular engine design.
India is an agrarian country, so diesel fuel is provided substantial subsidy to
promote farming, and therefore, consumers get attracted to diesel fuel in automotive

R. S. Bharj (&)
R. Kumar
G. N. Singh

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar National Institute
of Technology Jalandhar, Jalandhar 144011, Punjab, India
e-mail: bharjrs@nitj.ac.in

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 105

A. K. Agarwal et al. (eds.), Advanced Engine Diagnostics, Energy, Environment,
and Sustainability, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3275-3_6
106 R. S. Bharj et al.

transport too to realize fuel economy, and thus, it becomes an attractive option for
consumers. Despite the attractive fuel economy, high emissions of NOx and PM are
the major challenges in diesel engines. Different researchers have found that the
NOx and PM emitted from diesel vehicles are the most harmful pollutants, whereas
ozone and other air pollutants have minor effects. The combustion of fuel in diesel
engines has become a bigger threat to human health than an apparently more visible
source of road dust (Dockery et al. 1993; Marrack 1995; Pope et al. 1995). The
higher compression ratio in the diesel engine produces higher gas temperature as
compared to a gasoline engine, which is responsible for higher diesel NOx emis-
sions. On the other hand, a complex mixture of solid and liquid species produces
diesel particulate matter. Due to improper and inadequate mixing of the diesel and
air in the engine causes excess fuel which forms carbonaceous soot particles.
Considerably, the reduction in these emissions has also been done from past
decades. High emissions of NOx and PM are the main target for government
emissions reduction policies. Development in a diesel engine in India to meet
Bharat Stage VI emission norms and the implementation of renewable fuels is a
most challenging research objective. Globally, the automobile industries are con-
tinuously doing research to control the emission-related concerns both off-road and
on-road diesel vehicles with advanced technologies for cleaner diesel fuels,
advanced engine design, fast responding electronic control units, and effective
exhaust after-treatments.

6.1.1 Worldwide Scenario of Emission Norms

The G-20 nations account for 90% of worldwide vehicle sales, and 17 out of the 20
nations are obeying the European regulatory pathway to control the vehicle emis-
sions. First European exhaust emissions norm was presented in 1970 for passenger
cars. After 22 years, in 1992 the “Euro 1/I” norm heralded the installation of
catalytic converters to gasoline cars to decrease the emissions of carbon monoxide
(CO). The European regulatory pathway contains six stages of progressively
stringent emission control requirements, beginning with Euro 1/I, and progressing
through to Euro 6/VI in 2015 (Williams and Minjares 2016). Euro 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and
6 refer to the emission norms for passenger cars and other light vehicles; however,
Euro I, II, III, IV, V, and VI are for heavy-duty vehicles. A number of Asian and
Latin American countries are following different emission policy timelines as
shown in Fig. 6.1.

6.1.1.1 European Standards History

In July 1992, the first Euro emissions standard (Euro 1/I) was introduced only for
passenger cars. This emissions standard required new petrol cars to be fitted with
catalytic converters to reduce CO emissions. It also marked the switch toward
6 On-Board Post-Combustion Emission Control Strategies … 107

Fig. 6.1 Vehicle policy timelines (Source Chambliss et al. 2013)

unleaded petrol. Euro 1 emission limits for petrol and diesel engines are given in
Table 6.1. The Euro 2 standard was implemented in January 1996, which further
lowered the limit for CO emissions and also lowered the combined limit for
HC + NOx for both petrol and diesel vehicles as given in Table 6.1. The Euro 3
standard was implemented in January 2000. In Euro 3 standard, the Urban Driving
Cycle (ECE) + Extra-Urban Driving Cycle (EUDC) test procedure was modified to
eliminate the idling period; i.e., engine starts at 0 s and the emission sampling starts
at the same time. This modified cold-start test procedure is known as the New
European Driving Cycle (NEDC). Euro 3 further lowered the permitted CO and PM
limits for diesel vehicles. For diesel engines, Euro 3 introduced a separate limit for
NOx emission; however, for petrol engines it introduced separate limits for HC and
NOx emissions as given in Table 6.1. The Euro 4 standard was implemented in
January 2005, focused on reducing the emissions from diesel cars, especially
reducing PM and NOx emissions as shown in Table 6.1. Few Euro 4 diesel cars
were fitted with particulate filters. For diesel engines, the Euro 5 standard was
introduced in two different stages; however for petrol engines, Euro 5 was only
governing standard. Euro 5 and Euro 5a standards were implemented in September
2009, while Euro 5b standard was implemented in September 2011. In Euro 5b
standard, first time, a particle number (PN) emission limit was introduced for diesel
engines, to address the effects of very fine particle emissions. This standard further
108 R. S. Bharj et al.

Table 6.1 European emission standards for passenger cars [Category M (Before Euro 5,
passenger vehicles >2500 kg were accepted as light commercial vehicles)]
Euro CO (g/ THC NMHC NOx (g/ HC + NOx PM (g/ PN (1/
standard km) (g/km) (g/km) km) (g/km) km) km)
Petrol (gasoline)
Euro 1 2.72 – – 0.97 – –
Euro 2 2.2 – – 0.5 (#48%) – –
(#19%)
Euro 3 2.3 0.20 – 0.15 – – –
(#15%)
Euro 4 1.0 0.10 – 0.08 – – –
(#63%) (#50%) (#47%)
Euro 5 1.0 0.10 0.068 0.06 – 0.005a –
(#63%) (#50%) (#60%)
Euro 6 1.0 0.10 0.068 0.06 – 0.005a 6  1011b
(#63%) (#50%) (#60%)
Diesel
Euro 1 2.72 – – – 0.97 0.14
Euro 2 1 – – – 0.7 (#28%) 0.08 –
(#63%) (#43%)
Euro 3 0.66 – – 0.50 0.56 0.05 –
(#76%) (#42%) (#64%)
Euro 4 0.50 – – 0.25 0.30 0.025 –
(#82%) (#50%) (#69%) (#82%)
Euro 5a 0.50 – – 0.180 0.230 0.005 –
(#82%) (#64%) (#76%) (#96%)
Euro 5b 0.50 – – 0.180 0.230 0.005 6  1011
(#82%) (#64%) (#76%) (#96%)
Euro 6 0.50 – – 0.080 0.170 0.005 6  1011
(#82%) (#84%) (#82%) (#96%)
Note CO: carbon monoxide, THC: total hydrocarbon (HC), NMHC: non-methane hydrocarbons,
NOx: nitrogen oxide, PM: particulate matter, PN: particle number
a
Applies only to vehicles with direct injection engines
b
6  1012/km within first three years from Euro 6 effective dates
• CO: reduced 63% for petrol vehicles, reduced 82% for diesel vehicles since 1992
• THC: reduced 50% for petrol vehicles since 2000
• NOx: reduced 60% for petrol vehicles, reduced 82% for diesel vehicles since 2000
• PM: reduced 96% for diesel vehicles since 1992

reduced the PM emission limits as shown in Table 6.1 and to achieve these limits,
all diesel cars needed particulate filters. The limits of NOx emission were also
tightened (28% decreased compared to Euro 4), in addition, for the first time, a PM
limit was introduced for petrol engines, which was valid for direct injection engines
only.
In September 2014, EU launched the Euro 6 standard. Euro 6 standard imposes a
further considerable decrement in NOx emissions for diesel cars (a 67% decreased
compared to Euro 5). Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) system substitutes some of
6 On-Board Post-Combustion Emission Control Strategies … 109

the intake air (containing 80% nitrogen) with recycled exhaust gas which decreases
the available amount of nitrogen to be oxidized to NOx emission throughout the
combustion; however, further effective exhaust after-treatments (SCR—selective
catalytic reduction, DOC—diesel oxidation catalyst, AdBlue Nozzle) were required
in addition to the diesel particulate filters (DPF), to achieve Euro 6 emission’s
limits. The emission limits for Euro 6 standard for petrol vehicles and diesel
vehicles are given in Table 6.1. Since September 1, 2017, more stringent and
realistic tests are performed for the measurement of exhaust emission. Instead of the
previous NEDC test procedure, emissions are tested in the worldwide harmonized
light-duty vehicles test procedure (WLTP) and real-driving emissions (RDE) cycle.
In NEDC Euro 6b, NOx emission limit must not exceed 80 mg/km. The new Euro
6c tests apply to the WLTP cycle which is performed on a dynamometer, the
standard Euro 6d-Temp or 6d tests apply to the RDE cycle which is performed in
the middle of the traffic with a portable emission-measuring system (PEMS)
attached at the rear of the car. The emission limits remain same as Euro 6 standard;
however, in the test bench measuring method WLTP, petrol and diesel engine must
not exceed the NOx limit of 60 and 80 mg/km, respectively. For the road mea-
surement RDE, these limits are increased to 126 mg/km for petrol engine and
168 mg/km for the diesel engine. RDE testing is far more challenging than the
dynamometer tests. For RDE cycle, the emission limits have been updated to
incorporate the effect of different test conditions such as PEMS weight must not
exceed (Thompson et al. 2014), driving in the middle of the traffic, road gradient,
etc.
The difference between Euro 6d and 6d-Temp is the factor by which the mea-
surement in the RDE method may deviate from the test bench results. Until the end
of 2019, the Euro 6d-Temp will apply, as long as the cars are allowed to produce
110% more nitrogen oxides in real operation than in the WLTP. From January 1,
2020, it will only be 50% more exhaust gases (Euro 6d).1

6.1.2 Implementation of Emission Norms in India

Indian automotive industry is continuously working toward regulatory emissions as

proposed by the Auto Fuel Policy and proactively developing environment-friendly
technologies. The first stage of emission norms implemented in 1991 for petrol
engine and in 1992 for diesel engines. From April 1995, new petrol passenger cars
with the mandatory fitment of catalytic converters were introduced in the four metro
cities, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, and Mumbai, along with a supply of unleaded
petrol. The accessibility of unleaded petrol was further expanded to 42 main cities,
and it is now accessible in whole country.

1
Auto Zeitung. https://www.autozeitung.de/euro-normen-192219.html#.
110 R. S. Bharj et al.

In 2000, India 2000 or Bharat Stage I (BS I) emission norm equivalent to Euro I
norm was introduced for passenger cars and commercial vehicles. Further, BS II
emission norm equivalent to Euro II norm was imposed in 2001 in Delhi, Kolkata,
Chennai, and Mumbai. The details of various Euro norms have been discussed in
detail in Sect 6.1.1.1.
In 2003, Auto Fuel Policy recommended the roadmap for fuel standards and
emission norms for new 2, 3, and 4/more wheeled new vehicles. As given in the
roadmap, 4 wheeled vehicles moved to BS III norm in 13 major cities from April
2005 and rest of the country moved to BS II norm; however, new 2 and 3 wheeled
vehicles moved to BS II norm from April 1, 2005.
From April 2010 onwards, BS IV emission norm was executed for 13 major
cities and the rest of the nation moved to BS III. BS IV norm was expanded to
additional 20 cities from October 2014 onwards.
The National Capital Region (NCR) of India had the severe condition due to a
drastic rise in air pollution levels. This severe condition led to the Indian
Government taking the boldest decision of skipping BS V emission norm that was
subjected to execution in 2020, as well as advancing introduction of BS VI
emission norm from 2024 to 2020.2
Since India started a formal emission control regime in 1991, a gap in the
execution of the BS emission norms as compared to Euro norms can be noticed.
But, this gap has assisted in the technologies to mature which helped the Indian
auto sector to achieve the emission norms at a reasonable cost for the Indian
customers.

6.2 Role of On-Board Diagnostic Device

On-Board Diagnostic (OBD) is a computer-based system which identifies exhaust

emission-related failures in light duty trucks, passenger vehicles, and from some
years also in heavy-duty vehicles. To fulfill the legal requirements of emission
norms, efficient exhaust emission control and cleaning systems are fitted by original
equipment manufacturers (OEMs). These systems and the associated components
have to be supervised by a so-called On-Board Diagnostic system.
In 1990, the first widespread use of OBD was in California, to monitor emissions
control components and parameters. The requirements of California OBD system
used in light- and heavy-duty vehicles have been introduced in two steps:

2
Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers. http://www.siamindia.com/technical-regulation.
aspx?mpgid=31&pgidtrail=33.
6 On-Board Post-Combustion Emission Control Strategies … 111

OBD I—The California Air Resources Board (CARB) wanted that all new
vehicles sold in California in 1991 and newer vehicles have some basic OBD
capability to monitor some of the emission control components. The OBD I was
relatively simple and restricted to checking only some of the emission control
components, and this was not calibrated to an exact level of emission performance.
OBD I was the first step; therefore, the problem of lack of standardization
occurred between different manufacturers and vehicle models. A repair technician
had to purchase different adapters to work on different vehicles, and some systems
could only be accessed with expensive OEM scan tools. Another limitation of
OBD I was that it could not detect certain kinds of problems, e.g., a dead catalytic
converter, ignition misfires, or evaporative emission problems. Moreover, OBD I
systems were incapable to monitor advanced deterioration of emission-related
components (Bordoff 2003; CARB 2003).
OBD II—This harder OBD regulation was started in 1994. Since 1996, its
implementation had been essential in all-new petrol and alternate fuel passenger
vehicles and trucks sold in California. All 1997 and newer diesel passenger cars and
trucks were also required to meet OBD II requirements. OBD II system was
developed to address the limitations of OBD I and form the system more
user-friendly. OBD II systems have been designed to decrease vehicle emissions by
observing the failure or deterioration of the power train on an essentially continuous
basis.
OBD II general requirements are that3:
• Virtually, all emission control systems must be monitored,
• Malfunctions must be identified before emissions beat standards by a specified
threshold (generally 1.5 times of emission standard), and
• In most cases, malfunctions must be noticed within two driving cycles.
The European Union (EU) imposed European On-Board Diagnostics (EOBD)
was compulsory for all gasoline and all diesel cars sold in EU, in 2001 and 2003,
respectively. The requirement of OBD laws is that all components and subsystems
having an emission influence are connected to an engine control unit (ECU) and
need to be monitored and diagnosed. The components can be divided into two
following categories:
(i) Sensors: O2 sensor, pressure sensors, temperature sensors, etc.
(ii) Actuators: Fuel injectors, throttle blades, ignition coils, EGR valve, cam
phasers, etc.
On the system side, many subsystems have to be detected such as a malfunction
of a complete subsystem which causes a certain augment in the emission. Such
subsystems are as follows: (i) fuel injection system, (ii) ignition system, (iii) ex-
haust gas cleaning system, (iv) canister purge system.

3
SEMA, Information from the Specialty Equipment Market Association Internet Site. http://www.
sema.org.
112 R. S. Bharj et al.

The law requires only diagnostics on components which are responsible for an
augment in the emissions. But, the breakdowns of the components which cause a
degradation of the OBD system have also to be monitored. The development in
electronics makes it possible to diagnose all or most of the sensors and actuators
connected to an ECU.
Overall, OBD system identifies the emission controls in need of repair and also
provides effective/inexpensive emission inspections to achieve regulatory exhaust
emission standards. Therefore, OBD system is getting more and more attention and
OBD regulation is imposed in emerging countries with the same extent as in
developed ones.

6.3 Technology Upgradation in Conforming to BS IV

to BS VI

There are several challenges related to upgradation of automotive engineering from

BS IV to BS VI, like finance, rise in vehicle cost, and readiness of BS VI fuel in
short duration. However, this cost would be recompensed by the drop in diseases
due to air pollution which are severe threats to human healthiness in India.
Upcoming norms would be an important step in the track of a clean and healthy
environment which will cut the expenses on polluted airborne diseases. India
requires a broad transition in the fields from mechanical to electronic controlled
engines and the development of a nationwide urea infrastructure to support vehicles
which will be using selective catalytic reduction (SCR) for NOx emission control. In
addition, OBD systems are required to ensure proper usage of the SCR systems.
The transition to electronic controls and the introduction of SCR presents new
challenges for industry and environmental regulators. Table 6.2 illustrates the
technology upgradation to achieve BS IV to BS VI standards for diesel engines.

6.3.1 Importance of the Fuel Quality

The quality of fuel affects the quantity and type of exhaust emissions from the
vehicles. It, directly and indirectly, affects the quality of the air and the amount of
greenhouse gas in the environment. Improving fuel standards would facilitate
vehicles and their emission control systems to work effectively and assist in the
adoption of advanced engine and exhaust emission control technologies. The
dominant factor in fuels is sulfur. During combustion, sulfur in diesel fuel is
converted into PM emissions via sulfuric acid and sulfur dioxide emissions that lead
to subordinate particle development in the atmosphere. These chemicals can also
cause acid rain. Sulfur also obstructs the proper working of after-treatment systems
designed to low down the tailpipe emissions and corrodes engines and pipes. The
6 On-Board Post-Combustion Emission Control Strategies … 113

Table 6.2 Technology upgradation in conforming to BS IV to BS VI (Sharpe and Delgado 2016)

Technologies BS IV ! BS VI
Fuel quality • BS IV-grade fuels • BS VI-grade fuels
Combustion • Enhancements in engine • Further upgradation in engine
combustion and calibration for combustion and calibration
PM control • Multiple injection fuel system
• Intercooling along with • Upgrading VGT
turbocharging • Improvement in NOx
• VGT controllers
• NOx controllers • Advanced EGR rates
On-board OBD Stage I must monitor OBD Stage II adds the
diagnostics thresholds: following:
(OBD) requirements • Complete elimination of the • Checking of the interface
catalyst when installed in between the ECU and other
separate housing from DPF or power train and vehicle
deNOx systems electrical or electronic systems
• Efficiency reduction of the for steadiness
deNOx system • Adoption of standardized OBD
systems across manufacturers
and also access to repair
• Additional monitoring
requirements for EGR flow,
EGR cooling system, boost
(turbo and superchargers) and
fuel injection systems
After-treatment • NOx control: SCR systems • NOx control: SCR systems
system (open loop) (closed loop)
• PM control (for EGR pathway • Ammonia slip catalyst
only) • PM control: DOC + DPFs

influence of fuel sulfur content is predominantly damaging the three types of

after-treatment systems: diesel particulate filters (DPFs), lean NOx traps (LNTs),
and selective catalytic reduction (SCR). In a CI engine, PM emissions can endure a
direct relation to the sulfur content in the fuel. By dropping down the sulfur content
in the fuels, effects in lowering down the PM emissions from any diesel engine,
irrespective of any vehicle emission standard. Even more important, sulfur in diesel
can harm or obstruct the performance of engine exhaust after-treatment devices
required for controlling PM and NOx emissions like DPF and certain catalysts
equipped in SCR systems (Fung et al. 2010).
In India from 1999 to 2017, the sulfur content has been reduced in diesel fuel
from 10,000 to 50 ppm, whereas 10 ppm sulfur content in diesel is planned to be
supplied nationwide from 2020. Some of the other characteristics like cetane
number, polyaromatic content, density, ash content, distillation, suspended solids
content, and viscosity in diesel fuel can affect the engine exhaust emissions.
A number of studies have shown that the improvement in the quality of fuel directly
reduces the generated pollutants during the combustion process and permit the use
of more effective engine exhaust after-treatment devices (Central Pollution Control
114 R. S. Bharj et al.

Board, Ministry of Environment and Forests (India) 2010; International Council on

Clean Transportation and the Energy and Resources Institute 2011; Panda 2010).
Better emission control can be attained if both fuel and vehicle emission standards
are executed correspondingly.

6.3.2 Advanced Engine Combustion Strategies

The advanced engine combustion technologies focus on in-cylinder engine com-

bustion and how emissions are generated within the engine cylinders along with
how combustion and emissions depend on different parameters, i.e., in-cylinder air
motion, fuel type, and fuel spray characteristics. The better understanding of these
combustion parameters will help in the progress of advanced combustion approa-
ches in the engine such as low-temperature combustion and clean diesel combustion
which will decrease the production of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and particulate
matter (PM).

6.3.2.1 Low-Temperature Combustion Strategy

Low-temperature combustion (LTC) strategy is a flameless, staged burning of the

fuel in a combustion chamber at a lower temperature as related to the conventional
combustion chamber. It was noted that LTC has a perspective of 20% improvement
in the efficiency over existing diesel engines. The lower temperature results from
compression of a fuel–air mixture that has been diluted with either excess air or
recirculated exhaust gas. This process raises the density and temperature of the
dilute mixture and causes it to auto-ignite which a process is known as compression
ignition. To dilute the fuel–air mixture so that it has a lower proportion of fuel as
related to the conventional combustion, the engine uses either excess intake air or
recirculated exhaust gas.
Staged burning is the other significant part of LTC which is achieved by con-
trolling the auto-ignition timing and heat release rate. This method removes the
excessive combustion rates which cause engine noise and structural damage, par-
ticularly at higher loads.
LTC offers a number of advantages over conventional combustion4:
• The fuel–air mixture and combustion properties permit the engine to be more
efficient than conventional combustion engines.
• The energy loses in the engine is less over the cylinder walls to the atmosphere
due to lower combustion temperature. This reduction in energy loss allows the
cylinder to continue higher pressure for a longer period, permitting the engine to

4
Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/
advanced-combustion-strategies.
6 On-Board Post-Combustion Emission Control Strategies … 115

do more work. Some of the energy seems to appear in the form of higher
exhaust energy that turbocharger can partly arrest.
• LTC may be able to achieve ultra-low engine exhaust emissions, which could
significantly decrease the cost, after-treatment devices requirement, and penal-
ties of fuel economy.

6.3.2.2 Clean Diesel Combustion Strategy

In clean diesel combustion strategy, the burning process is similar to the conven-
tional diesel combustion. In conventional diesel combustion process, the rate at
which the fuel spray mixes with air inside the cylinder before it ignites determines
the rate at which the fuel and air burn in the flame. In clean diesel combustion
strategy, excess fuel–air mixing occurs before the flame formation. This permits
cleaner combustion which further produces less soot along with retaining and
increasing the efficiency of the engine. Recirculating the exhaust gases to the intake
air stream dilutes the fuel-air mixture, which further results in lower combustion
temperatures and reduction in NOx formation as shown in Fig. 6.2.5
More, computer control, high-pressure fuel injection, multi-pulse fuel injection,
manipulation of in-cylinder gas flow technologies and use of exhaust gas recircu-
lation can enhance the clean diesel combustion strategy and make it cost viable for
all diesel governed vehicles.

6.3.3 Exhaust After-Treatment Strategies

Exhaust emissions of NOx and PM from diesel engines have been lowered by 80–
90% over the previous years. These significant reductions in emissions have been
attained mainly by modifications in the engine design such as retarded timing,
cooled EGR systems, and higher injection pressures. However, engine modifica-
tions only will not be enough to meet stringent emission norms, and exhaust control
systems will be needed to remove NOx and PM from the engine exhaust gas.

6.3.3.1 Oxidation Catalysts

Oxidation catalysts are the automotive catalysts which are equipped since
mid-1970. Oxidation catalysts function is to convert CO and HC to CO2 and water
but has slight effect on NOx formation. Diesel Oxidation Catalysts (DOC) is the key
technology for diesel engines where the high oxygen content of the exhaust averts
the use of three-way catalysts. DOCs not only convert CO and HC but also reduce

5
DieselNet, Engine and Emission Technology. https://www.dieselnet.com/tech/engine_egr.php.
116 R. S. Bharj et al.

Fig. 6.2 Clean diesel combustion process (Source https://www.dieselnet.com/tech/engine_egr.

php)

the mass of diesel particulate emissions by oxidizing some of the HC that is

adsorbed onto the carbon particles (Horiuchi et al. 1990) as shown in Fig. 6.3. All
modern diesel engines mounted in passenger cars, buses, and light-duty and
heavy-duty trucks are now equipped with DOCs. DOCs can be equipped in com-
bination with NOx absorbers, DPFs, SCR catalysts to rise the NO2: NOx ratio or to
abate any sort of left behind injected reductant used for NOx reduction like
ammonia.

Fig. 6.3 Diesel oxidation catalyst (Source http://www.emissol.com/about-us/)

6 On-Board Post-Combustion Emission Control Strategies … 117

6.3.3.2 Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF)

DPF is an in wall-flow filter. PM is removed from the engine exhaust by trap

filtration method which uses a honeycomb structure similar to a catalyst substrate.
In place of, the engine exhaust gas flows through the walls between the channels
and the PM is deposited as a soot cake on the walls as shown in Fig. 6.4. The filters
are made of ceramic [cordierite (Kasai et al. 2004), silicon carbide (Schäfer-
Sindlinger et al. 2003), or aluminum titanate (Ingram-Ogunwumi et al. 2007)]
honeycomb materials. Ceramic wall-flow filters eliminate the carbonaceous and
metallic particulates, including fine particulates of less than 100 nanometers
(nm) diameter with an efficiency of >95% in mass and >99% in a number of
particles over a wide range of engine operating conditions (May et al. 2008). The
latest BS VI emissions’ limit values are set on both the basis mass as well as
number counts to ensure control of the ultrafine particles, which are believed to
have more negative impact on human health.
Since the persistent stream of soot into the filter channel would in the long run
block it, it is important to “regenerate” the filtration properties of the filter channel
by burning off the gathered particulate. The strategies to accomplish regeneration
include:
• Joining an oxidation catalyst upstream of the filter channel that and in addition
working as an ordinary oxidation catalyst additionally expands the proportion of

Fig. 6.4 DPF fitted in Audi A8 3.0 TDI Quattro (Source prensa.audi.es)
118 R. S. Bharj et al.

NO2 to NO in the exhaust stream (Hawker et al. 1998). NO2 gives a more viable
oxidant than oxygen and thus gives ideal inactive regeneration efficiency.
• Integrating a coated catalytic on the filter channels in order to lower down the
temperature at which particulate flames. New interpretations and process
advancement plan to bring down the back-pressure (Maunula et al. 2007) and to
substitute platinum by palladium where ultra-low-sulfur fuels are accessible. In
Pfeifer et al. 2007, Pt/Pd formed at a 3:1 proportion had brought down light-off
temperature (the temperature at which the impetus begins to work) than Pt itself
as catalysts (240 °C vs. 295 °C) in the matured state, produced as much NO2 for
inactive soot oxidation. The production of NO2 impervious to sulfur sullying. In
one examination (Johansen et al. 2007), platinum was totally substituted for
palladium with utilization of a base metal catalyst. New creations are utilizing
ceria or zirconia to influence the sediment to respond specifically with oxygen at
catalyst–soot interface. One paper (Harada et al. 2008) demonstrates another
zirconia-based sediment catalyst that exchanges oxygen from the gas to the
catalyst soot interface for 70% speedier soot oxidation rates at 75 °C lower
temperatures. Improved adaptations in light of ceria are demonstrating potential
to oxidize sediment at temperatures as low as 260 °C with next to no valuable
metal (Southward and Basso 2009).
• Utilizing little amounts of fuel-borne catalyst (FBC, for example, ceria (Zelenka
et al. 1998) or iron-added substance mixes added to the fuel utilizing on-board
dosing systems. The FBC, when gathered on the filter as a close blend with the
particulate, enables the particulate to consume at exhaust temperatures (around
350 °C rather than 650 °C) and builds the burning energy (ordinarily 2–3 min)
while the strong buildups of the catalyst are held in the filter channel as cinders.
The third era of FBC (Harlé et al. 2008) depends on 3 ppm iron enabling a 1.7 L
tank to last the life of the vehicle (240,000 km) and requiring no procedure for
slag cleaning. Fuel injector set in the exhaust line upstream of the DPF (Fasolo
et al. 2009). This gives a wellspring of hydrocarbons to start the temperature
ascends for regeneration.
• Electrical warming of the trap either on or off the vehicle (Kitagawa et al. 1991)
and (Lee et al. 2009). Caught particulates consume off at ordinary exhaust
temperatures utilizing the great oxidative properties of NO2 and can consume in
oxygen when the temperature of the exhaust gases is occasionally expanded
through post-ignition. Most extreme exothermic temperatures must be con-
trolled, particularly in most pessimistic scenario “drop-to-sit” conditions when
the soot ignition begins at high temperature and stream and after that the engine
drops to idle condition (Boger et al. 2009).
As the comprehension of DPF essentials has moved ahead, a permeable film
would now be able to be added to the inlet wall with the goal that soot is kept out of
the DPF walls (Mizuno et al. 2008). This enhances filtration efficiency and
back-pressure and, in addition, the relationship between back-pressure and soot
6 On-Board Post-Combustion Emission Control Strategies … 119

stacking. This connection can be utilized for OBD reason, and for instance, soot
models utilizing wall porousness calculations have been created (Dabhoiwala et al.
2008). Residue soot sensors may likewise be required in the future (Sandig and
Zikoridse 2008).

6.3.3.3 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)

SCR is a procedure that uses a catalyst to change over NOx in deplete gases to
nitrogen and water, which are then discharged into the air. SCR was initially created
and used to lessen NOx discharges from coal-, oil-, and gas-operated power stations,
marine vessels, and stationary diesel motors. SCR innovation allows the NOx
diminishment response to happen in an oxidizing air. It is called “selective” on the
grounds that the reactant lessening of NOx with ammonia (NH3) as a reductant
happens positively to the oxidation of NH3 with oxygen. Particulate outflow
emissions are additionally brought down and SCR exhaust catalytic converter
systems can be utilized alone or in couple with a particulate filter channel. Once the
engine exhaust system is sufficiently warm, suitable measures of ammonia reduc-
tant are infused into the exhaust stream which additionally brings about a high-state
reduction of NOx. For versatile source applications, ammonia is utilized as a
selective reductant, within the sight of overabundance oxygen, to change over 70%
(up to 95%) of NO and NO2 to nitrogen over an uncommon catalyst system.
Diverse forerunners of ammonia can be utilized; however for vehicles, the most
well-known alternative is a solution of urea in water (e.g., AdBlue®) deliberately
metered from a different tank and showered into the exhaust where it hydrolyzes
into ammonia in front of the SCR catalyst as shown in Fig. 6.5. AdBlue® is a
stable, non-combustible, colorless, and odorless solution containing 32.5% urea
which is not named as risky to health wellbeing and does not require any excep-
tional taking care of precautionary measures. It is made to international perceived
norms. Urea is utilized as counterfeit compost and is found in items, for example,
beauty care products. The utilization of AdBlue® for BS VI vehicles will
emphatically rely upon the auto producer product technique, vehicle application,
driving style, load, and pathways conditions and the urea tank should be topped up
occasionally. Advancement of SCR innovation is extremely powerful, and
enhancements are being made in low-temperature performance execution, urea
conveyance systems, system outline, and exhaust stream mixing devices, urea
dosing system, and giving contrasting options to fluid urea.
Urea infusion quality and blending are mind-boggling and fundamentally criti-
cal. An examination indicates (Gorbach 2009) that the urea droplet quality from
different nozzle outlines can affect the deNOx system productivity by up to 10%
while the urea circulation over the catalyst can bring about effectiveness variations
from 60 to 95%. A few sorts of catalysts can be utilized as a part of SCR system, the
decision of which is controlled by the temperature of the exhaust condition.
Initially, SCR catalysts depended on vanadium which can be utilized where
120 R. S. Bharj et al.

Fig. 6.5 SCR catalytic converter technology (Source dieselnet.com)

resilience to sulfur is required, if temperatures are underneath 600 °C (for the most
part for heavy-duty diesel applications).
Improved operation of SCR catalysts relies upon control of adsorbed ammonia
and utilization of oxidation catalysts to deliver the proper NO2/NOx proportion. In
fact, the “quick SCR response” utilizes both NO and NO2 at an ideal proportion of
1:1 and this is basic for good performance underneath 200 °C. In any case, over-
abundance NO might be expected to oxidize ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) which
can condense and block catalytic sites (Kröcher and February 2007). Copper and
iron can be utilized together for an adjusted performance over an expansive scope
of temperatures (Girard et al. 2009; Iretskaya et al. 2008). Vanadium is less
expensive and more tolerant to sulfur yet weakens at temperatures more noteworthy
than 600 °C while zeolites are next to no influenced with long exposure at 800 °C
(Cavataio et al. 2009). Like vanadium, Fe–zeolites are very tolerant to sulfur yet
Cu–zeolite performance depreciates and can be reestablished with a desulfation
cycle (Anderson 2008). New zeolite is being created for low-temperature trans-
formation without copper (Iretskaya et al. 2008) and new catalyst families in light
of acidic zirconia are likewise rising (Verdier et al. 2008).
On-Board Diagnostic (OBD) and closed-loop SCR control are utilizing either the
trustworthy NOx sensors (Walde and Nakasone 2007) or another ammonia sensor
(Weisgerber 2007) which has a ±5 ppm ammonia recognition precision up to
around 30 ppm alkali, and has immaterial impedance from NOx, HC, and CO.
6 On-Board Post-Combustion Emission Control Strategies … 121

6.3.3.4 Combined PM and NOx Control Technologies

Due to the improvement of diesel particulate filter substrates with a higher porosity
(Kattouah 2015), systems would now be able to integrate the Selective Catalytic
Reduction catalyst onto the DPF substrate as shown in Fig. 6.6 (Lee et al. 2009;
Oladipo et al. 2008). SCR with DPF consolidated frameworks in close-coupled
position gives noteworthy change in the NOx transformation proficiency contrasted
with particular segments (Krüger et al. 2015; Knirsch et al. 2014), because of the
higher temperature level in the nearby coupled position particularly under low load
conditions run of the mill for urban driving. SCR with DPF systems must be
utilized increasingly to meet light- and heavy-duty BS VI emissions standard
prerequisites.

6.4 Concerns and Conflicts

Bharat stage VI emission standards are the acquaintance of cutting edge innovations
with guaranteed reduced pollutants released from the vehicles as per the specified
limits. It will likewise mean various changes to be made in the engine systems. To
comprehend the difficulties, it merits plunging into the fundamental emission
technologies. To accomplish a diminishment in particulate matter by 82% and
oxides of nitrogen (NOx) by 68%, automakers require arrangements of technologies
—DPF to expel diesel particulate matter, or soot, from the engine exhaust gases.
Then, there are SCR and EGR, which is for NOx decrease. In EGR, the engine
re-courses a segment of the exhaust gas back to the engine cylinder denying it of a
specific measure of oxygen accordingly prompting lower temperature consume.
This lessens NOx discharges yet delivers more PM, which is decreased utilizing
DOC and DPF.

Fig. 6.6 After-treatment devices for upgradation in BS IV to BS VI (Sharpe and Delgado 2016)
122 R. S. Bharj et al.

It is not about the advancement in the technologies, but the challenge is to

multiply it over different platforms in an excellent order. In the aspect of doing that,
there should not to be any sort of compromise with fuel efficiency and a decent test
facility are required to build up a good DPF system. It needs numerous hours on the
proving ground and various tests on the case dynamometer, a gadget for estimation
and testing created to reproduce the road on a roller in a controlled domain. To test
these advancements for best outcomes, their execution should be observed in each
season and crosswise over different landscapes for real-time investigation. Any sort
of carelessness in testing and approving the working of the gadgets can be a
noteworthy safety hazard. There is also the challenge of assembling the
after-treatment devices in the limited space without compromising with the vehicle
fuel efficiency. The addition of parts and aggregation of DPF, a urea tank, dozing
unit for NOx (required in SCR) will increase the weight of the vehicle. The extra
weight can affect fuel efficiency.
Diesel fuel parameters for which BS VI specifications differ from Euro VI
specifications include density (at 15 °C, BS VI: 820–860 kg/m3; Euro VI: 845
(max) kg/m3), 95% distillation boiling point (in °C, max. BS VI: 370; Euro VI:
360), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) (mass%, max. BS VI: 11; Euro
VI: 8). A collective vision for each of these fuel parameters is responsible for
reduction of emissions from diesel engine with the implementation of advancement
in design and efficiency of after-treatment control technologies. New engines
integrating progressive combustion control and exhaust after-treatment systems
have largely decreased or removed the effects of small changes in these fuel
parameters on engine emissions. These modern engine designs need low-sulfur
content in the fuels to keep vital emissions performance during their useful life
cycles. Therefore, the main fuel parameter specified in the proposed BS VI emis-
sion regulation is sulfur content limit, i.e., 10 ppm for gasoline and diesel fuels.
Sulfur is used as a lubricant within the fuel, which helps in better combustion as it
keeps pumps and fuel injectors healthy. However, sulfur is also responsible for
higher particulate matter emissions (PM 2.5 and PM 10)—the concern of diesel
vehicles. Ultra-low-sulfur fuels introduce recent and low-emitting BS VI vehicles
which integrate best available technologies for regulatory air pollutant emissions.
Air pollutant emissions consequential from differences between BS VI and Euro 6/
VI fuel specifications are likely to be insignificant. By 2023–2025 time span, India
should attempt to match, or even improve upon, Euro 6/VI fuel specifications.
Nevertheless, the differences in fuel quality specifications must not delay the full
implementation of BS VI emission standards norms in 2020 (International Council
on Clean Transportation 2016).
6 On-Board Post-Combustion Emission Control Strategies … 123

6.5 Conclusions

As India transitions to move to more stringent vehicle emissions standards over the
coming years, new engines are going to experience significant technology changes.
The shift from the current national standard to BS VI commencing in 2020 is going
to require manufacturers invest in a number of technologies to achieve the target
brake-specific levels of NOx and PM emissions. India and other developing
countries can take benefit from the experienced gained by the developed countries.
The developed markets of USA, Europe, and Japan indicate that these engine
technology changes include transitioning from mechanical to electronic controls,
improvements in engine combustion and calibration, increased injection and
cylinder pressures, refinement in fuel injection systems, and the implementation of
NOx and PM after-treatment solutions. Innovations exist for control of CO, HC,
NOx, PM, and PN, for diesel engines. The technologies for controlling criteria
pollutant emissions often have efficiency impacts. For example, selective catalytic
reduction (SCR), which is required to achieve the most stringent NOx levels, allows
engines to be tuned for increased fuel efficiency. Moreover, the introduction of
electronic controls and more sophisticated fuel injection strategies is a boon to
efficiency. On the other hand, certain emission control strategies such as exhaust
gas circulation (EGR) and diesel particulate filters (DPFs) often have negative fuel
use complications. Moreover, regulatory progress in Japan, China, and the EU is
also expected to promote the propagation of a number of fuel-saving technologies
for engines. These technology advances include improvements to combustion and
air handling, reduced friction and parasitic loads, high-efficiency after-treatment,
and waste heat recovery. Ceaseless change in substrate and coating innovations, as
a major aspect of a coordinated system involving electronic control and fuel quality,
will permit meeting more and more stringent vehicle emission norms directions
under an extensive range of engine working conditions. A roadmap for vehicle
emission and standards for fuel quality has already been established for
smoothening the progression of BS VI emission standard norms in India by skip-
ping BS V.

References

Anderson P (2008) SCR catalysts for low-emitting diesels. In: US Dept. of energy diesel engine
emissions and energy reductions conference (DEER), Detroit
Boger T, Rose D, Tilgner IC, Heibel AK (2009) Regeneration strategies for an enhanced thermal
management of oxide diesel particulate filters. SAE Int J Fuels Lubricants 1(1):162–172
Bordoff F (2003) OBD what is it and what does it mean to you, Fact Sheet—Fred’s Garage, Apr
2003. http://www.fredsgarage.com/OBD.htm
CARB, Personal Communication—M. McCarthy, California Air Resources Board, Sept 2003-1
Cavataio G, Jen HW, Warner JR, Girard JW, Kim JY, Lambert CK (2009) Enhanced durability of
a Cu/zeolite based SCR catalyst. SAE Int J Fuels Lubricants 1(1):477–487
124 R. S. Bharj et al.

Central Pollution Control Board, Ministry of Environment and Forests (India) (2010) Status of the
vehicular pollution control programme in India. Programme objective, 136. http://www.cpcb.
nic.in/upload/NewItems/NewItem_157_VPC_REPORT.pdf
Chambliss S, Miller J, Facanha C, Minjares R, Blumberg K (2013) The impact of stringent fuel
and vehicle standards on premature mortality and emissions. The International Council on
Clean Transportation. Washington (DC), p 12
Dabhoiwala RH, Johnson JH, Naber J, Bagley ST (2008) A methodology to estimate the mass of
particulate matter retained in a catalyzed particulate filter as applied to active regeneration and
on-board diagnostics to detect filter failures. SAE Technical Paper
Dockery DW, Pope CA, Xu X, Spengler JD, Ware JH, Fay ME, Ferris BG Jr, Speizer FE (1993)
An association between air pollution and mortality in six US cities. N Engl J Med 329
(24):1753–1759
Fasolo B, Hardy JP, Leroy K (2009) Exhaust fuel injection system for efficient DPF regenerations.
MTZ Worldwide 70(7–8):26–32
Fung F, He H, Sharpe B, Kamakate F, Blumberg K (2010) Overview of china’s vehicle emission
control program: past successes and future prospects. International Council on Clean
Transportation, 190
Girard J, Cavataio G, Snow R, Lambert C (2009) Combined Fe-Cu SCR systems with optimized
ammonia to NOx ratio for diesel NOx control. SAE Int J Fuels Lubricants 1(1):603–610
Gorbach A (2009) Urea preparation in exhaust systems of commercial vehicles. In: Car Training
Institute Emission Control Forum, Nuertingen
Harada K, Suzuki K, Okamoto K, Yamada H, Takami A (2008) Development of high performance
catalyzed DPF with new soot burning mechanism. FISITA World Congress
Harlé V, Pitois C, Rocher L, Garcia F (2008) Latest development and registration of fuel borne
catalyst for DPF regeneration. SAE Technical Paper
Hawker P, Hüthwohl G, Henn J, Koch W, Lüders H, Lüers B, Stommel P (1998) Effect of a
continuously regenerating diesel particulate filter on non-regulated emissions and particle size
distribution. SAE Technical Paper
Horiuchi M, Saito K, Ichihara S (1990) The effects of flow-through type oxidation catalysts on the
particulate reduction of 1990’s diesel engines. SAE Trans 1268–1278
Ingram-Ogunwumi RS, Dong Q, Murrin TA, Bhargava RY, Warkins JL, Heibel AK (2007)
Performance evaluations of aluminum titanate diesel particulate filters. SAE Technical Paper
International Council on Clean Transportation and the Energy and Resources Institute (2011)
Background paper on cleaner fuels and improved vehicular technologies. http://www.theicct.
org/sites/default/files/Background_India2011.pdf
Iretskaya S, Golden S, To D, Efta J, Trandal D (2008) Two catalyst formulations—one solution for
NOx after-treatment systems. In: US Dept. of energy diesel engine emissions and energy
reduction conference (DEER), Detroit
Jin Y, Shinoda N, Uesaka Y, Kuki T, Yamashita M, Sakamoto H, Matsumoto T, Kattouah, P,
Vogt CD (2015) Development of new high porosity diesel particulate filter for integrated SCR
technology/catalyst. SAE Technical Paper
Johansen K, Dahl S, Mogensen G, Pehrson S, Schramm J, Ivarsson A (2007) Novel base
metal-palladium catalytic diesel filter coating with NO2 reducing properties. SAE Technical
Paper
Kasai Y, Miwa S, Kuki T, Senda K, Ogura Y (2004) New cordierite diesel particulate filter
material for the diesel particulate-NOx reduction system. SAE Technical Paper
Kitagawa J, Hijikata T, Yamada S (1991) Electric heating regeneration of large wall-flow type
DPF. SAE Trans 135–143
Knirsch S, Weiß U, Fröhlich A, Pamio G, Helbig J, Ritter H (2014) The new generation of the
Audi V6-TDI engine 25 years of technology—dynamics—innovation. In: 35th international
Vienna motor symposium
Kröcher O, February (2007) New challenges for urea-SCR systems: from vanadia-based to
zeolite-based SCR catalysts. In: IAV MinNOx conference, Berlin
6 On-Board Post-Combustion Emission Control Strategies … 125

Krüger M, Maier R, Naber D, Scherer S, Schumacher H, Strobel M (2015) Robert Bosch GmbH,
Stuttgart: emission optimization of diesel passenger cars to fulfill real driving emission
(RDE) requirements. In: 24th Aachen colloquium automobile and engine technology, Aachen
Lee DH, Kim KT, Cha MS, Lee JO, Song YH, Cho H, Kim YS, Song Y, Jee T (2009) Active
regenerative DPF using a plasma assisted burner. SAE Technical Paper
Lee JH, Paratore MJ, Brown DB (2009b) Evaluation of Cu-based SCR/DPF technology for diesel
exhaust emission control. SAE Int J Fuels Lubricants 1(1):96–101
Marrack D (1995) Public health and toxic particles: danger in the air: toxic air pollution in Houston
—Galveston Corridor. Report by the Galveston-Houston Association for Smog Prevention
(GHASP), 72–78
Maunula T, Matilainen P, Louhelainen M, Juvonen P, Kinnunen T (2007) Catalyzed particulate
filters for mobile diesel applications. SAE Technical Paper
May J, Bosteels D, Such C, Nicol A, Andersson J (2008) Heavy-duty engine particulate emissions:
application of PMP methodology to measure particle number and particulate mass. SAE
Technical Paper
Mizuno Y, Miyairi Y, Katsube F, Ohara E, Takahashi A, Makino M, Mizutani T, Yuki K,
Kurachi H (2008) Study on wall pore structure for next generation diesel particulate filter. SAE
Technical Paper
Oladipo B, Bailey O, Price K, Balzan N, Kaul S (2008) Simplification of diesel emission control
system packaging using SCR coated on DPF. DEER
Panda P (2010) Treating diesel exhaust: BSV and beyond
Pfeifer M, Koegel M, Spurk PC, Jeske G (2007) New platinum/palladium based catalyzed filter
technologies for future passenger car applications. SAE Technical Paper
Pope CA, Thun M, Namboodiri M, Dockery D, Evans J, Speizer F, Heath C (1995) Particulate air
pollution as a predictor of mortality in a prospective study of U.S. adults. Am J Respir Crit
Care Med 151:669–674
Sandig R, Zikoridse G (2008) Partikelsensoren zur Überwachung der DPF-Funktion-Ergebnisse
der Felderprobung an Off-Road-Maschinen. In FAD-Konferenz Herausforderun
Abgasnachbhandlung für Dieselmotoren, Dresden
Schäfer-Sindlinger A, Vogt CD, Hashimoto S, Hamanaka T, Matsubara R (2003) New materials
for particulate filters in passenger cars. Auto Technol 3(5):64–67
Sharpe B, Delgado O (2016) Engine technology pathways for heavy-duty vehicles in India.
Working paper. International Council on Clean Transportation
Southward BW, Basso S (2009) An investigation into the NO2-decoupling of catalyst to soot
contact and its implications for catalysed DPF performance. SAE Int J Fuels Lubricants 1
(1):239–251
Technical background on India BS VI fuel specifications. International Council on Clean
Transportation (2016)
Thompson GJ, Carder DK, Besch MC, Thiruvengadam A, Kappanna HK (2014) In-use emissions
testing of light-duty diesel vehicles in the United States. International Council on Clean
Transportation
Verdier S, Rohart E, Bradshaw H, Harris D, Bichon P, Delahay G (2008) Acidic zirconia materials
for durable NH3-SCR deNOx catalysts. SAE Technical Paper
Walde T, Nakasone O (2007) Smart NOx-sensor-application in diesel systems. In: Car Training
Institute Exhaust Systems Forum, Nuertingen, Germany
Weisgerber V (2007) Delphi NH3 ammonia sensors. In: Car Training Institute Exhaust Systems
Forum, Nuertingen, Germany
Williams M, Minjares R (2016) A technical summary of Euro 6/VI vehicle emission standards.
ICCT International Council on Clean Transportation
Zelenka P, Reczek W, Mustel W, Rouveirolles P (1998) Towards securing the particulate trap
regeneration: a system combining a sintered metal filter and cerium fuel additive. SAE
Technical Paper