PSYC212 HUMANPERSONALI

TY
I
ntr
oduct
ion

Thiscourseisint
ended forpeopl
ewho areundertaki
ng thei
rstudi
esi nt heBachelorof
Psychol
ogyDegreeProgramme.Youdonotneedanypr iorknowledgeoft hecourseexcept
thatyou musthav e been admit
ted t
o under
takethe Bachel
or’s Degreeprogramme in
Psychol
ogy.Youareexpectedtocompletethecoursein45hour swi thi
naper i
odofone
semester
.

Cour
seObj
ect
ives

Uponcompl
eti
onofthi
scourseyoushouldbeabl
eto:
(i
). Defi
neandexplai
ntheter
m personal
i
ty

(
ii
). Expl
aint
hemai
ndet
ermi
nant
sofhumanper
sonal
i
ty.

(
ii
i)
. Descr
ibedi
ff
erentappr
oachest
oper
sonal
i
ty.

(
iv)
. Out
li
nesomebasi
cassumpt
ionsconcer
ninghumannat
ure.

(
v). Descr
ibeway
sofconduct
ingr
esear
chandassessmenti
nper
sonal
i
typsy
chol
ogy
.

Page1of1
 CHAPTERONE
I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOHUMANPERSONALI
TY

1.
1 TheConceptofPer
sonal
it
y

Supposi ngIment ionedt oy out henamesofpeopl ewhohav eshapedt hecour seofthehi story
ofhumani ty,whatcomest oy ourmi nd?I fIment ionedMahat maGandhi ,KwameNkr umah,
Abraham Li ncoln,JesusChr ist,Gaut amaBuddha,Mot herTer esa,Cleopatra,whatcomest o
yourmi nd?Youmaybet empt edt othinkofcer t
ainbr oaddescr i
ptorsofbehav i
ourassoci ated
withthei ndivi
dualwhosenamei sment ionede.g.IfImentionMot herTeresay oumayt hinkof
humilit
y,ifIment ionAbr aham Li ncolny oumayt hinkofstrengt h,i
fIment i
onAl bertEinstein
youmayt hinkofintel
ligence, andi fIment i
onNelsonMandel ay oumayt hinkofr esil
i
ence.The
worldinhi storyandcur rentlyisf ullofpeopl ewhoar eknownandr ecognizedsi mplybecause
oftheirchar acterrathert hanot herat tr
ibutestheymayhav e.Byt hi
st i
me,y ouar eal r
eady
thi
nkingofhowpeopl ebecomer ecogni zablebytheirbehavi
our .

Personali
tyisaboutcharacter
ist
ics,
iti
saboutbehaviour
.Oftenyoumayl ookatsomeoneand
youareinstant
lyabl
etotellabouthim/her
.Thisisbecausehe/shepossessessomequali
ty(
of
per
sonalit
y)thati
sdisti
nguishabl
e.Lookatthefoll
owingpict
ures.

Fi
gur
e1:Di
ff
erentPer
sonal
i
ties

Whatcany
ousayaboutt
hef
ourper
sonal
i
ties?

a)Whoamongthesei
sli
kelytobeanai
rhost
ess?
b)Whoi
sli
kel
ytobeasoldier
?
c)Whoi
sli
kel
ytobeapriest?

Onemaybet emptedtoask;i
nthefaceofsimil
arci
rcumstancesaff
ecti
ngsomanypeopl e
whydosomestandoutwhil
etheot
hersdon’t
?Whyisoneaher oinwarandanot
herinpeace?
Whyisonef
amousi npol
it
icsandanotheri
nrel
i
gion? Thi
sboilsdowntothedescr
ipt
orswe

Page2of2
hav
ef orpar
ti
cul
arbehav i
ourt
hatdi
stingui
shessuchpeople.Longandr el
ati
vel
yendur
ing
pat
ter
nsofbehav
iourbecomeachar
acterthati
suni
queandrecognizabl
einaper
son.

Ev enwhenagr oupofpeopl eareexposedt ot hesameenv i

ronmentint heirformati
vey ears
withr egardt ofami lyenvir
onment,ethniccult
ure, sociali
zati
on,rel
igi
on,educat i
on,poli
ti
cset c,
theindi vi
dualsst i
lldevel
opwi thdist
inctanddi f
feringbehav i
ouralcharacteri
sti
cs.Basedon
ourear li
erknowl edgei npsychol
ogythisisani ndicat ororapointertotheinfluenceofnatur al
i
nnat ef orcesi nt hef or
mat i
onofone’ schar act er
.Thesei nnateforcest ogetherwitht he
env i
ronment alonesl eadtoapat t
ernofbehav iouri naper sonthatcaneasilybedet ectedand
categor i
zed.Thuswedi f
ferintheexpr essi
onandi ntensi
tyofourat t
it
udes,per cepti
ons,
reactions,views, etc.

1.
2 TheDef
ini
ti
onofPer
sonal
it
y

Personalityencompassesal lpsychologicalandbehav i
ouralchar acteri
sticsbywhi cheach
personcanbecompar edandcont rastedwi t
hotherpeople.Personali
tycanal sobedef inedas
thetotali
tyofallcharacter
ist
icswhichmakeeachi ndiv
idualuniqueanddi f
ferentf r
om allother
i
ndividuals.Thosebehav i
oursthatmakeeachofusuni quemakeupourper sonali
ty,whi ch
l
eadsust oactinaconsi st
entandpr edi
ctabl
emannerbot hindi f
ferentsi t
uat ionsandov er
extendedper i
odsoft i
me.Per sonali
tycanbeseenaschar acter
isti
cst hatemer gefrom t he
blendingofinheritedandacqui r
edt endenciesmakingeachper sonadi stinctandi dent i
fi
able
i
ndividual.
Suchchar acteri
sti
csresultinpeopl edemonst r
ati
ngsomebehav i
our alpatternsas
foll
ows: Opti
misticandconf i
dent,Fearfulandnegati
ve,Outgoingorreclusiveet c.

Wheny ouhearsomeonesay‘ he’snotmyt ype‘ or‘

Iam notthattypeofperson’
,youar ehear i
ng
theechoesofadr eam t
obeabl etoclassif
ypeopl eintoaf ewbasickindsofper sonali
ty.The
ancientGr eek phil
osopherHi ppocrates suggested t hata certai
n behav i
ourpat t
erni s
associatedwi theachofourf ourbodilyfluids[bl
ood,phl egm,blackbile,andy el
l
ow bi l
e].
Personalit
yt ypesdependonhow muchofeachf luidonehas.Thei deaoft ypingpeopl e’
s
personalit
iesbasedonbi ologicalfact
orsalsoappear si ntheori
esthatrel
atetot heappr oach
thatpeoplei nheri
tthepersonalit
ytheydev elop.Thef or
malst udyoftherelat
ionshipbetween
personalit
y, f
aceandbodyi scalledphysiognomy .

1.
3 Det
ermi
nant
sofPer
sonal
it
y

Asyoul earnedintheprevioussub- sect

ion,personali
tyari
sesf rom bothnatur
e(innat
e)and
nur
tur
e( envir
onment
)fact ors.Ther ehasbeenagr eatcontrover
syamong psy chologi
sts
per
tai
ningt owhatbetweenher edit
yandenv i
ronmenti sresponsibl
ef orbehavi
ourpatter
ns.
Whil
emaj ori
tyoft
hepsy chologist
shol dthatthetwowor ktogether
,af ew st
il
lholdextr
eme
par
ti
sanshi ptowar
dseit
herher edit
yorenv i
ronment .

Page3of3
Her
edi
ty[
nat
ure]

Thisincludest
hesum t otalofanindividual
’schar
acteri
sti
cswhi charegenet
ical
lydet
ermi ned
andwhi charebiol
ogical
lyinheri
tedfrom onesparents.Heredi
tyfactor
saremostlyphysicalad
anatomical,and they are determined by specif
ic genes received f
rom each parentat
conception.St
udieshav er ev
ealedt hatonlythosecharacteri
sticswhichareinher
it
edf r
om
parentscanbepassedont otheoffspring.

Fi
gur
e2:Di
ff
erencesi
nGr
owt
hint
heSameEnv
ironmenti
sasaResul
tofGenet
icFor
ces

Acqui
redchar
act
eri
sti
csar
enoti
nher
it
edbyof
fspr
ings.Sooft
heher
edi
tyf
act
orsi
ncl
ude:
-

 Physicalchar
acter
ist
icslikeheightet c.
 Reflexacti
ons,i
nsti
nctsandemot ions.
 Limitsofgrowthandphy sical
dev elopmente.
g.pl
umpnessorsli
mness.
 Skinpigmentandcompl exion.
 Some aspect s of personal i
ty e. g.int
rov
ersi
on vs.extr
oversi
on,neur
oti
sm v
s.
psychoti
sm etc.
 Int
elli
gence.

TheEnv
ironment[
nur
tur
e]

Envi
ronmentmeans soci al
,mor al,economi c,physicaland i ntel
lectualfactor
s which an
i
ndiv
idualexperi
ences and whi ch infl
uence the dev elopmentoft he indiv
idual
.Itist he
aggr
egateoft heforcesandst i
mul ati
onswhi chani ndivi
dualreceivesf r
om conceptionto
deat
h.Manypsy chologist
sseet heenv ironmentasbei ng mor ei mportantinshaping an
i
ndiv
idual
’sper
sonalit
yt handoesher edit
y .Per
sonal
ityi sinthi
sv i
ewseenasdev el
opi
ngf r
om
aneedtoadaptintotheenv i
ronment ,aprocessknownascondi ti
oning.
Page4of4
Fi
gur
e3:Dif
fer
encesinGr
owt
hofPl
ant
sofSi
mil
arGenesi
sDuet
otheEnv
ironment
al
Vari
ati
ons

 Environmentalexperiencesi
nfl
uenceanindivi
dual’
smi nd.
 Cultureshapesani ndivi
dual
’
satti
tudes,
belief
sandwor l
dv i
ews.
 Socialandeconomi cexposureleadstoeit
herenrichedlearni
ngorpoorl
earning.
 Anenr i
chedenv i
ronmentpr omotesani ndiv
idual’
sintell
i
gence,exper
ience,lear
ningand
personalit
y.

1.
4 St
udi
esi
nPsy
chol
ogy

Thest udyofper sonal i

tyhasabr oadandv ari
edhistoryinpsy chologywi thanabundanceof
theoreti
calt r
aditions.The maj or t heori
es of per sonalit
yi nclude t he Psy chodynami c,
Humani sti
c,Bi ol
ogi cal,Behav i
or ali
st,and Cogni ti
ve per spect ives.Under each of t he
perspecti
ves are speci fi
ct heories der i
ved from ideas ofi ndividualt heor ists with broad
commonv iewsbutdi fferentspeci f
icideasonbot hthecont entandt hemet hodol ogyofstudy .
Howev er,manyr esear chersandpsy chologistsdonotexpl icitl
yi dentifyt hemsel v
eswi tha
certai
nperspectiveandi nsteadt akeanEcl ecti
cAppr oach.Resear chi nthisar eai sempi ri
call
y
dri
ven,suchasdi mensi onalmodel s,basedonmul ti
vari
atest atisti
cs,suchasf actoranalysis,
oremphasi zestheor ydev elopment ,suchast hatofthepsy chody nami ctheor y .Thereisalsoa
substanti
alemphasi sont heappl iedf i
eldofper sonali
tytest i
ng.I npsy chol ogicaleducat i
on
andt r
aini
ng,thest udyoft henat ur eofper sonali
tyanditspsy chol ogicaldev elopmenti susuall
y
revi
ewedasapr erequi sitetocour sesi nabnor malpsychologyorcl i
nicalpsy chol ogy .

Studi
esi ntot heaspectofpersonali
tyhav eovertimer eli
edont hemet hodsofobser v
ati
on,
casehi stor
y,selfreporti
ngdata,quest i
onnair
es,tests,geneticstudies,andenv ir
onmental
vari
ables affecti
ng behavi
our.The dat aist hen subjected to st
ati
sticalprocedures t
hat
hopefull
yv er
ifytheenduringcharacter
isti
csoft hatbehav i
our.Thesemet hodsdonotdi ff
er
fr
om ot hermet hodsinthestudyofpsy chologywhichadopt sscienti
fi
cmet hodsofstudyi.
e.
Page5of5
deali
ng wit
hempi r
ical(observ
ableand measurabl
e)procedures.Theaspectofempi r
ical
studiesasacrit
icaltenetofsci ent
if
icst
udyensur esthatthestudi
esarev er
if
iabl
eand
repl
icabl
einav
ari
etyofset t
ingsandcir
cumstances.
Topi
csthatwil
lfol
l
owwi l
lbededi
catedtotheexpl
orat
ionoft
heper
spect
ivesandt
heor
iesi
n
det
ail
andlat
erthestudymet
hodsinpersonal
i
ty.

TOPICACTI VITI
ES
Acti
v i
ty Discuss t
he conceptofper sonal
i
tyand expl ai
n how peopl
e’
s
personal
it
iesdevel
opt obecomedi f
fer
ent.
Feedback/Hint Youshouldcapt ur
et hemeani ngofthet er
m personal
i
tyandyou
l
ookatt hevari
ousdet er
minantsofpersonal
ity
.
Assignment 1. Def i
nepersonali
ty.

2. Expl
ainhowi
ndi
vi
dual
sdi
ff
eri
nbehav
iour
.

3. Di
scusst
heTWOmaj
orf
orcest
hatshapehumanper
sonal
i
ty.

4. Explai
nwhyst
udy
ingper
sonal
i
tyi
sconsi
der
edasci
ent
if
ic
study.

*
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
**

Page6of6
 CHAPTERTWO
THEPSYCHOANALYTICAPPROACHTOPERSONALI
TY
SIGMUNDFREUD’SPSYCHODYNAMI
CTHEORY

I
ntr
oduction
I
nt hi
st opi
cy ou shal
lbe abl
etoi
nter
actwi
th one oft
hemosti
nfl
uent
ialschol
arsof
psy
chology,Si
gmundFreud.

Hewasbor nin1856i nMor av

ia( presentdayCzechosl
ovaki
a)andwasamedi caldoct
or
havinggr aduat
edfrom t heUniver
sityofVi ennai
n1883.Hespeci al
izedinthetreatmentof
neurologicaland ment aldisor
ders and was an exper tin hypnotism.Freud publi
shed
extensivelybet
ween1902and1933whenhewasbannedf rom Berl
in,Germanybyt heNazi
regime.Hedi edofcancerofthejawi n1939.

2.
1 Si
gmundFr
eud’
sVi
ewsonDev
elopment

Accordingt opsychoanal
ysts,ourbehavi
ourist r
iggeredl argel
ypowerfulforceswit
hinour
personali
tyofwhi chwearenotaware.Thesehiddenf orcesshapedbychildhoodexperi
ences,
pl
ayani mportantrol
einenergi
zinganddir
ect
ingourev erydaybehav i
ours.Theunconsci
ous
mind cont ai
ns aggressi
ve dri
ves,sexualdri
ves,i nstinct
ualdr i
ves,disgui
sed ef
fects of
Page7of7
unful
fil
l
edwi shes,desi
res,demands,andneedsthatarehi
ddenf r
om consci
ousawareness
becauseoft heconfl
ict
sandpai nthattheywoul
dcauseusiftheywerepartofourever
yday
l
ives.Psychoanaly
ststhusbeli
evethatourper
sonal
it
yisdet
ermini
sti
c,i
nfl
uencedbeyondour
control
.

Manyofourl i
fe’
sexper iencesar epai nfulandtheunconsci ousmindprov i
desasaf estorefor
ourr ecol
lecti
onsofsuchev ents.Int hiswayuncomf or t
ablememor iescanr emai ninour
unconsciouswi thoutcont i
nuallydisturbingus.Thet heoryofPsy choanalyt
icperspecti
vehas
beent hemosti nfl
uentialinmoder nandcont emporarypsychology.I
nfacttoday’spsychology
i
sempt ywi t
houti t.Theper spectivei sbasedont heini
t i
alworksofSi gmundFr eudwhoi s
knownast hef atherofpsy chology.Fr eudpr oposedt hatthef unct
ionsoft hemi ndand
behav i
ourar einfluenced byunconsci ous processesoft he mi psy
nd ( chic deter
minism).
Freud’smajorpost ulat
esincludet hefollowing:-

i
) Thehumanper sonalit
yisgreatl
yinfl
uencedbyt heunconsci ousmi nd.Themi ndhas
thr
eel evelsofconsci ousnessorawar eness,whi char etheUnconsci ousMi nd,the
SubconsciousMi nd,andtheConsciousMi nd.Theconsci ousmi ndcont ai
nst houghts
whichar ecurrentlyinawareness.Thesubconsci ousmi ndcont ainsthoughtst hatare
notconsci ous butar e accessi
ble wi
thoutmuch ef f
ort.The unconsci ous mi nd
cont ai
nstheforgot t
enmemor iesandpainfulchi
ldhoodexper iences.
i
i
)Humanbei ngsar ebornwithInsti
nct
ual,Aggressive,andSexualDr i
veswhi chregulate,
i
nfluenceandmot i
vatebehavi
our.Thesourcesoft hesedr i
vesar ePsy chicEnergyand
themostpower fulofwhichisLibi
doorSexualEner gy.
i
i
i)Childhoodexper iencesar ehiddenint heunconsci ousmi nd,andt heyhav egreat
i
nfluenceonemot i
onalandpersonaldevel
opment .

2.
2TheSt
ruct
ureofPer
sonal
it
y

Todescr i
bet hesourceofpersonali
ty,Fr
euddi
scoveredacompr ehensi
vet heorythatheldthat
personali
tyconsistedoft hr
eesepar atebuti
nter
actingcomponent sId,EgoandSuper ego.
Theyar enotphy sicalst
ructur
esf oundincert
ainpar t
soft hebrai
n,insteadt heyr epr
esent
abstractconceptionsofagener almodelofper sonali
tythatdescri
best heinteracti
onof
var
iouspr ocessesandforceswithi
nonespersonal
itythatmotiv
atebehaviour.

TheIdist heraw, unorgani

zed, i
nheri
tedpar tofpersonal
it
ypr esentfrom t
hetimeofbi r
th.The
sol
epur poseoft heidistor educetensioncr eat
edbydr i
vesrelatedtohunger,sex,aggr
ession,
andirr
ationalimpulses.It
smai nconcer nisthei mmediategrati
ficat
ionofaneedassoonasi t
ari
ses.I
toper atesont hePleasurePrincipl
e.Itsdri
vesarefuell
edbypsy chicenergyorli
bidoas
cal
ledbyFr eud.

TheEgo[
sel
f]ev
olv
esf
rom t
hei
dtocr
eat
eway
stogetwhatonewant
sinawor
ldf
ullofr
ules,
Page8of8
becauset heegomakescompr omisesbetweent her easoningdemandsoft heidandt hereal
world.Iti
ssaidtooper
ateontheRealit
yPrinci
ple.Themor eexperi
encespeoplehav ewi ththe
rul
esandnor msofsociet
y,t
hemor etheytendtoadaptt othem.Asar esul
t,chil
drenlearnthat
certai
nbehav i
our
sarewrongandwi l
levenscoldt hemsel vesfordoingbadt ngs.I
hi ntroject
ion
i
st het er
m usedbyFreudfort hi
sprocessofi nternali
zingpar ent
alandsoci etalvaluesinto
personali
ty.

Intr
oject
edv aluesi
.e.our‘shoul
dandshoul dnots,’for
mt hethi
rdcomponentofper sonality
,
theSuper ego.The‘shouldnots’
,thethingspeopleknow arewrongmakeupt hepar toft he
superegoknownast heconscience.Pressuret
oconf ormtothe‘shoulds’t
hei dealbehaviour
thatpeopleknowi srightcomesf r
om asecondpar tofthesuperegoknownast heegoi deal.
Thesuper egooperatesont heMor al
i
tyPr i
nci
plesincevi
olat
ingeithercategoryofi t
sr ules
result
singuilt
.

Unf
or t
unatel
y,basicneeds[ I
d],reason[Ego],moral
i
ty[Superego]andthedemandsoft he
env
ironmentar e often atodds.Thi s cr
eates i
nnert ur lknown as i
moi nt
ra psy
chic or
psy
chody namicconfl
i
ct,whichtheegomustt r
ytoresolve.Fr
eudbeli
evedthatt
henumber ,
nat
ureandout comeofpsy chicconfli
ctsshapeseachindivi
dual
’sper
sonal
i
tyanddetermi
nes
manyaspectsofl i
feandbehaviour.

2.
3Per
sonal
it
yDev
elopmentAccor
dingt
oFr
eud

Freudbeliev edandprov i
deduswi thav iewofhowper sonali
tyisf or
medt hr
oughaser i
esof
stagesdur ingchil
dhood.Thesear ecalledpsy chosexualstagesofper sonal
it
ydevel
opment .
Eachoner elat
estothepar tofthebodyt hatisthemai nareaofpl easureatthatst
age,call
ed
theerogenouszone.Thef ail
uretoresol
vepr obl
emsandconf li
ctsatagi venstagecanleavea
person fi
xat ed i
.e.ov er
ly att
ached to orunconsci ously preoccupied withthe pl
easure
associat
edwi t
hthatstage.

Or
alSt
age

Achi l
d’sfi
rstyearorsoi scalledtheoralstagebecauset hemouthist hecent r
eofpl easure
andsexualgr at
ifi
cat
ion.Thechi ld’
smai nacti
vityi
ssuckingandmani pulati
onoft helipsand
mout h.Per
sonalit
yproblemsoccurmai nlywhenor alneedsareeit
hernotmetorov eri
ndulged.
Intheadultpersonal
ity,fi
xat
ionatt heor alst
agemi ghtresul
tinsuchor alcharacter
isti
csas
tal
king too much,ov ereating,smoki ng,alcohol
ism,orusi ng bi
ti
ng sar casm.Excessi ve
dependenceonot her
sl i
keani nfantonhismot heri
sanotherpossi
blesignofor alf
ixat
ion.

AnalSt
age

Usual
l
yoccur
sdur
i he2ndy
ngt ear
,whent
hedemandf
ort
oil
ett
rai
ningconf
li
ctswi
tht
hechi
l
d’s
Page9of9
i
nst i
nctualpleasureinhav i
ngbowelmov ementsatwi l
l,becauset hecentreoff ocusand
confli
ctshift
sf r
om themout htotheanusdur i
ngthisperiod.Iftoi
lettr
aini
ngistoohar shand
demandi ngori sbegunt ooear l
yort oolat
e,confl
i
ctsmayar ise.Foll
owersofpsy choanal y
tic
theoryurgethatunr esol
vedconf l
ictsfr
om theanalst agecancr eateananalpersonal i
t y
.The
adultfi
xatedatt heanalst agemightsymbolical
lywithhol
df aecesbybei ngcontr
olli
ng,st i
ngy,
highlyorgani
zed, st
ubbornandper hapsexcessivel
yconcer nedwi t
hcleanli
ness,
or derl
inessor
detail
ed.Attheot herextremear ethosewhoexpelf aecesbybei ngsloppyanddi sorganized/.
Ataboutage3t hephalli
cst agebegins.

Phal
li
cSt
age

Ther eisanothermaj orshiftint heprimar ysour ceofpl easurefort hechild.Thi st i

mei nterest
focusesont hegeni talsandpl easur
eder ivedf rom f ondlingthem.Thi sist hest ageofoneof
themosti mpor tantper i
odsofper sonalitydev el
opmentaccor ding to Fr eud’st heory,t he
Oedi palcompl ex.Aschi l
drenf ocust hei
rat tentionont heirgenitals,thedi ff
erencesbet ween
mal eandf emal eanat omybecomemor esal i
ent .Att hist i
me,Fr eudbel ievedt hatthemal e
begi nstodev elopsexuali nterestsinhismot her,star t
st oseehi sf atherasar i
v alandwi shes
toki llhi
sf at
herasOedi pusdi dintheanci entGr eekmy thol
ogy ,butbecausehev i
ewshi s
fatherast oopower ful,hedev elopsfearofr etaliat
ioncal ledcastrationanxi ety.Thef eart hat
becomest oost rongt hattheegor epressest hei ncestdesi r
es,t
hent heboyseekst obecome
l
ikeori denti
fi
eswi t
hhi sf atherandi nthepr ocessbegi nst olear nmal esexualbehav iours
whi chwi l
ll
aterhel phimf orm asexual r
elati
onshi pwi thawomanot herthanhi smot her.

Resoluti
onoft heseconf li
ctsismorecompl i
catedforthefemalechild,aconditi
onknownas
theElectr
acompl ex.Shebegi nswithast rongattachmenttothemot her
,butassher eali
zes
thatboyshav epenises,andgi r
lsdon’t
,shebegi nstohatehermot herperhapsblamingherfor
thelackofitandconsi deri
ngherinferi
or.Sheexper i
encespenisenvyandt ransf
ersherloveto
herf at
herwho has t he sexor gan she want s.Butt he gi
rlmost lyav oi
ds hermot her’
s
disappr
ov al
.Shedoessobyi dent
if
yingwithhermot herbyadoptingfemal esexualbehavi
ours
andsubsequent l
ychoosi ngamal emat eotherthanherfather
.

Atthispoi nt,t
heOedipalandElectracompl exesareissaidtoberesol
v edandpsychoanaly
tic
theoryassumest hatbothmalesandf emal esmov eontot henextstageofdevelopment.If
diff
icul
tiesar i
seduri
ngthisperiodhowev er,allsor
tsofproblemsarethoughttooccur,whi
ch
i
ncludei mpropersexualbehav i
ourandt hef ai
lur
etodev elopaconscience.Foll
owingthe
rel
ationshipofOedi palandEl ectr
acompl exes,ataroundage5- 6,chil
drenmov eintothe
l
atencyper iodwhichlast
suntil
puber t
y.

Page10of10
 `

Fi
gur
e4:Si
gmundFr
eudandHi
sDaught
erAnna

Lat
encyPer
iod

Li
ttl
eofi nt
eresti
soccurr
ing[
dormancy]
.Sexualconcer
nsaremoreorlessputt
oresti
nt he
unconsci
ous.Att hi
sti
met heindi
vi
dualismor econcernedwi
ththedevel
opmentofother
aspectssuchaseducat
ionandsoci
ali
zat
ion.

Geni
talSt
age

Focusduri
ngthisstageisonmat ur
eadul tsexual
i
tywhichFreuddefi
nedassexual i
ntercourse.
Duri
ngadolescence,sex ualf
eel
ingsr e-
emer gemakingthest ar
tort hefi
nalperiodi .
e.the
geni
talst
agewhi chextendsunti
ldeath.Thisperi
odisconcernedmor ewit
htheexpr essionof
onessexual
it
ywi thpeersaswellasformingandmaintaini
nginti
matesexualr
elat
ionships.

2.
4Int
raPsy
chi
cConf
li
cts

I
dvs.Ego

Choosingbetweenasmal li
mmediat
erewar
dandal
argerr
ewar
dthatr
equi
ressomeper
iodof
wait
ingi.
e.delayofgr
ati
fi
cati
on.

I
dvs.Super
ego

Deci
dingwhet
hert
oret
urnt
hedi
ff
erencewheny
ouar
eov
erpai
d.

Egov
s.Super
ego

Page11of11
Choosi
ngbetweenacti
nginareal
i
sticwhate.
g.t
ell
i
nga‘
whi
tel
i
e’andappealt
oapot
ent
ial
l
y
cost
lyst
andar
de.g.al
waystel
l
ingthetr
uth.

I
dandEgov
s.Super
ego

Deci
dingwhet
hert
oret
ali
ateagai
nstt
heat
tackofaweakopponentort
otur
ntheot
hercheek.

I
dandSuper
egov
s.Ego

Deci
dingwhetherto actinareal
i
sti
cwaythatconf
li
ctwit
hthedesiresandy ourmor
al
conv
icti
ons.e.
g.t
hedecisi
onf
acedbyr
omanCathol
i
csastot
heuseofcontr
acept
ives.

EgoandSuper
egov
s.I
d

Choosingwhethert
oactontheimpul
setost
ealsomet
hingy
ouwantandcannotaff
ord.The
egowi l
lpresumabl
ybeinv
olvedinsuchaconf
li
ctastheprobabi
l
ityofbei
ngappr
ehended
i
ncreases.

2.
5TheEgoDef
enseMechani
sms

Oneoft heEgo’smosti mportantfuncti

onsi stodef endtheindivi
dualagainstanxietyandguilt
.
Oftenitdoessobyor gani
zi
ngr eali
sti
cact i
ons.TheEgomayal sodealwi thanxietyorguil
tby
resul
tingt
odef ensemechanisms, theunconsci ous,psychologi
cal,andbehav i
ouraltacti
csthat
helptoprotectaper sonfrom unpleasantorov erwhelmingemot i
ons.Forinstance,suppose
youfindyourselfstr
onglyatt
ractedtoy ourbestf ri
end’sloverbutfinditi
mpossi bletoadmitit
event oyourself.Yourmostpr i
miti
veunconsci ousimpul semi ghtbet okilly ourfri
endor
abductthelover.Butbecomingawar eoft hi
simpul sewoul dbri
ngaf l
oodofanxiet yandgui
lt.

Topreventthi
s,theEgomi yr
ghtappl epressi
on,unconsci
ouslyforci
ngunacceptabl
eimpulses
outofawareness,leavi
ngy ouunawarethatyouhadt hedesir
ei nthefir
stpl
ace.Ontheother
hand byapplying suppressi
on,one consci
ouslydenies cert
ainf eel
i
ngs thr
ough eff
ortf
ul
for
gett
ing.

Otheregodefensemechani smsmayhel pkeepr epr

essedmaterialfr
om surfaci
ngwheni t
does.E.
g.t oughpr
hr ojecti
on,peopl
eseet heirownunaccept
abl
edesi r
esinothers.Pr
ojecti
on
mightoper
ateinmakingy oufearf
ulthatothersar
eoutther
etostealyourpossessi
onsjustas
youwanttostealf
rom yourfr
iend.

Reacti
onformati
oni
sadefensei
nwhichonesbehavi
ourrunsexactl
yopposi
teofone’
str
ue
feel
i
ngs.Thusyoumi
ghtdevel
opacer
tai
nint
ensedi
sli
keforyourf
ri
end’sl
over
.

ndi
I spl
acement
,unaccept
abl
eimpul
sesar
edi
rect
edt
owar
dsal
ter
nat
ivet
arget
s.Thi
scoul
d

Page12of12
causeyouto expr
esshost
il
it
ytowar
dspeopl
ewho r
emi
ndy
ouofy
ourf
ri
end ort
ofal
l
tempor
ari
l
yinl
ov ewit
hev
ery
oneyoudate.

Intel
lectuali
zat
ionhelpsapersont
omini
mizeanxi
etybyviewi
ngthr
eateningissuesincol
d
abstractt er
ms.Thusy oumayengagei
nendlesst
alkaboutsuchconf
lictrel
atedtopi
csas
platoniclove,l
oyal
tyortr
ust
.

Rat
ional
i
zat
ionat
tempt
stoexpl
ainawayunaccept
abl
ebehav
iour
.

Deni
ali
sthemostpr
imit
ivedef
ensethatdist
ort
sreal
i
tybyleadi
ngonetoact
,see,
andthink,
as
i
ftheimpul
sesarenotther
e.Itwoul
dl eadyoutoacknowledgenoromant
icint
erest
sinthe
per
sonyoulov
e.

Subli
mat
ioni
st heconversi
onofrepressedur
gesi nt
osocial
lyapprovedacti
on.Thismi
ght
prompty
outothrowyoursel
fint
ohar
dphy si
cal
labourorcr
eati
veint
ell
ectual
acti
vi
ty.

Wehav eindicatedear li
erthatsocialpsy
chologyi st hestudyofhumanbehav iourinsoci al
sit
uations.Personal i
ty,accordi
ngt oBernstein( 1988)ist hepat t
ernofpsy chologi
caland
behaviouralcharacteri
sti
csbywhi cheachper soncanbecompar edandcont rastedwithother
people.Itist hechar acteri
sti
cst hatemergef r
om t heblendingofi nheri
tedandacqui red
tendenciest o makeeachper sonani denti
fiabl
ei ndivi
dual.Suchchar act
er i
sticsresul
tt o
peopledemonst rat
ingsomebehav i
ourpatt
ernsasf oll
ows;opt i
misti
candconf ident
,fearful
andnegat iv
e,etc.

2.6 Neo- Freudi

anTheor i
sts
Freud’
st heor
ywascr i
ticall
ychall
engedevenbyf el
l
owcl i
nici
answhousedhi smethodsi
nthe
tr
eatmentofment aldi
sor ders.Manyfel
tthatheemphasizedbiol
ogicalfactorsatt
heexpense
ofsocialfact
ors.Othersf el
tthathesexual
izedthei
nfantmakinghim seem t obesomekindof
apervert.Somehowev ersupportedhisvi
ewswit hl
i
ttl
evari
ati
onsormodi f
icati
ons.

2.
6.1 Car
lJung

Page13of13
Car
lGustavJung(26Jul y1875–6June1961)wasaSwi sspsychiat
ri
standpsy chot
her
api
st
whofoundedAnalyt
icalPsy chology
.Hi sworkhasbeeni nf
luent
ialnotonlyinpsychi
atr
ybut
al
so i
nphi l
osophy
,ant hropology,archaeol
ogy,l
it
eratur
e,andr el
igi
ousst udi
es.Hewasa
pr
oli
fi
cwrit
er,t
houghmanyofhi swor kswerenotpubli
shedunti
laft
erhisdeath.

Thecent r
alconceptofanal yt
icalpsychol
ogyisi ndividuati
on—thepsy chol
ogicalprocessof
i
ntegratingtheopposites,incl
udingtheconsciouswi t
ht heunconscious,whil
est il
lmaintai
ning
thei
rr el
ativeautonomy .Jungconsi deredindivi
duationt obet hecentralprocessofhuman
development .Jungcreatedsomeoft hebestknownpsy chologi
calconcepts,
includingJungian
archetypes,thecol l
ecti
v e unconscious,t
he psy chologicalcomplex,and ext r
aversi
on and
i
ntroversion.

Car lJungr ej
ectedt henotionofthepri
mar yimport
anceoft heunconscioussexualurges.He
refutedFr eud’
st heor yonpsychicener
gybasedonsexualandaggr essivedr i
ves.I
nsteadhe
l
ookedatt heurgesoft heunconsci
ousmor eposit
ivel
ysuggesti
ngthatpeopl ehadacollectiv
e
unconsci ouswhi chmeansasetofi nfl
uenceswei nheri
tfrom ourpart
icularancest
orsoft he
humanr ace.Hesawi npeopleamor egeneralli
fefor
cenotonl ywit
hani nst i
nctgr
ati
ficati
on
butal sof orproduct i
veblendi
ngofbasi cdr i
veswithrealwor l
ddemands.Hecal l
edt hi
s
tendency t owards gr owt
h orient
ed resolut
ion the tr
anscendent function,and di vi
ded
personalitydri
vesint o:-

i
.) ACol l
ect
iveUnconsciouswhichi sakindofmemor ybankinwhichar estoredal
lthe
i
magesandi deasthatthehumanr acehasaccumulatedthoughi
tsevol
utionalpat
h.
i
i
.) Archet
ypeswhicharet heuni
versalsy
mbolicr
epresentat
ionsofpar
ti
cularpersonobj
ect
orexperi
ence.Theyar etheclassicimagesorconcepts.E.g.peopl
er eacttocert
ain
motherfi
guresthewayt heyr
eacttothei
rownmot hers.
Page14of14
I
twast hepubl i
cati
onofJung'sbookPsy chologyoft heUnconsci ousi n1912t hatledt othe
breakwithFreud.Lett
erstheyexchangedshowFr eud'sr efusalt
oconsi derJung'sideas.This
rej
ecti
oncausedwhatJungdescr i
bedi nhi
saut obiographyMemor ies,Dreams,Refl
ections,as
a" r
esoundi
ngcensur e.
"Ev er
yoneheknew dr oppedawayexceptf ortwoofhi scol l
eagues.
Jungdescribedhisbookas" ..
.anattempt ,onlyparti
all
ysuccessf ul,t
ocr eat
eawi derset ti
ng
formedicalpsychol
ogyandt obringthewhol eoft hepsy chi
cphenomenawi thinit
spur view."
(Thebookwasl aterrevi
sedandr et
it
led,Symbol sofTr ansformati
on,in1922) .Jungdiedon6
June1961atKüsnacht ,af
terashortil
lness

2.
6.2 Kar
enHor
ney

Kar enHor ney( 16Sept ember1885–4December1952)wasaGer manpsy choanalystwho

practicedintheUni tedSt at
esduri
ngherlatercareer
.Hert heori
esquestionedsomet r
adi ti
onal
Freudianv i
ews.Thi swaspar ti
cul
arl
yt r
ueofhert heoriesofsexual i
tyandoft hei nsti
nct
orientati
onofpsy choanalysi
s.Sheiscredi
tedwithf oundingFemi nistPsy chol
ogyi nr esponse
toFr eud'stheor yofpeni senvy.Shedisagreedwi t
hFr eudabouti nherentdifferencesi nt he
psy chologyofmenandwomen,andshet racedsuchdi fferencestosociet yandcul t
ur erather
[4]
thanbi ology. Assuch, sheisof
tencl
assifi
edasNeo- Freudian.Horneylookedatneur osisina

Page15of15
di
ffer
entli
ghtfrom ot
herpsychoanal
yst
softhetime.Horneybeli
eved neurosi
sto bea
conti
nuouspr
ocess—wi
thneur
osescommonlyoccur
ri
ngspor
adical
l
yinone'
sl i
feti
me.

Thiswasi ncont r
astt ot heopi nionsofhercont empor arieswhobel i
ev edneurosiswas,l ike
mor esev er ement alcondi t
ions,anegat i
v emalfunctionoft hemi ndi nr esponsetoext er
nal
sti
mul i
,such as ber eav ement ,div orce ornegat i
ve exper i
ences dur ing chil
dhood and
adol escence.Hor neybel ievedt hesest imulitobel essi mpor t
ant ,exceptf orinfl
uencesdur ing
childhood.Rat her,shepl acedsi gnifi
cantemphasi sonpar entalindi f
fer
encet owardsthechi ld,
believingt hatachi l
d'sper cept ionofev ents,asopposedt ot hepar ent'
si ntenti
ons,i
sthekeyt o
under standi ngaper son'sneur osis.Fori nstance,achi ldmi ghtf eelal ackofwar mthand
affectionshoul dapar entmakef unoft hechild'
sf eelings.Thepar entmayal socasual ly
negl ecttof ulfi
lpromi ses,whi chi nt urncoul dhav eadet r
iment aleffectont hechil
d'sment al
state.Shecameupwi t
ht hreecat egoriesofneedsnamel y,compl iance,aggr ession,and
detachment .
Hor ney ,t
oget herwi thf ell
ow psy choanal ystAlfr
edAdl er,formedt heNeo- Fr
eudiandiscipli
ne.
Whi leHor neyacknowl edgedandagr eedwi t
hFr eudonmanyi ssues,shewasal socr it
icalof
hi
m onsev eral keybeliefs.

Likemanywhohel dopposi ngv i

ewswi thFreud,Hor neyfeltthatsexandaggr essionwerenot
thepr imaryconst i
t uentsfordet ermi ni
ngper sonali
ty.Horney ,al ongwi thAdl er,beli
evedthere
wer egr eaterinfluencesonper sonal i
tythroughsoci aloccur rencesdur ingchi l
dhood,rather
thanj ustrepressedsexualpassi ons.Thet wof ocusedmor eonhowt heconsci ousmi ndplays
[13]
ar oleinhumanper sonali
ty,notj ustsubconsci ousregression. Al soFr eud'snotionof"penis
[
14]
env y"inparti
cularwassubj ecttogener alcri
ti
cism byHor ney . Shet houghtFr eudhadmer el
y
stumbl eduponwomen' sjealousyofmen' sgenericpoweri nt hewor l
d.Hor neyaccept edthat
penisenv ymi ghtoccuroccasi onal l
yinneur oti
cwomen,butst atedt hat" wombenv y"occurs
j
ustasmuchi nmen:Hor neyf eltthatmenwer eenviousofawoman' sabi l
it
yt obearchil
dren.
Thedegr eetowhi chmenar edr iventosuccessmaybemer el yasubst it
utef orthefactthat
theycannotcar r
y ,nur t
ureandbearchi l
dren.Horneyal sot houghtt hatmenwer eenv i
ousof
womenbecauset heyf ul
fi
lltheirposi ti
oni nsocietybysi mpl y' being',wher easmenachi eve
theirmanhoodaccor dingtothei rabili
tytoprovideandsucceed

Horneywasbewi l
deredbypsy chiat
ri
st s'tendencyt oplacesomuchemphasi sont hemal e
sexualor gan.Hor neyal sor eworkedt heFr eudianOedipalcompl exoft hesexualelement s,
clai
mingt hatthecl i
ngingt oonepar entandj eal
ousyoft heotherwassimplyther esultof
anxiet
y ,causedbyadi sturbanceinthepar ent-chi
l
dr el
ati
onship.Despit
ethesevari
anceswi th
theprev alentFr eudi
anv i
ew,Hor neyst rovet oreformulateFreudianthought
,present i
nga
holi
sti
c, humani sti
cviewoft heindivi
dualpsy chewhichpl acedmuchemphasi soncult
ur aland
socialdiff
erenceswor ldwide.

Page16of16
2.
6.3 AnnaFr
eud

AnnaFr eud(3December1895–9Oct ober1982)wasanAust r i

an-Br
itishpsychoanal
yst.She
wast he6t handl astchildofSigmundFr eudandMar thaBer nays.Shef oll
owedt hepat
hofher
fatherandcont r
ibutedt othef i
eldofpsy choanal
ysis.Alongsi
deMel anieKlein,shemaybe
consider edthefounderofpsy choanaly ti
cchildpsychology:asherf at
herputi t,chi
ldanalysi
s
"hadr eceivedapower fulimpetust hr
ough' theworkofFr auMel anieKleinandofmydaught er,
AnnaFr eud.'
"Compar edt oherfather,herwor kemphasi zedtheimportanceoft heegoandi t
s
abili
tytobet rai
nedsoci all
y.

I
npar t
icul
ar,AnnaFr eud'sbelieft hat'I
nchi ldr
en'sanal ysi
s,thet ransferenceplaysadifferent
rol
e...andtheanal ystnotonl y" representsmot her"butisstil
lanor i
ginalsecondmot herint he
l
ifeoft hechild'becamesomet hingofor thodoxyov ermuchoft hepsy choanalyti
cwor l
d.For
hernextmaj orwor ki n 1936,her' cl
assi c monogr aph on ego psy chologyand def ense
mechani sms,AnnaFr euddr ew onherowncl i
nicalexperience,butr eli
edonherf ather '
s
writ
ings as t he principaland aut hori
tative source ofhert heor eti
cali nsi
ghts'Here her
'
cataloguing ofr egr ession,r epression,r eaction formation,isol at
ion,undoi ng,proj
ection,
i
ntrojecti
on,turni
ngagai nstthesel f,reversalandsubl i
mat i
on' hel
pedest abli
shtheimportance
oft he ego f uncti
ons and t he conceptofdef ence mechani sms,cont inui
ng the greater
Page17of17
emphasisont heegoofherf at
her–' Weshoul dliketolearnmor eaboutt heego' –dur i
nghis
fi
naldecades.Specialattent i
onwaspai di nittolaterchi
ldhoodandadol escentdev elopments
–'Ihav ealway sbeenmor eat tractedtot helatencyper i
odt hant hepre-
Oedipalphases'–
emphasisinghow t he' i
ncr easedi ntel
l
ectual,scienti
fi
c,andphi losophi
calinterestsoft hi
s
peri
od representattempt satmast eri
ng thedr ives'
.Thepr oblem posed byphy siol
ogical
maturati
onhasbeenst atedf orcefull
ybyAnnaFr eud."Aggressivei mpulsesarei nt
ensi f
iedto
thepointofcompl eteunr uliness,hungerbecomesv or
acity
..
.Ther eacti
on-f
ormat i
ons,whi ch
seemedt obef i
rmlyestablishedi nt hestructur
eoft heego,threatent ofal
ltopieces".

SelmaFr aiberg'stri
buteof1959t hat'Thewr i
tingsofAnnaFr eudonegopsy chol
ogyandher
studi
esi near lychil
ddev el
opmenthav ei l
l
umi natedt hewor l
dofchi ldhoodf orwor ker
sinthe
mostv ari
edpr of
essionsandhav ebeenf ormemyi ntr
oductionandmostv aluableguidespoke
atthatt i
mef ormostofpsy choanalysisoutsidet heKl ei
nianhear t
land.Ar guably,howev er
,it
wasi nAnnaFr eud'sLondony ears'thatshewr otehermostdi stinguishedpsy choanaly
tic
papers–i ncludi
ng" AboutLosingandBei ngLost "
,whi cheveryoneshoul dr eadr egardl
essof
thei
rinterestinpsy choanaly
sis'
.Herdescr ipt
iont hereinof'si
mul t
aneousur gest oremainloyal
tothedeadandt oturntowardsnewt i
eswi ththel i
ving'mayper hapsr ef
lectherownmour ni
ng
processaf terherfather'
srecentdeath.

Focusing thereafter on r esearch,obser vation and t reatmentof chi l

dren,Anna Fr eud
establi
shedagr oupofpr omi nentchi lddevelopment alanalysts(whichincludedErikEr i
kson,
EdithJacobsonandMar gar etMahl er)whonot i
cedt hatchil
dren'ssympt omswer eul t
imately
analoguet oper sonal
itydi sordersamongadul tsandt husof t
enr el
atedt odevelopment al
stages.Herbook Nor malityand Pat hol
ogyi n Chi
ldhood (1965)summar i
sed '
theuseof
developmentallineschartingt heoreticalnormalgr owth"f r
om dependencyt oemot i
onalself-
rel
iance"'
.Throught heset henr evoluti
onaryi deasAnnapr ovideduswi thacompr ehensiv
e
developmentaltheoryandt heconceptofdev elopmentallines,whichcombi nedherf at
her'
s
i
mpor tantdri
vemodelwi thmor erecentobj ectr el
ati
onstheor i
esemphasi zingtheimpor t
ance
ofparentsinchilddevelopmentpr ocesses.

Nevertheless,herbasicloyalt
ytoherf ather'
sworkremainedunimpaired,anditmightindeed
besaidt hat' shedevotedherl ifetopr otecti
ngherfat
her'slegacy.
..Inhertheoret
icalwork
ther
ewoul dbel i
tt
lecr
iti
cism ofhim, andshewoul dmakewhati ssti
llthefi
nestcontr
ibuti
onto
thepsy choanal y
ticunderstanding ofpassi vi
ty'
,orwhatshet ermed 'al
tr
uist
icsur r
ender.
..
excessiveconcer nandanxietyforthelivesofhislov
eobjects'
.

Page18of18
2.
6.4 Er
ichFr
omm

ErichSel igmannFr omm ( March23,1900–Mar ch18,1980)wasaGer manSocial Psychologi

st,
Psy choanal yst,Soci ol
ogist,Humani st
icPhi
losopher ,and Democr ati
c Sociali
st .He was
associ atedwi ththeFr ankfur
tSchoolofCr i
ti
calTheor y.Fromm exami nedthelifeandwor kof
SigmundFr eudatl ength.Heidenti
fi
edadi screpancybet weenearlyandl at
erFreudiant heory
:
namel y,thatpriortoWor ldWarI ,Fr
euddescr ibedhumandr i
vesasat ensi
onbet weendesire
andr epression,butaf t
erthewar'sconclusi
on, hef r
amedhumandr ivesasast rugglebet ween
bi
ol ogicallyuniversalLif
eandDeat h(ErosandThanat os)inst
inct
s.Fromm char gedFr eudand
hi
sf oll
ower swithnev eracknowledgi
ngt hecont radi
cti
onsbetweent hetwot heori
es.

Hedi ffer
enti
ateshistheoryofcharacterfr
om t hatofFr eudbyf ocusingont woway san
i
ndividualrel
atestot hewor l
d.Freud anal
yzed characterint ermsofl i
bido or
ganizati
on,
whereasFr omm saysthatintheprocessofli
ving,wer el
atetot hewor ldby :1)acqui
ri
ngand
assimilat
ingthi
ngs—"Assi
milat
ion"
,and2)reacti
ngt opeople—"Sociali
zation".Fr
omm asser t
ed
thatthesetwoway sofrel
ati
ngt ot
hewor l
dwerenoti nsti
ncti
ve,butani ndivi
dual'
sresponseto

Page19of19
thepecul iarcircumst ancesofhi sorherl ife;heal sobel i
ev edt hatpeopl earenev erexclusi vely
onet ypeofor i
ent ati
on.Theset woway sofr elat i
ngt ol if
e'sci rcumst ancesl eadt obasi c
char acter-ori
ent ations.Hel i
stsf ourt ypesofnon- product ivechar act eror i
ent at i
on,whi chhe
calledRecept ive, Exploitative,Hoar ding,andMar ket i
ng, andoneposi tivechar act eror i
ent ation,
whi ch hecal led Pr oduct i
ve.Recept iveand expl oitati
v eor i
ent ati
onsar ebasi call
yhow an
i
ndi vidualmayr elatet oot herpeopl eandar esoci ali
zationat tri
but esofchar act er.Ahoar ding
ori
ent ationi sanacqui ri
ngandassi mi l
atingmat erials/valuabl eschar act ertrait.Themar keting
ori
ent ationar isesi nr esponset ot hehumansi tuat ioni nthemoder ner a.Thecur rentneedsof
themar ketdet ermi nev alue.Itisar elativ
ist i
cet hic.I ncont rast,thepr oductiveor ientati
oni san
object iv
eet hic.Despi tetheexi st entialstruggl esofhumani ty,eachhumanhast hepot entialf or
l
ov e,r easonandpr oduct ivewor ki nlif
e.Fr omm wr ites,"Itist hepar adoxofhumanexi st ence
thatmanmustsi mul t
aneousl yseekf orcl osenessandf ori ndependence;f oronenesswi th
other sandatt hesamet imef ort hepr eser vationofhi suni quenessandpar ti
cul ar
ity....
the
answert ot hispar adox-andt ot hemor alpr obl emsofman-i spr oductiveness. "Heal so
cri
ticizedFr eud'sdual istict hinking.Accor dingt oFr omm,Fr eudiandescr iptionsofhuman
consci ousness as st r
uggl es bet ween t wo pol es wer e nar row and l i
miting.Fr omm al so
condemnedhi m asami sogy nistunabl et ot hinkout si
det hepat riarchalmi l
ieuofear ly20t h
cent ury Vi enna. Howev er, Fr omm expr essed a gr eat r espect f or Fr eud and hi s
accompl ishment s,i nspiteoft hesecr i
ti
cisms.Fr omm cont endedt hatFr eudwasoneoft he
"architectsoft hemoder nage" ,al ongsideAl ber tEi nsteinandKar lMar x,butemphasi zedt hat
heconsi deredMar xbot hf armor ehi stori
cal lyimpor tantt hanFr eudandaf i
nert hi nker.

Act
ivi
ty Di
scuss t
he great
estcontr
ibut
ion ofSigmund Fr
eud t
othe
di
sci
pli
neofpsy
chologyasi
tisknowntoday?

Feedback/
Hint Anal
yset
heaspectoft
heunconsci
ousmi
nd.

Assi
gnment 1.Def
inet
hef
oll
owi
ngt
erms:
-

a)Psy
chi
cDet
ermi
nism

b)EgoI
deal

c)I
ntr
oject
ion

d)Li
bido

2.Di
scusst
her
oleoft
hedef
ensemechani
smsi
nmai
ntai
ning
Page20of20
 psy
chol
ogi
cal
stabi
l
ityi
nhumans.

3.Discussthelev
elsoft
hemi
ndandt
hei
rrol
esi
nshapi
ng
personal
i
ty.

4.Discuss the aspect of i

ntr
apsy
chi
c conf
li
ct i
n t
he
unconsci
ousmind

Page21of21
 CHAPTERTHREE
THEPSYCHOANALYTICAPPROACHTOPERSONALI
TY
ERIKERI
KSON’SPSYCHOSOCI
ALTHEORY
I
ntr
oduct
ion

I
nthist
opi
cyoushallbeabl
etoi
nter
actwi
thanot
heroneoft
hemosti
nfl
uent
ialschol
arsof
psy
chol
ogy
,Er
ikEr
ikson.

Erikson Hombur gerEri

kson was bor ni n 1902 in Ger
many .Si
nce his mot herhad been
abandonedbyhi sDani shfatherandchi ldr
eni nschoolteasedhim( cal
li
nghi m aJew or
Nor di
c),hesufferedi
dentit
ycr i
sis.Thi
smayhav epropel
ledhimtostudypsy chology,earning
certif
icat
ionfrom Mont essoriandVi enna.Hewasanal ysedbyAnnaFr eudwhosef ather
Sigmund’ sworkshadgr eatinfl
uenceonhi m.DuringtheNaziregi
mehef ledt oAmer i
ca;
practici
ngchil
dpsy choanalysi
sinHav ardandt eachingi
nYaleandBer kel
eyuni versi
ti
es.Hi s
bookChi ldandSocietywaspubl i
shedin1950.Her eti
redi
n1970anddi edin1994.

3.
1 Er
ikEr
ikson’
sVi
ewsonPer
sonal
it
y

Eri
kson i n hi
sv i
ewsdisagreed wit
h Fr
eud wi
thr egar
dt oinfanti
l
esexuali
tyand sexual
expressionandal sodi
sagreedwi t
hhisv i
ewsont heunconscious.Heemphasizedsoci al
developmentandani nt
eracti
onwithpsychol
ogi
caldevel
opment.Hepostulat
edthathumans
developedthroughacomplexprocesswhichhecal
ledpsychosoci
aldevel
opment.Hel ooked
Page22of22
atpsychosoci
alstagesandpsy chosexualdevel
opmentastaki
ngplacehandinhand,and
eachstageofgrowthasfacedwi thachallengeofest
abl
ishi
ngequi
l
ibri
um bet
weenthesel
f
andthesocial
worl
d( Ngar
i,2005).
Eri
ksonpr esent
edat heorywhereev erystageofdev elopmentpresent
sacrisi
s(confl
ict
)ofa
socialand psychologicalnat
ure.The chal l
enge oft he i
ndivi
dualisto solv
et he cri
sis
successfull
yso ast o mov etot henextst age.Thei ndi
vidualhasto adj
ustt o hi
s/her
envi
r onmentinordertosolv
ethecrisis,orotherwisefailt
odoso.
“Inaddi tion,ateachst agethereisaconf l
i
ctwhi chmustber esolvedfordev elopmentt otake
place.Fai l
uret oresolvet heconf l
ictleadst or egression.Er ikson’stheor yi scal ed:ego
l
psy chologybecauseofi tsemphasisont heroleoft heegoi nther esoluti
onofconf li
ctsdur i
ng
thel i
fespan.Thedi ffer
encebet weenFr eudandEr iksoni nt hedef ini
ti
onoft heegoi st hat;
Freudv iewedt heegoast hemedi at
orbet weent hei dandt hesuper egodemands,whi l
e
Eriksonv iewedi tasapower fulindependentconst ructofper sonalit
yt hatwor kstowar ds
establishingone’ sidenti
tyandsat isfyi
nganeedf ormast er yov ertheenv ironment( Burger,
1990) .Thei denti
tythatisestabli
shedbyt heegoi sacompl exi nnerstat et hatprov i
desa
senseofone’ sindi
vidual
ityanduniqueness.Theegoal sopr ovidesasenseofwhol enessand
actsasacont inuum betweenthepastandt hef utureofper sonal devel
opment ”(Ngari,2005).

3.
2Er
ikson’
sSt
agesofPsy
chosoci
alDev
elopment

Accordi
ngt oEriksonthereareei ghtstagesofpsychosoci
aldev el
opmentt hroughwhich
humanper sonal
ityisshaped.Itiscri
ti
calthatoneful
lysucceedsindev elopi
ngdur ingone
stageso ast o successf
ull
yent erthenext .Fai
l
ureinonest agepredictsf ail
ureinthe
subsequentones.Thefoll
owingtableshowsasummar yoftheeightcri
sesov erthelif
espan.

e 1.Er
Tabl ikson’s Devel
opmentSt
ages and Thei
rPsy
chosoci
alI
mpl
icat
ions on t
he
Indi
vidual
St
age(
Age) Psychosoci
al Si
gnif
ican Psychosoci Psychosoci Mal
adaptat
ion
Cri
sis t al alVir
tues s &
Rel
ati
ons Modal it
ies Mal
ignanci
es
I0-
1 Tr
ust Mot
her To get,t
o Hope,
fai
th Sensory
I
nfant v
s. giv
e i
n di
stort
ion,
ret
urn wit
hdrawal
Mi
str
ust
II 2-
3 Autonomy Par
ent
s To hol
don, Wil
l, Impul
sivi
ty,
Toddl
er vs. tol
etgo det
ermi
nat
i compulsi
on

Page23of23
 Shame and on
Doubt
I
II 3-
6 I
nit
iat
ive Fami
l
y Togoaft
er, Purpose, Rut
hlessness,
Pr
eschool
er topl
ay courage i
nhi
biti
on
v
s.
Gui
l
t
I
V 7-
12 I
ndustr
y Neighbour To Compet
enc Narr
ow
School
Age v s.I
nferi
ori
ty hood and compl ete, e vi
rt
uosit
y,
school to make i
nert
ia
thi
ngs
toget
her
V 12-18 EgoIndust
ry Peer To be Fi
del
it
y, Fanati
cism,
Adol
escenc v s. groups, onesel
f,to l
oyal
ty repudi
ation
e rol
e share
RoleConfusi
on models onesel
f
VI20- I
nti
macy Partner
s, Toloseand Lov
e Promiscui
ty,
YoungAdul
t v
s. fr
iends to fi
nd excl
usivi
ty
oneself in
I
sol
ati
on another
VI
ILate20s Gener
ati
vi
ty Househol Tomakebe, Car
e Overext
ensi
on,
-
50s vs. d, totakecar
e r
ejecti
vi
ty
Middl
eAdul
t Sel workmate of
f-
Absorpt
ion s
VII
I50sand I
ntegri
ty Manki
nd To be, Wi
sdom Presumpt
ion,
Beyond vs. or “ my through despai
r
OldAdult ki
nd” hav i
ng
Despai
r been, t o
face not
being
Sour
ceEr
ikson(
1959)
,Ngar
i(2005)
1.I
nfancy
:Tr
ustVsMi
str
ust
Inthefir
sty earoflif
et heinfantrequiresal otofnurtur
ingandcare.Thecr i
sisfacingthe
chil
datt hi
st i
mei swhet herornott ot rustthecaretaker
sofsi gnifi
cantot hers.By
provi
dingcar easwel lasmeet ingphy sicalandemot i
onalneedstheinfantlear
nst ot r
ust.
Thistr
usti scri
ticali
ndev elopmentofi nter
personalbondsandrelat
ions.Iftheneedsar e
unmet,t he infantdev elops mistrustl eading toimpai r
mentoff utur
ei nterpersonal
Page24of24
r
elat
ions.
I
fneeds(e.g.eat
ing,
sleepi
ng,soci
alatt
achment
,sensory-
mot oror
gani
zat
ion)ar
enotwell
metthechi l
dmayr esorttostubbor
nness,t
emper,organical
lybaseddysf
unct
ions,and
f
ail
uret
ot hri
ve(Ngari
,2005)
.
2.Ear
lyChi
l
dhood:Aut
onomyVsShameandDoubt
From thef
irstbi
rthdaytoage3t hechil
di snowmuchmor eawareofhis/herenv
ironment
andisseekingtosecureapl aceinit
,becomei ndependentandautonomous.Thecr isi
sat
thi
stimeistof i
ndthatindependenceoffailt
ofinditwhichwil
lresul
ttoasenseofshame
anddoubt.Explorati
onandexper imentati
onaret hepreoccupati
onduringthisperi
odas
thechil
dtr
iestocont r
oltheenvir
onment .
Ifpar
entsallowindependencetogrow,andmast eryoftasksl
i
ketoil
etingtobeacquired,
thechi
ldgrowst obeautonomous,confident,anddevel
opsasenseofi ndi
v i
dual
i
ty.Fai
l
ure
tobei ndependentorinhibi
ti
onoft hi
sbycar et
akersleadstolow self-est
eem,lackof
confi
dence,andasenseofshameandsel f-doubt.(
Ngari,
2005)
3.Pr
eschoolAge:I
nit
iat
iveVsGui
l
t
Thepreschoolerisnowmuchmor ei
ncontr
oloftheenv ir
onment.He/shehascreat
edfor
himsel
f/her
selfawor l
dofper sonalpl
aythings( t
oys)andhasdev el
opedgoodsocial
skil
l
s.Asenseofi niti
ativ
eiscreepi
ngandthisisacrit
icaldevel
opmentbefor
eoneenters
school
.Thecr i
sisfacingthechil
dther
efor
eiseithertodev el
opini
ti
ati
veorfai
ltodoso
anddevelopfeeli
ngsofgui l
t.
Chil
drenatt hisstageshoul
dbeal l
owedf reedom t oexerci
setheirini
ti
ati
ve,andbe
encouragedtodoso.Thi swi l
lenablethem dev elopposi
tiv
ev i
ewsofsel fandthei
r
i
niti
ati
ves.Ifthi
sisnotencouragedtheywil
ldev elopanegat i
veview ofsel
fandthei
r
i
niti
ati
ves,r
esult
ingtogui
l
t.
4.SchoolAge:I
ndust
ryVsI
nfer
ior
it
y
Theschoolgoi ngchil
dofbetween6y earsand12y earshasagoodsenseofcr eat
ivi
ty.
The experi
ment at
ion ofchil
dhood becomes mor e organi
zed and ofa hi gherlevel.
Creati
vi
tybreedsindustr
yandthecrisi
shereiseit
hert odevel
opindustr
yorf ailtodoso.
Fail
uretodosowi lli
mpactnegati
vel
ybythechil
ddev el
opingasenseofinfer
iority
.
Achi
evement(becomingindust
rious)leadst oagreaterandmor ei
ntegratedview ofthe
worl
d,devel
opmentofsex-rol
eidentit
y ,acqui
sit
ionofbasicski
ll
s,anddev el
opmentofa
posi
ti
vesenseofindustr
y.Fail
uretoachi evegoalsleadstoafeeli
ngofi nadequacyand
i
nfer
ior
it
y;hencenegati
veself-
concept,confusedsex-rol
eident
it
y,confl
i
ctov ervaluesin
l
if
e,andlackofi
ndependence(Ngari,
2005) .
5.Adol
escence:I
dent
it
yVsRol
eConf
usi
on

Page25of25
Adol escencei sat i
meofr ediscoveryand i dentityf ormat i
on.The12 y ear
s-18y ears
i
ndi vidualist ransiti
oningfrom childhoodt oadul t
hood,seeki ngtheirplacei nthefaceof
societ y,reli
gion,mor alit
y,conscience,educat i
on,et c.Ther ei spressur
ef rom signifi
cant
other st obecomeone’ sowni dent i
ty,ber esponsible,findmeani ngi nli
f e,anddev elopa
personall i
fephi losophy/i
deology.Fai luretoachiev et hisleadst oconf usedi denti
tyand
roleconf usion,andl ackofdi recti
oni nl if
e.Thisst agedemandst hatt herebesoci al
struct uresin pl acet o actasgui ding factors.Forexampl e,rit
esofpassage,r it
uals
sy mbol icexper iencesandcer emoni es,andeducat ionalpr ocedures.I
ti st hetransit
ion
from power lesst opower f
ulpersonal i
ty.Therefor
e,st ructurestof aci
li
tat et hi
stransit
ion
areimpor tant.Successi nthisstageleadsonet oli
v ebysoci etalstandards( Ngar i
,2005).
6.YoungAdul
thood:I
nti
macyVsI
sol
ati
on
They oungadultof18-35isst
ruggl
i
ngt ohaveast abl
eintimater
elati
onshi
pwi t
haper son
oft he opposit
esexwho shoul d becomea l if
epar tner.Bydiff
usi he egocent
ng t ri
c
tendenciesofchildhoodandthenarcissi
sti
ctendenciesofadolescent,t
hey oungadult
hasagr eatsenseofshari
ng.Thecrisi
satt hi
stimether ef
orei
st ofindi
ntimacyorr i
sk
i
solati
on.
“Thesuccessoft hi
staskisdependentonoursel f-conceptandsel f-conf idence.Fail
uret o
achieveinti
macyleadst oisol
ati
on,l onelinessandal i
enation.Dev el
opmentofaper sonal
i
ntegrit
yinthepaststageshelpthei ndividualtofacethef earofegol ossi nsi t
uati
onst hat
demandsel fsacri
fi
ce,ther
efore,enabl i
ngonet ogobey ondper sonalint ereststocommon
good.Att hi
sstage,Eri
ksonst at
edt hatonei sabletodev elopabal ancebet weenthesel f
andot hers.Asonedev opsaf
el fil
i
at iv
e,whi chmeans,compl ement arit
y ”(Ngari
,2005) .
“They oungadultfi
ndsapar t
nerwi t
hwhom t oshareent husiasti
copi nionsandscat hing
j
udgment sandwi thwhom t oestablishanendur i
ngaf f
ili
ati
onpr omi singapr oducti
veand
procreati
veli
fe”(Monte,1995p.291) .Onebecomesal over,af r
iend,andaco- part
icipant
i
nsoci ety
.
7.Mi
ddl
eAge:Gener
ati
vi
tyVsSt
agnat
ion
Inmiddl eadulthood,onehast odevelopasenseofcr eat i
vit
ythatextendsbey ondthatof
theself.Thisincludesconcer
nandregar dforot her
s,wor k,andthecommuni ty.Duri
ngthis
stagether eoccur swhatpsychol
ogistscall‘midli
fecri
sis’,whenani ndiv
idualr eapprai
ses
whathe/ shehasdonewi thli
feandmayr e-eval
uateone’scar eerandmar riage.Womenat
thisti
meexper iencemenopausewi t
ht r
emendousphy si calandpsy chologicalchanges.
Men’smi d-l
i
fecr isi
ssetslat
erthant hatofwomenandt houghthereisnomenopause,
theyalsoexper iencerapi
dpsychol
ogicalchanges.
Betweenages35and60,t heindi
vi
dualappr
aiseshisachievement
swithregardtohis
product
ivi
tyt
ohimsel
f,car
eer,fami
lyandsociety
.I ftheydonotadjustproper
ly,t
hey
rever
ttothei
ryout
hst
age.Menar emoreofthest age’
svict
ims;t
heyabandonthei
rlong

Page26of26
suf
fer
ingspouses,
buyy
out
hful
clot
hesanddenyt
hei
rage(
Ngar
i,2005)
.
“Thisisat imeofr eflecti
on,consideringt hegapbet weenone’ sdreamsandachi ev ement s.
Thet endencyi st hecapaci t
yt o gi veonesel ft ot hef uture.Er i
kson choset het erm
generativi
tyatt hisst agetosignifyt heego’ sabi li
tyt ot r
anscendt hei mmedi ateper sonal
i
nterestsi nf avouroft hef ut
ur egener at i
ons( Mont e,1995) .Er ikson( 1950)cal ledt he
ri
tuali
zation ort he act i
onsoft hisst ageas par enting,t eachi ng and cur ati
v e.I ft he
knowledgei ssat isfactory,onei sf acedwi thamot ivationt obeev enmor epr oduct i
v e.
Howev eri ft heper soni sunabl etof indv alueandabi l
ityt ogui dingandai dingt hef uture
generation,i twi l
lresul ttopsy chologicalstagnat ionandpsy chologicaldeat h.St agnat ion
i
ssel fabsor pti
onandcar i
ngf ornoone.I t
sopposi t
eext remei sov erext
ensi onwhi ch
meanst hatonehasnot i
mef orhi msel fandhol dst oomanyj obs t hathecannotdoany
well(Boer ee, 1997) .Thi sbri
ngsaboutanunsat isfy i
ngl i
febecauseofl ackofr elev ancet o
theper son’ sabi l
ityt odi f
fuset hesenseofwhoam I( Erikson,1950) .Youcani dent i
fya
fewpeopl ewhoatt hisstageov erextendt heircapaci ti
esandt otall
yf orgett hemsel vesand
thei
rfami lies, somet i
mesl eadingt omar italorprof essional cr i
sis”(Ngar i,
2005) .

8.Lat
erLi
fe:I
ntegr
it
yVsDespai
r
Duri
ngt hesunsetyears(60andbeyond),t
heindiv
idualr
eal
izest
heyar
ecomingtotheend
oftheirli
fe.Onereapprai
sesthei
rpastli
fetoseet heachi
evement
sandthefai
l
ures.The
cri
sisist odevelopintegri
tyifonefindssatisf
acti
on,ordevel
opdespai
rifonef i
nds
regr
ets.
“Thosewhohav ef ewr egretsar esat i
sfiedwi ththewayt heyhav elived, f
eeltheyhav ehad
wor t
hwhi l
el i
ves, havecopedwi tht heirachi evement sandf ail
ures,anddev elopasenseof
i
ntegr i
tyknownasegoi ntegrity.Thosewhof ailt
oachi evet hi
segoi nt egrit
yr ever ttogui l
t,
despai r
, hopel essness, resent ment ,self-
rejecti
onandsel f-disgust.Thi stime, deat hseems
tobecl osert hanbef ore.Accept anceofdeat hiswhatEr i
ksoncal edwi
l sdom.Thest agei s
character i
z edbyf earf ort hosewhodespai r,theyar eov er-
concer nedbypr ostrateor
breastcancer s,diabetes,hear tdisease,andgener alweakeni ngoft heirbodi es.I ffriends
dieoraspousedi es,thenonef eel sthathei sthenextv i
ctim, hencef eelingsofdespai r.I
f
onel ooksatt hepastandf indshemader i
ghtdeci si
ons,andf indsthel i
fehehasl ivedas
necessar y,thenhedoesnotneedt of eardeat h”(Ngar i,2005) .Inl ateradul thoodand
towar dst heendofl if
e,t hei ndividualhadcomet ot er
mswi thhis/herownl i
fe,acceptf or
whati tis, withasenseofi ntegr i
tyr athert handespai r
.Er i
ksonsumsupt hisr eckoning“i t
i
st heaccept anceofone’ sownandonl yl if
ecy cl
eassomet hingt hathadt obeandt hatby
necessit y,per mittedofnosubst itutes………. .
healt
hychi l
dr enwi llnotf earlif
ei ft heirelders
havei ntegr i
tyenoughnott of eardeat h”.[ Eri
kson,1963, pp.268- 269].

“
Aft
erEr
ikson’
sdeat
h,hi
swi
dow Joanext
endedt
hedev
elopment
alst
agest
oni
ne.She
Page27of27
 cal
ledtheni
nthstagegerotranscedence.Thisstageoccurst owardstheendofl i
feand
i
nvolvesafundamentalshif
tf r
om mat eri
ali
sm andr ati
onalthinki
ngandexper i
enceto
assumingagreat
erwhole,acosmi cuni
on,andasenseofconsci ousnessoutsi
despace
andtime.Thiscanbet ranslat
edi ntoamet aphysicaloutl
ookt othehumanr aceand
cul
tur
eandfindi
ngacommonor i
gin,pur
pose,andfinal
it
yinli
fe”(Ngari
,2005)
.

Fi
gur
e5:SameWor
ldDi
ff
erentCr
ises

Act
ivi
ty Discuss t
he sali
entdif
ferencesbetweenEr
ik Er
ikson’
svi
ews on
personal
i
tyandthoseofSigmundFr eud.

Feedback/
Hint Anal
yset
hest
agesofdev
elopment
.

Assi
gnment 1. Def
inet
hef
oll
owi
ngt
erms:
-

a)Cr
isi
s

b)Gener
ati
vi
ty

c)I
sol
ati
on

2. Di
scusst
her
oleofmi
dli
fecr
isi
sinshapi
ngadul
tli
fe.

3. Di
scusshowi
ndi
vi
dual
sfacedeat
hdur
ingl
ateadul
thood.

Page28of28
 CHAPTERFOUR
THEPSYCHOANALYTI
CAPPROACHTOPERSONALI TYALFREDADLER’
S
THEORYOFINDI
VIDUALPSYCHOLOGY
Int
roduct
ion
I
nt hi
stopicyoushal
lbeabl
etoi
nter
actwi
thanot
heroneoft
hemosti
nfl
uent
ialschol
arsof
psychol
ogy,Al
fr
edAdler
.

Alfr
edW.Adl erwasbor ni n1870i nVi enna.Hewasasi cklychi
ldfr om rickets,glott
is,and
pneumoni a.Hewast wicer anov eront hestreetst oo.Despi tephy sicalweaknesshewas
successfulineducation,graduatingwi thadegr eeinmedi cinef r
om ViennaMedi calSchool.He
wasast r
ongdef enderofFr eud’
st heor i
esandhewor kedasanar mydoct ordur i
ngWWI .He
helpedsetupchi ldclini
csf orfami l
ycounsel l
inginVi enna.Amonghi spubl i
cationswer e;The
practi
ceandTheor yofIndividualPsy chology(1927) Under
, standingHumanNat ure(1927),The
ScienceofLi vi
ng( 1929) ,TheEducat ionofChi ldren( 1930) ,WhatLi feShoul dMeant oYou
(1931),andSocialInterest:AChal lenget oManki nd(1931) .Hel ect
uredi nEur opeandAmer i
ca
anddur i
ngonel ecturi
ngt ourhedi edofhear tattackinAber deenScot l
and, i
nMay1937.
Page29of29
 4.
1 Al
fr
edAdl
er’
sVi
ewsonPer
sonal
it
y

Adlerwasaneo- Freudianpsy chologistwhoal soconsi der edFr eud’stheoryonsexualneedst o

bemi splaced.Hedef i
nedhumanbehav i
ouraspr imar i
lymot i
vatedbysoci alur ges,sinceman
i
si nher ent lyasoci albei ng.Soci alinterestaccor dingt oAdl erisnotmer elycul ti
vatedby
socializat i
onandi nteract i
on,buti tisr atherinbor n.Thecr eati
v eselfofahumanbei ngi sa
highlyper sonal i
zedsubj ect i
vesy stem whi chinterpr etsandmakesmeani ngt otheex per i
ences
oftheor gani sm.Hepr oposedt hatt hepr imaryhumanmot i
vationwasst rivingf orsuper i
or i
ty
(noti nt ermsofsuper iorit
yov erot hers)butasawayt oachi evesel fi mpr ovementand
perfect i
on.Heusedt het ermi nfer i
ori
tycompl ext odescr i
becasesi nwhi chadul t
shav enot
beenabl et oov ercomet hef eelingsofi nferi
orit
yt heydev elopedaschi l
dr enwhent heywer e
smal landl imi t
edi nthei rknowl edgeaboutt hewor ld.Accor dingt oAdler
,indiv i
dualpsy chology
i
sanat temptt ounder standt heexper iencesandbehav iourofeachi ndi
vi
dualasanor ganised
entit
y .Eachper sonhasaf undament alat t
it
udet ol ife,whi chgov ernshi sbehav iour.Ev ery
i
ndiv i
dualact sinaccor dancewi thhis/ herstrugglef orper fect i
on.Inhist eleologicalposi ti
on,
Adlerpost ulatedt hatcur rentact ionsar edirectedbyf uturegoal sofper fection( Patterson,
1978) .Al lpeopl ear ef aced wi thf eelingsofi nferiority,and hencehav eadr i
v etowar ds
maxi mi singt heirpot ential andr educingt heiri
nferior i
ty( Ngar i,2005).
Earlysocialrel
ati
onshipswi t
hpar entshav eani mpor tanteffectonhow chi l
drenareablet o
outgrowfeelingsofpersonalinfer
iori
ty, andi
nsteador ientthemselvestowardsattai
ningmor e
social
lyusefulgoal
ssuchasi mprovingt hesociet
y .ThereforeAdler’
sconceptoftheselfasan
i
mpor tantcauseofbehav i
ourisav er ysigni
fi
cant.Hi stheoryleadsust otheconclusionthat
personali
tyisdeterminedneitherbyt heenv i
ronmenti namechani calwaynorbyher edity
.He
al
soconsi deredeachper sonasauni queconfigurati
onofmot ives;t
rai
ts,
int
erestsandv al
ues.
Everyactperformedbyt hepersonbear sthestampofhi sowndi sti
ncti
vesty
leoflif
e.

Heal sodevel
opedt heideaofconsci ousness i
.e.apersoni saconsci ousbeingandi s
ordinaril
yawar
eoft hereasonsf orhi
s/herbehavi
ours.Heisconsciousofhi sinf
eri
orit
yand
consci ousoft
hegoal sforwhichhest ri
vesi.
e.forsuperi
ori
ty,andcapableofplanningand
guidinghisact
ionswithf
ullawarenessofthei
rmeaningforhisownselfreal
i
zation.

4.2 St yleofLif
eandBi r
thOr der
“Styl
eoflifeist heuni
quewayi nwhi chani ndi
v i
dualisconcer nedov erhisinferi
orit
yand
pursueshisgoals.Asareacti
ont oinf
erior
it
ies,t
hesest y
lesaref ormedatear l
ychildhoodand
l
aterexperiences ar
eincorporated graduall
y.Healthyl i
fest
yles propela person t owar
ds
posit
iveadapti
veandmeani ngfulgoal
si nli
fe.Adlercoi
nedt heconceptcr eat
iveselfdenoti
ng
thatwecreateourownper sonali
ti
es,fr
om ourher edit
yandexper i
ences;ther
efore,wear et
he
Page30of30
architectsofourowndest inies( Pat terson,1978)andmaker sofourownl i
f est yles.I fthe
creative sel fi s mi sdirected,t hen a per son dev elops a mi st aken l if
est y
let hatl eads t o
mal adapt ivesoci allif
eandr elationshi psaswel lasf eel
ingsofi nf eriori
ty.Adleri ntr oducedt he
birt
hor deref f
ecti nwhi chhepost ulatedt hateachchi l
dr ecei vesuni quepar ent alt reat ment
accor dingt ot heirposi ti
onofbi rt
h.Thef i
rstbor nr eceiv
est ot alat tentionbef oreot hersi bli
ngs
come.When ot hersi bli
ngs come,t he f ir
stbor n becomes t he det hroned monar ch.I f
prepar ationf orthecomi ngoft hesi blingswaspoor ,thechi l
dr esent sthesi bli
ngsandi shost il
e
tothem ( Patterson,1978,Gl eitman,1986) .Howev erift hepr epar ati
onwasappr opr iate,the
chil
df eelsr esponsibl et otakecar eoft hesi bli
ngsandbecomessuppor tiveandpr ot ectiveto
them.Thesecondchi l
dv i
ewst heol dersi blingasacompet it
ort obeov ercome.I ft hesi bl i
ngis
suppor t
ive, t
hechi lddev el
opsposi tively, i
sheal thyandexcel s.Howev erifthesi blingi shost i
le,
thechi ldmaysetunr ealisti
cgoal stocount erthehost i
li
tyandev ent uall
ybecomeneur otic.The
l
astbor ni sspoi ltandpamper ed,al way shav ingt hef ami l
y’sat tent i
on.Suchachi l
di sal ways
dependentonot hersandcannotsucceedonhi s/herown.Thepamper edchi ldexpect sto
receivewi thoutgi v
ing, andexpectt hepeopl etoconf ormt ot heirsel fcent eredwayofl i
fe( Hall
andLi ndzey ,1985,p.155) .Theonl ychi ldofaf ami l
yhasnocompet i
torsorr ivals.I ft hebi r
th
waswel come,t hechi ldi sthecent r eofat tenti
on,i spamper edespeci allybyt hemot her ,and
developswel l
.Howev erift hebi rthwasunwel come,t herei sr ejectionandnegl ect,whi ch
i
mpact snegat i
velyont hel ateri nterper sonalr elati
ons.Adl eral soi ndicatedt hatspaci ngand
genderofchi l
drenacti nt
eract ivel
ywi thbi rthor dert odet ermi net hegr owt hoft hechi ldr
en”
(Ngar i
, 2005) .
“Accordi
ngt oAdler
,indiv
idual
swhof eelacutel
yinferi
orarethosewhohav esetunreali
stic
goalsinanattempttoexertsuper
iori
tyoverotherpeople.Thi
siswhatleadstoneurosi
s, whi
ch
i
sa si tuat
ion where one exper
iencesv ar
iousdistressi
ng symptoms,like di
ssati
sfacti
on,
helpl
essness,ort
roubl
esomet houghts.
4.
3 Adl
eri
anPer
sonal
it
yCl
asses
Hegav
efourbr
oadcl
assesofper
sonal
i
ty,
inabi
dtodi
sti
ngui
shheal
thyandunheal
thyt
ypes.
 Therul
ingty
pe–theselacksoci
alint
erestandcour
age.Theyexploi
tot
her
sandwantt o
exer
tauthor
it
yandfor
cefulcont
roloverthem.Theyhavenor espectf
orotherpeopl
e’
s
feel
i
ngs.
 Theget t
ingty
pe-Arepassi
vepeopl
eandmakenoef
for
ttosolvethei
rownproblems.
Inst
ead,theywantot
hersto dothi
ngsf
ort
hem.Thi
smayr esul
tf r
om pamper
ingat
chil
dhood.
 Theavoidi
ngt
ype–Theyl
ackconf
idencet
osol
vet
hei
rownpr
obl
ems.Theyi
nst
eadt
ryt
o
avoi
dthem.
 Thesocial
lyusef
ulty
pe–Theyarepsychologi
cal
l
yhealthy
,hav
inggrownupi nsuppor
ti
ve
andhelpfulfami
li
es.Theyar
erespectf
ul,aff
ecti
onat
eandf ri
endl
y( Pat
ter
son,1978&
Page31of31
 Gl
eit
man1986)
”(Ngar
i,2005)
.
“Adl
eremphasi sedsoci
etyastheenvir
onmentinwhichev eryindiv
idualgr
ows.Helooksatthe
soci
etyascompet i
ti
veandpower-or
ient
ed.I
nviewoft his,everypersongrowsandisori
ented
towardscompet ingandwinning.Thereisal
soani nternalcompet i
ti
oninwhichindi
vi
duals
motiv
atet hemselvestoperf
orm beyondprevi
ouslevels,andf indsoluti
onstoallpr
oblems”
(Ngar
i,2005).
Hisvi
ewpoi ntcant heref orebesummedi nt hefollowingpoi nts:
Fi
cti
onalfinal i
sm:-I deal i
sm andunr eal i
sti
cobj ectives.
i
.) St rivingf orsuper iority:-Wi lltopowerandaggr essi
vedr ive.
i
i
.) I nferiorityf eel ingsandcompensat ion:-compensat i
ng( salvaging)weakor ganswi th
othert alent s.E. g.Roosev eltwasaweakl i
ngi nhi sy out handdev el
opedhi msel fby
exer cisei ntoaphy sicallyst alwartman.A humanbei ngi spushedbyt heneedt o
over comei nf eriorityandpul l
edbydr ivetobesuper i
or.
ii
i
.) Soci alint erest :-Asanadv ocat eofsoci aljusticeanddemocr acy ,Adlerdev elopedt he
conceptof soci ali nterest .E. g.Cooper ati
on,i nterpersonaland soci alr elations,
ident i
ficationwi t
hgr oup,hav i
ngempat hy,et c.Ini tsul ti
mat esense,soci ali nterest
consi sts oft he i ndiv i
dualhel pi
ng soci etyt o attaint he goalofa per fectsoci ety,
Subor dinat ingpr i
v ategai nt opubl i
cwel fare.E. g.Cooper ationdev elopsfrom i nteraction
betweeni nf antandmot her ,i
nt oanet wor kofr elati
onst hatshapet hepersonal it
y .
iv
.) St yleofl ife:-Thi si st hepr inciplebywhi cht heindiv i
dualper sonal i
tyfunct ions,t he
whol et hatcommandst hepar ts.Itexplainst heuniquenessoft heper son.Ev eryonehas
ast y l
et hati snotr epl i
cat edbyanot her.Thi si sAdler’
schi efidiogr aphi
cpr inciplet hat
eachper sonper cei ves,lear nsandr et
ainswhatf i
tshi s/herst yleofl i
feandi gnor es
every thingel se.
v
.) Cr eat ivesel f:-I tist hepr imemov erandt heuni tar
y,consi stentsov erei
gninper sonal it
y
struct ure.I tgi vesmeani ngt ol i
fe,createst hegoalaswel last hemeanst othegoal .Itis
thepr i
ncipl eofhumanl i
fe.

Act
ivi
ty Discussthesal
i
entdif
fer
encesbetweenAl
fr
edAdl
er’
svi
ewson
personal
i
tyandt
hoseofSi
gmundFreud.

Feedback/
Hint Anal
yset
hest
agesofdev
elopment
.

Assi
gnment 1. Def
inet
hef
oll
owi
ngt
erms:
-

a)I
nfer
ior
it
y
Page32of32
 b)Bi
rt
hOr
der

c)Cr
eat
iveSel
f

2. Di
scusst
her
oleofbi
rt
hor
deri
nshapi
ngadul
tli
fe.

Page33of33
 CHAPTERFI
VE
THEBEHAVI
OURALAPPROACHTOPERSONALI
TY
I
VANPAVLOV’SCLASSI
CALCONDI
TIONI
NG
I
ntr
oduct
ion

I
nt hi
stopicweshal lchangegearf r
om Psy choanalyti
cAppr oachtoBehav iouralAppr oach.
Thefoundati
onalprinci
pleunderl
yingtheBehav iouralApproachisthatbehaviourcomesf rom
l
earni
ng.Accordingtooneoft heleadingbehaviourali
stsJohnLocke, wearebor nwi t
habl ank
mind t
abularasa,thenwekeepl earni
ngal lthatweknow.Behav i
ourali
stsbelievet hatall
behavi
ourcanbel earned,unl
earned,andrelearned.Theenv ir
onmenti stothebehav ioural
ists
themostimportantaspectofpersonalit
ybecausei tprovi
desopportunit
iesforlearni
ng.

“Thebehav i
ouralper
spectiveisdeepl yr ootedi nexper i
ment alpsychology.I
tsmai ngoali sthe
controlandpr edi
cti
onofbehav iour.Itstat est heobser v
ablefactt hatorganisms( human
beingsandani mals)adjusttot heirsituati
onsandenv i
ronmentsbymeansofher edi
taryand
habitformat i
on.Habitformationi smai ntai
nedbyt hestimuliwhicht heorgani
sm r espondst o
atdifferentsit
uati
onsofi tsexistence.Amongt heproponent soft hi
sperspecti
vear eWi lhel
m
Wundt ,IvanPav l
ov,JohnWat son, B.F.Skinner ,andAl bertBandura.Theirvi
ewist hatlear ni
ng
andi t
spr ocesseswithintheenv ir
onmentcr i
ticall
yaffectsthewaywet hi
nkandact .Theyal so
view thesituati
onasmor ei mpor tantthant heper soni ndetermininghumanbehav i
our( Hall
andLi nzdey,1985)”(Ngari
,2005) .

Page34of34
IvanPet rovichPav lovwasbor ni nRussiaonSept ember14,1849. Heat t
endedaschoolof
physiologyspeci ali
zingi
nt hehear tandreflexesandf oundt hattherei sabasicpat t
er ninthe
refl
exr egulationoftheactivit
yoft hecir
culat or
ysy stem.Her eceivedhisDoctoratein1883.I n
1897,hewr ot eapaperonThef uncti
onoft hePr incipalDi gest i
veGl ands.Wit
ht hisandot her
researchwor k,hebegant hesci enceofcondi t
ionedr ef l
exes.Heext endedt hi
sst udyov erthe
yearsl eading t o emphasi s on t he int
er rel
ation bet ween or ganisms and t he ext er
nal
environment .I n1903,hewr oteandpr esent edapapert it
led,Exper i
mentalpsy chologyand
psychopat hologyofani mal s.In1921,Leni nacknowl edgedPav l
ov ’
swor kasusef ultot he
wor ki
ngcl assoft hewholewor ld.Pavlovdi
edonFebr uar y27, 1936.

5.
1Iv
anPav
lov
’sExper
iment

Page35of35
Pav lovhavingcomef rom t hebehav i
our ali
stpointofv iewwasi nterestedi nstudy i
ngbehav i
our
form a sci entifi
c appr oach;t hus he concent rat
ed on behav i
ourt hati s obser vable and
measur able.Hi smostf amousexper i
menti nvolv
edadogandt heobject i
vewast oest abl i
sha
connect i
onbet weenast imul usandar esponse.Accor di ngt oNgar i(2005) ,Pav l
ovhel dt he
viewt hatuncondi ti
onedr eflexesar einbor n,andar eeli
ci tedbyuncondi tionedst i
mul i.Howev er
,
bot hsti
mul iandr efl
exescanbemodi fi
edandi mplantedi nt hemi ndt hroughaf orm ofl earning
calledcondi t
ioning.Indogs,sal ivat
ingi sanuncondi ti
onedr esponse( UCR)whi chist ri
gger ed
byt hesightoff ood, theuncondi t
ionedst i
mulus( UCS)( Gleitman1986) .Pav l
ovmadei tahabi t
tor ingabel lbeforegi vingf oodt othedog.Wi thtime,henot icedt hatev erytimeher angt he
bell,thedogsal ivatedev eni fnof oodwasmadeav ailable.Thi s,accor dingt oPav lovwas
becauset hedoghadf ormedanassoci ationinitsmi nd, bet weent hebel landf ood.Ther inging
oft hebellbecamet hecondi tionedst imul us(CS) ,whichel icitssalivati
on, nowt hecondi ti
oned
response ( CR)( Pav lov1927) .Thi ski nd ofl earning i scal led classicalcondi t
ioning.The
strengthoft hislearningl ieswi thinthef requencyofpai ringt heCSandt heUCS.Thepai ringis
saidt orei
nforcet heconnect ion, whil
enon- pairi
ngreducest heconnect ion( Glei
tman1986) .
IftheCSi sr epeatedl
ypresentedwithoutt heUCS,t hecondi t
ioningundergoesexper iment al
exti
nction,i
nwhi chcaseitisunlear
ned.Iflaterthepr esentati
onoft heCSisr epeatedlypaired
totheUCS,t heext i
ngui
shedresponsecanber ejuv enated.Thisisknownasr econdit
ioning.In
somecases,t hedogmayr espondt oast imul uswhi chr esemblest heCS,f orexampl e,the
master’sv oice.Thi srenderst heconditi
oning i nef f
ectiv
e,and t hisisknown as st i
mul us
generalisat
ion (Gleit
man,1986) .Theopposi t
esi tuationi nwhi chthedogcandi stinguish
dif
ferentstimul i
isknownasdi scri
minati
on( Ngar i,2005) .

Fi
gur
e6:
Pav
lov
’sExper
iment

5.
2Concept
sofLear
ningbyCl
assi
calCondi
ti
oni
ng

Page36of36
Acqui siti
on–eachpai redpr esentati
onoft heCSandt heUCSi scalledat rial
.Aper ioddur i
ng
whi cht heor ganism i
sl ear ni
ngassoci ationbet weent heCSandt heUCSi scalledacqui si
ti
on
stage.
Inhibit
ion–t hisisani nterf erencewi t
ht helearningpr ocess.
Extinction–i ftheUCSi semi ttedrepeatedlywi thonr ei
nforcement ,thecondi t
ionedr esponse
gradual lydiminishes.Thef actthatar esponsei sl earneddoesnotmeani twi l
lalway sremain
strong.
Spont aneousRecover y– i sther eappearanceoft heCRwi thoutfurthert r
aining,foll
owing
extinctionandr est.
Stimul usGener ali
zati
on–af teraper sonhasr eceivedcondi ti
oning,his/herresponset othe
sti
mul ust owhi chhe/ shehasbeent rai
nedbecomesat tachedt osimi l
arstimulie.g.t hebaby
stopscr yi
ngwhenhe/ shehear st hemot her’
sf ootsteps,butal sowhenhe/ shehear sf ootst
eps
ofot hermember softhef ami ly.

5.
3Iv
anPav
lov
’sVi
ewsonPer
sonal
it
y

Iv
anPav lov’
stheorydoesnotfocusonpersonal
ityformat
ionbutrat
heronhow behavi
ouri
s
acqui
red.Howev erthi
siscri
ti
calbecausepersonali
tyisaboutbehavi
our
.Ourlearni
nghas
cri
ti
calresul
tswhichareembeddedinourpersonali
ty.I
nmanyinst
ancesyouwil
lhearpeopl
e
saysucht hi
ngsas:
1.Hebehav
esl
i
keahi
ghl
yeducat
edper
son.
2.Hecar
ri
eshi
msel
fli
keami
l
itar
yman.
3.Shel
ooksmar
ri
ed
4.Shespeakswi
thsophi
sti
cat
ion
Theseobservati
onsarebehav
iouralbutmor ecr
it
ical
lyt
heyareal
laspect
sthatar
elearned.
Thuslearni
ngisnotoutsi
depersonalit
ysincemanyl ear
nedbehav
iour
sbecomeengrai
nedin
ourpersonal
it
yandbecometheper sonali
ty.
Pavlov(1927)i
ndicatedthatneur osi
sandpsy chosi
scandev el
opf r
om power f
ulsti
muli
.For
example;asti
mulust hatposesadangert oourl i
ves.Thesti
mulusaff
ectsthenervoussy
stem,
andt hedegreeoft hiseffectisdeterminedbyt heimpactoftheseeventsonourner vous
syst
em.Wecant henabsor btheshockwi thoutseri
ousconsequences,oritcanhavedeeper
eff
ectsleadi
ngtopsy chopathology(Ngar
i,2005).

Act
ivi
ty Descr
ibeandi
nter
pretI
vanPav
lov
’sexper
iment
.

Page37of37
Feedback/
Hint Seehowcondi
ti
oni
ngi
ffor
med.

Assi
gnment 1.Def
inet
hef
oll
owi
ngt
erms:
-

a)Lear
ning

b)Ext
inct
ion

c)Recondi
ti
oni
ng

d)St
imul
usGener
ali
zat
ion

2.Discusstheappl
i
cat
ionofCl
assi
calCondi
ti
oni
ngt
ohuman
personal
i
ty.

Page38of38
 CHAPTERSIX
THEBEHAVI
OURALAPPROACHTOPERSONALI
TY
B.
F.SKI
NNER’
SINSTRUMENTAL/
OPERANTCONDI
TIONI
NG

Int
roducti
on
Inthi
st opi
cweshalll
earntheviewsofanothergreatbehavi
oural
istB.
F.Ski
nner
.Weshal
l
conti
nuetoexpl
orel
ear
ningbycondit
ioni
ngaspost
ulatedbythi
stheori
st.

Burr
husFr edericSkinnerwasbor ni nPennsyl
vani
a,U. S.Ain1904.Hegr ew upinawar m
envi
ronmentwher eheplayedwithtoys,becomi
ngav erycreati
vechil
d.HestudiedEngli
shat
HamiltonCollegeinNew Yor kandlaterbecameawr i
ter.Hehowev erchangedhismi ndand
enr
olledtost udypsy chol
ogyatHar var
d.Thewor ksof I vanPavlov,JamesWat son,and
Edwar dThorndikewereofgreati
nterestt
ohim,shapinghimi ntoal
eadingbehaviour
ali
st.
Hegr aduatedwithPhDatHar var
di n1931andbeganacar eeri
nr esearch.Helatertaughtat
Universi
tyofMinnesot
aandatHar vard.Hiswrit
tenworksi udeTheBehav
ncl i
ourofOr gani
sms,
fol
lowed by anov elWaldenTwo ( 1948),Scienceand HumanBehav i
our(1953) ,Verbal
Behaviour ( ,Schedul
1957) es of Rei nf
orcement (
1957),Cumul ativ
e Recor d( 1961),The
TechnologyofTeaching(
1968),Contingenci
esofRei nforcement(1969),Parti
cul
arsofMyl if
e
(1976),Refl
ecti
onsonBehaviouri
sm andSoci et
y(1978),TheShapingofaBehav i
ourist(1979),
Page39of39
AMat
terofConsequences(
1983)
,Enj
oyOl
dAge(
1983)
,andUponFur
therRef
lect
ions(
1987)
.
Ski
nnerwasawardedaCi t
ati
onforOutst
andi
ngLifeti
meContr
ibut
iontoPsy chol
ogybyt he
Ameri
canPsychol
ogi
calAssoci
ati
on.HediedofLeukaemi
ainCambr i
dge,Massachuset
ts,on
t
h
18 August1990(
Ngari
,2005).

6.
1 B.
F.Ski
nner
’sExper
iment

Skinnerdiffer
ed wi t
hFr eud inhi spost ulated thatbehav i
ourwasi nt
ernall
ycont r
oll
ed by
unconsciousf or
ces.He( Skinner)believedt hathumanswer econt rol
l
edbyv ol
untar
yand
externaldri
ves.Hedi ffer
edwi thPav l
ov ’
sasser ti
ononr esponsebeingar eflex,emphasizi
ng
thathumansr espondv ol
untari
l
yandbyr esisti
ngcont rolbysituati
ons.Thushumansar eina
constantstruggl
eov erthi
scont rol
,whi chSki nnercaledf
l reewi l
lvs.determinism.Humans
engagei nbehaviourafterconsideri
ngitsconsequences; theconsequencesofbehav iourarea
determinantofi ts occurrence (Ngari
,2005) .Skinnerpoi nt
soutt he consequences ofa
behav i
ourasaf orcefuldetermi
nantofi tsoccur r
ence.Theassoci ati
onbetweenbehav i
ourand
i
tsconsequencehecal ledconditi
oning(Pat terson1978) .

Theappar atusforoperantcondi
ti
oningusedbySkinnerconsi
stsofasmal lsoundproofbox
containi
ngasmal llever,afoodcap,andali
ght
.Thet askoftheanimalintheboxistopress
theleverinordertoobt ai
nthefood.Theappar
atusissoarrangedthateveryt
imetheanimal
pressesthelever,
itreceiv
essomer ewar
dsuchasfood.Theappearanceoffoodthusdepends
ont heresponseoftheani mal
.

Fi
gur
e7:Oper
antChamber
sforSki
nner
’sExper
iment
Page40of40
 6.
2 TheConceptofLear
ningbyOper
ant
/Inst
rument
alCondi
ti
oni
ng

Ther esponseofanor ganism isemi tt

edf r
om wi t
hint heor ganism.Theser esponsescalled
operantsbySki nnerarev oluntary
.Accor di
ngtoNgar i(20050,Posi t
ivereinf
orcementi sthe
mosti nfluent
ialproceduret hrough which behaviouri slearned.Posi ti
vereinf
orcementi s
anyt
hingt hati
ncreasesthepr obabili
tyofaresponse, asar esultofwishingtohav esomething
‘
good’,occurf oll
owingar esponse( i.
e.ar eward).Negat i
ver einf
orcementi sany t
hingthat
i
ncreasest heprobabil
it
yofar esponseasar esultofav oi
dingsomet hing‘bad’
,iftheresponse
i
somi t
ted.Negati
vereinfor
cer sarealsoknownasav ersiv
est i
mul i(
Mont e1995,p.717).
“Cl
oselyr elatedt or einfor cementi st heconceptofpuni shment ,whichist heappl i
cationofa
pai
nful,av ersivest imul usasaconsequencet oar esponse,wi ththeaim ofdecr easingthat
part
icularresponse.I ncr easei nreinforcementandwi thdrawalofpuni shmentl eadst olearning,
whil
er emov alofr einfor cementandi ncreasei npuni shmentl eadsto extincti
on.Al though
i
nstrument alr esponsei sel i
cit
edf rom wi thin,externalst imulieli
citsomecont r
olinbehav i
our,
and ser veas di scriminat i
vest i
mul i( Gleitman,1986) .I n ordert oincrease learning,itis
somet i
mes notnecessar yt o wai tunt ilthe cor r
ectr esponse occur s so as t o appl y
rei
nforcement .Instead, clearappr oximat i
onst ot hedesi redr esponsecanber ewar ded.Thisin
tur
ni ncreasest hepr obabi l
ityofachi evingt hedesi redr esponse.Thi sisknownasshapi ngor
approximat i
onl earningorl earni
ngbysmal lsteps( Gleitman,1986) .Ast imuluscanacqui r
e
rei
nforcementpr oper t
iesi fitisrepeat edlypai redwi thapr imar yrei
nforcer.Suchast i
mulus
becomesacondi ti
onedr einf or
cer,providingcondi t
ionedr ei
nforcement”(Ngar i,
2005) .
Ngari(2005)furtheraddst hatininstr
ument alcondit
ioning,t
heti
mingofr ei
nfor
cementisof
pri
maryi mportance.Ther ulesthatgoverntheoccasi onswhenr ei
nfor
cementoccurarecall
ed
schedulesofr einfor
cement .Theschedul ei nwhi chal lcorr
ectr
esponsesar erei
nfor
cedis
knownasacont inuousschedul eofreinforcement ,whiletheoneinwhichsomebutnotal l
corr
ectr esponsesar er ei
nforcedisknownaspar ti
alscheduleofreinf
orcement.Typesof
part
ialschedulesinclude:-
 Fi
xed-r
ati
oschedul
e–reinf
orcementisappl
iedaf
terafi
xednumberofcorr
ectr
esponses.
Forexample,
ever
yti
methepersoneli
cit
sthr
eedesir
abl
ebehavi
our
s,arewardwi
llbegi
ven.
 Vari
abl
e-r
ati
oschedule–Reinfor
cementoccursaf
terav
ari
abl
eorunpr
ecedent
ednumber
ofcorr
ectresponses.Atonet i
mewemayr ei
nfor
ceaft
ert
wosuccessfulbehav
iour
s,
anot
herti
me,aft
erthree,
anot
herti
meaftersi
xandsoon.
 Fixed-
int
ervalschedule–Reinforcementoccursaf t
eraf ixedperiodoftime.Wecanhav e
oursubjectgetrei
nforcedi
fshecompl etesataskwi thinagiventi
me, say
,onemi nut
eorso.
Ifhedoesitinlessti
me, hewi l
lhavetowaituntil
themi nuteisover,
howev er
,ifhedoesnot
completethetaskwi t
hinami nute,hewi
llnotreceiv
et hereward.
 Vari
abl
e-i
nter
valschedul
e-Reinfor
cementoccur
saft
eravar
iabl
eperiodoft
ime.Unli
ket
he
var
iabl
erati
oschedule,t
hisschedul
eisdi
sti
ngui
shedbyt
hetime-
lengthv
ari
ati
ons.Wemay
Page41of41
 rei
nforcebehav
iourafteroneminute,
andatanothert
ime,af
teroneandahal
fminut
es,
and
soon.Thebot tom li
neistheconti
nuouschangeorvary
ingoftheti
meitt
akest
oprovi
dea
reward(Monte,1995,Glei
tman,1986)
.

Sel
fCont
rol

Skinnerl ookedatt heroleofsel f-

controlpr ocessesi ndet er
miningbehav i
our
.Tohi m,self
cont r
ol i
showt heindivi
dualactstoalt
ert hev ari
ablesofwhi chhisbehav iourisafunct i
on.The
variousway sinwhi chweexer cisesel
f-cont rolar ephysicalrestr
aint
s,phy si
calaids,changing
thest i
mul uscondi t
ions,manipulati
ngemot ionalcondi ti
ons,performingal t
ernat
iver esponses,
posi t
ivesel f
-r
einforcement,andsel f-
puni shment .Skinnersummedt hei ssueofcont r
olas
fol
lows:“ toaconsi der
ableextent,anindiv i
dualdoesappeart oshapehi sowndest i
ny.Hei s
often abl et o do somet hing aboutt he v ariables affect
ing him.Some degr ee ofsel f-
determi nati
onofcont rolisusual l
yrecogni zedi nt hecr eati
vebehav iouroft hear t
istand
scientist,i
nthesel f
-expl
orator
ybehav i
ouroft hewr it
er,andintheself-discipli
neoft heascetic”
(Skinner,1953,p.228)asci t
edinNgar i(2005) .

Mal
adapt
iveBehavi
our
s

“As indicated earli

er,Pavlov interpreted mal adaptive behavi
ouri nterms ofcondi ti
oned
responses.Thi sview wasal sot akenbyWat son.Skinnerwentast epfurt
herandi nterpret
ed
psychopat hol
ogy as mal adapt i
ver espondi ng that is gov erned by the pr i
nciples of
rei
nforcement .Ski
nnerr ul
edoutment alpr ocesses,theunconsciousandot heri nneragenci es
l
iket hei d,ego,and super ego inhi st heory.Hewasbasi cal
l
yempi ri
cal,st ati
ngthatonl y
empi ri
calprocessescanbeobser vedandmeasur ed.Theconsequencest hat“theenv i
r onment
appliestobehav i
our”iswhathecal l
edt hekeydet erminantofbehav i
our(Mont e,1995, p.722).
Behav i
ourcant hereforebeclearlyex plainedbywat chingt heenvir
onmentanddet erminingthe
factors ofposi t
ive ornegat iver ei
nfor cement.WhatFr eud caled r
l epressi on i
st ermed
avoidance. Punished behav i
our i s av oided in or der to keep away f rom undesi rable
consequences”( Ngar i
,2005)
“Conf l
i
ctis notan i nternalforce,buti sf ound i nthe incompatibl
e contingencies of
reinf or
cements.Thearrangement sofpuni sher
sandr ewardsareincompatibl
e,andconf using
tot henextbehav i
ouroft heindividual
.Ont heot herhand,anxietyisacondi ti
onoft he
placementoft heconti
ngenciesofr ewardsandpuni shment.Theorganism perceiv
est hatthe
puni shmentwi llbeappliedagai n.Ther eactiont ot hi
spossibleaversi
ver esponsebr ings
cer tainobser
vabl ephysi
ologi
calandpsy chologicalreacti
onslikesweating,andpani c.The
per soni snott her
efor
ei ncontrolthroughhi sbehav iour
sont her ei
nfor
cement st hatcould
Page42of42
come.Lackofcont rolleadstolearnedhelplessness.Justli
keadogi nanexperi
ment alcage
l
ear nst oav oi
danel ectri
cshockbypr essingabut ton,thenl ater
,whent hebuttoncannot
eli
mi natetheshock, i
tfi
ndsthatthecontingenciesinwhichitcoul dcontr
olrei
nfor
cement sare
eit
hernotwor king,orareinappropri
atel
yar r
anged.Thecont inuedpr essofthebutt
onleadst o
withdr awalofthisbehav i
ourifshockiscontinuousdespitethepr essingoft
hebut t
on.Inabil
it
y
topr edict
,andr egulatetheseconti
ngenciesaresimi l
artocausesofanxi ety
.Anxietybecomes
alear nedresponset oav oi
dsuchav ersi
veconsequences”( Ngari,2005).
“Skinneradv ocatedanext er nallocusofcont r
ol,andmai nt ai
nedt hatallpersonali
tyatt
ri
but es
aret hecreat i
onofr einforcementcont i
ngenci es.Bei nggood,bad,hol y
,upright,oreducated,
aret hesel ecti
onsf r
om t hepr essureappl i
edont heor gani sm byt hecont ingenci
esoft he
env i
ronment .Thesefact orsar erestrai
nedormai ntainedbyt herewar dsandpuni shmentst hat
theenv ir
onmentexer ts.Theext ernallocusofcont r
olf orSki nnermi ghtbet r
acedt ohi s
biographywher eher epor tst hathewast aughtt of earGod,t hepol i
ce,andwhatpeopl ewi l
l
think.AsMont e(1995, p.726)poses, “
wher ethendoesr esponsi bil
ityl
ie?Isi
twi ththeperson?,
the env i
ronment ?,orwi tht he situation thatconst ructst he envir
onment ?”Thi sradical
behav i
ourism distancesi t selff rom suchi ssuesandj ustmai ntai
nst hatcont i
ngenci
esof
reinfor
cementar etoaccountf orbehav i
our,thusr educi ngt hehumanper sont owhatJohn
Lockecal ledTabul aRasa( empt yspace)asf arasmot i
ves,f eel
ings,andot herinter
naldri
v es
areconcer ned”(Ngari,2005) .

Acti
vit
y Descr
ibeandint
erpr
etB.F.Ski
nner
’sexper
iment
.
Feedback/
Hint Seehowreinf
orcementworks.

Assi
gnment 1 Def
inet
hef
oll
owi
ngt
erms:
-

a)Oper
ant

b)Negat
iveRei
nfor
cement

c)Puni
shment

d)Sel
fCont
rol

2 Discusstheappl
i
cat
ionofOper
antCondi
ti
oni
ngt
ohuman
personal
i
ty.

Page43of43
 CHAPTERSEVEN
THEBEHAVI
OURALAPPROACHTOPERSONALITY
ALBERTBANDURA’
SSOCIALLEARNI
NGTHEORY
I
ntr
oduct
ion

Inthist opi
cweshal ll
earnt
hev i
ewsofanot
herbehavi
oural
i
stAlber
tBandur
a.Weshal l
continuetoexpl
orel
earni
ngbutt
histi
meweshal
llookatanewaspectcal
l
edsociall
ear
ning
orlearni
ngbyimit
ati
on.

AlbertBandurawasbor non4th December1925.Hewasbr oughtupi nAl berta,Canada.He

studi
edi ntheUniversit
yofBr i
ti
shColombiaforhisf i
rstdegreeandl aterpr oceededf orhisM. A
andPhDi ntheUniversit
yofIowawher ehegr aduatedin1951.Hej oinedSt anfordUniversi
tyin
1953,becomi ngPr ofessorofPsy chol
ogyin1964.Hewasawar dedt hechai rofDav idStarr
JordanPr ofessorofSoci alScienceinPsy chologyi n1974.Hi swor ksi ncludeAdol escent
Aggression(1952),SocialLearni
ngandPersonal i
tyDev el
opment( 1963) ,PrinciplesofBehav i
or
Modificati
on(1969) Soci
, alLearni
ngTheory(1971) ,Aggression(1973) ,Soci alLearni
ngTheor y
(1977),andSoci alFoundat i
onsofThought andAct i
on( 1986).Her eceivedf ell
owshipsand
awardsf rom severalbodies,i
ncludi
ngtheA. P.A,andser vedasAPApr esident .Bandurawas
Page44of44
al
soawar
dedanhonor
arydoct
orat
efr
om Uni
ver
sit
yofBr
it
ishCol
umbi
ain1979.

7.
1Al
ber
tBandur
a’sSoci
alLear
ningTheor
y
AlbertBandur abeliev edinthecapaci t
yofhumanst othinkandpl ant heiract
ions(behaviour).
Hel ookedbey ondt heenv ir
onment alexternallocusofcont rolthatwasadv ocatedbyear li
er
behav i
our ali
stsJamesWat sonandB. F.Skinner.“I
magi neifthepi lothadt olearnflyi
ngt he
planebyr einforci
ngappr oximations,punishingcr ashes,andr ewar dingsaf elandings,we
woul dhav emanyacci dent
si ndeed.Addot herprofessi
onsofsur geryandmedi cineandy ou
woul dbev erywor riedt oseeksuchser vi
cesf rom new practitioner s!Humanbei ngsl earn
throughr einforcement s,
butalsothroughi mitati
on,orreadi
ngt extbooks, andmanyot herway s”
(Ngari,2005) .

Fi
gur
e8:Lear
ningbyI
mit
ati
on(
Model
l
ing)
Bandura heldt hev i
ew t hatbehav iourwasasa r esultoft hei nteracti
on between i nner
processes( ofthemi nd)andenv i
ronment alv ar
iables.Thei nnerpr ocessest oBandur awent
beyondt hedr i
vesandr efl
exest hatwer eadv ocatedbyPav l
ov.“Innerpr ocessesar ecovert
eventsbasedonear li
erexper iences,andar econtroll
edbyext ernalenv i
ronment ali
nfluencest o
bri
ngaboutov ertresponses”( Ngar i,
2005) .Thuscogni ti
veevents(act i
viti
esoft hemi nd)area
dir
ectcauseofbehav i
our .Bandur aar guedt hatt herewasani nt
er acti
onoft hr
eev ar
iables
whichar einnercogni ti
vepr ocesses,env ironment alvariabl
es,andbehav iour,i
nwhi cheachof
thethreecauseseachot her.Hecal ledt histri
partit
ei nter
acti
onalf orcet hetri
adicr eci
procal
determinism.Thr ought hisdet erminism heacknowl edgedt hehumanpot enti
altorespondt o
theenvironmentandpl anexper iences( behaviour).

“I
nBandura’sview,v er
balr
epresentat
ionandimaginalrepr
esentat
ionoftheenvi
ronmentguide
ourbehaviour.Int hisway,wecanusebot hi nsightandf or
esighttosolveourpr obl
ems.
Reacti
ng to Skinner’spost
ulati
ons,he maintai
ned thatpunishersand reinf
orcersdo not
automati
call
y weaken orst rengthen behav
iour,nordo t hey full
yinfl
uence it
sl ear
ning,

Page45of45
maint enance,modi fi
cat i
onorext i
nct i
on.Ourbehav iourisl argelyi nf luencedbyant i
ci pat ed
outcomes,r athert hanr einfor cementandpuni shment .Humanbehav iouri snotcr eat edbyt rial
ander r
orandr esponsest ost imul i
.Peopl edonotwai tuntiltheyar emaul edbyl ions, orbi tten
bysnakest oknow t hatt heseani mal sandr epti
lesar edanger ous.Wecanl earnt hr ough
experiences,t hinking,expl anat ionsofot herpeopl e,andobser vationofsi tuations.Lear ning
occurst hroughobser vationall earni
ngi napr ocessknownasmodel ling.Model l
ingi nv ol ves
observ ation ofa model ,r etaining t he i nformat i
on aboutt he behav i
our ,r epr oduci ng t he
behav iour,andr einforcingt hebehav iour .Vicar iousorsubst i
tutedr einf orcementandcogni ti
ve
l
earningar epar tandpar celoft hislear ning.Bandur aexpandedt het radi t
ionall ear ningt heor y
tot heseconcept si nor dert oemphasi zet hehumandel i
beratepar ticipationofbehav iour
format ionandl earning.Thei ncenti
v est olear nt hebehav i
ourar enotj ustext ernal ,butal so
i
nternalcogni ti
vedi sposi tions.I nwhathecal ledr eciprocaldet ermi nism,Bandur aconcl uded
thatbypl anni ng and ant icipat i
ng out comes,a per son is act i
v elyi nv olved i n behav iour
development .Her ejectedt heFr eudianasser tiont hathumanbei ngsar epassi ver espondent s
ofthei nnerf orcesandt heenv ir
onment alpr essur et oacti npar ticularmanner .Aper soni s
therefor ecapabl eofchoosi nggoal sandsel ect i
ngsi tuati
onst hatf ithi sorherant i
ci pat ed
outcome.Humanbei ngshav et hecapaci tytopl ant hemeansandobt ai nt heirdesi redgoal s.
Suchgoal smaybegoodorbaddependi ngont hechoi ceofmeans.Si nceBandur awor ked
with dy sfunct ionalpopul ations,he f ound t hatsuch peopl e const ruct ed t heirpl ans and
behav iourt hatt heyt houghtmadesomesenset othem ev enaf terpoi nt ingt heirdi scr epanci es
withthenor mal humanf unct ioning”(Ngar i
,2005) .

Bandur acameupwi ththeaspectofef ficacyexpect ati

onswhi chhedef inedasani ndi
v i
dual’
s
convicti
ont hatabehav i
ourwi llproducecer tai
nr esults.“Ef
ficacyexpect at
ioncanal sobe
expl
ainedasaper son’
sj udgementabouthi sorherabi l
i
tytopl an,execute,andmai ntai
na
part
icularact ion orbehav iour
.These expect at
ions infl
uence choices ofact i
v i
ti
es and
envi
ronment alset ti
ngs.Bandur asay sthatacqui siti
onofhi ghorl oweffi
cacyexpect ati
onsar e
deri
vedf rom per f
ormanceaccompl i
shment s,vicari
ousexper iences,verbalpersuasion,and
emot i
onalarousal .Eff
icacyexpect ati
onshel pi nhumanadapt ivebehaviour.Whent heef fi
cacy
i
shi gh,thenpeopl etendt oengagei nsuchbehav i
our.Anef f
icacyisabel iefthatonecan
accompl i
shcer t
aingoalsbecausehehast her equir
edski l
lstodoso.Ef ficacyhelpspeopl eto
besel ect
iveint heactivi
tiestheyi ndulgei n,effortneededi nsuchact ivi
ti
esaswel last he
emot i
onalcostofengagi ngi nsuchsi t
uat ions.Ther efore,wet hink,f
eelandbehav edi f
ferentl
y
accordingtot hedemandsoft het askaheadofus,andourpr esumedcapaci tytoaccompl i
sh
them (Pervi
n,1989) ”(Ngar i
,2005)

Ngari(
2005)fur
therexplains t
hataccor
ding t
o Bandur
ar einf
orcementi
s consi
der
ed a
f
acil
i
tat
oroflear
ning,notthecause,aswaspr oposedbySkinnerandWatson.Peopl
eare
Page46of46
thereforeact
ivesel ect
or soft heirrei
nforcement ,andsuchchoi cesarebasedoni ndiv
idual ’
s
ethicalandachiev ementst andar ds.Ar einforcerisani ncenti
vet oact,notar ewardofpast
action(Bandura1986, inMont e1995p.756- 757).Causalit
ydoesnotr esideint heenv i
ronment ,
personsandenv ironmenti nfl
uenceeachot her.“Thereisacont i
nuousr eciprocalinteracti
on
betweencogni ti
v e,behavioural,andenv ironment aldeterminants”(Bandura1977i nHal land
Lindzey,1985p.536) .Bandur apr oposedapr i
ncipleofrecipr
ocaldeterminism inwhi chhesai d
thatpeopl e controltheirdest iniesbycont roll
ing the envi
ronmentalf orces,butar e al so
cont r
oll
edbyt hesamef orces.Ther ef
ore,wechoosewhatwewantt odoort ol earn,wesel ect
ther ei
nfor
cers,justi
fythem,andchooset heenv ironment.Howev er,t
heenv i
ronmentcont rols
usbyt heli
mi t
sofchoi cesthatar ethere,andt heki ndofout comet hatwemi ghtgetf r
om
behav i
nginacer tainmanner .
Bandurawasv erymuchi
nter
est
edi
nt heaspectofmoti
vat
ionofhumanst oengagein
part
icul
arbehav
iour
s.Hev
iewedmot
ivat
ionasacogni
ti
veconstr
uctbasedontwofact
ors
(Ngari
,2005)
:
1.Ther epr
esentat
ionoffut
ureoutcomeswhichgener
atecur
rentmot
ivat
orsofbehav
iour
becauseoftheanti
cipat
edf
utur
erei
nfor
cement
s,and,
2.Theset
ti
ngofgoal
sordesir
edl evelofper
for
mance,
andtheeval
uat
ionoft
heper
for
mance
al
lowspeopl
etoper
for
m atpar
ticularl
evel
s(Hal
landLi
ndzey
,1985;
p.541)
.
“Theant icipation ofsel fappr ov alorsel fcr iticism mot i
vat esorde- mot ivat
esbehav i
our .
Ther efore,rathert hanwai ti
ngorr elyi
ngonext er naldr i
vesofpuni shment sandr ewar ds,inner
dri
v esal sodet ermi nebehav i
our .Ouret hi
calsy stem becomesi nternalizedandgui deshuman
behav i
our.Agai n,Bandur adev iat edf rom ther adi calbehav iour i
stsbynot i
ngt hatt heirtheory
doesnotaccountf orthesei nnerpur posesandchangesi nt heper sonwhi chseem t ooccur
withoutext ernalr einforcement .Vi car
iousacqui si t
ionofbehav ioural sogoesast epbey ond
radicalbehav iour i
sm.I tmeanst hatbehav iourcanbeacqui redt hr oughemot i
onalr eactions
l
ikef ear,love,andt hreat .Peopl ecandev el
opemot ionalattachment sanddet achment st o
peopl eorpl acesdespi tehav i
ngnocont actwi tht hem ( Perv i
n,1989) .
Inlearning,t hesame
mechani smsofobser v
ationandr einf
orcersandef f
icacyaswel last heenv ir
onmenti nt
er act.
Bandur aobser vedt hatl earningi sal socont rol ledbyt hel i
mi t sofsomeone’ sexpect at i
on
effi
cacy .Forexampl e;achi ldcannotl ear
nhowt ol if
theav yloads,r unf asterthant heirabi l
it
y
ortaket askst hatar ebey ondt hei rcognit
ion.Al so,peopl elearnf r
om v ari
ousenv i
ronment sof
beingmodel led,r einforced,andemot i
onalcont act samongot her s.Theyal sosetgoal s,and
rewar dthemsel vesf orattainingt hem”( Ngar i
,2005) .

Act
ivi
ty Descri
be how humans l
ear
n by i
mit
ati
on accor
ding t
o Al
ber
t
Bandura.

Page47of47
Feedback/
Hint Seet
heconceptofmodel
l
ing.

Assi
gnment 1.Def
inet
hef
oll
owi
ngt
erms:
-

a)Model
l
ing

b)Rei
nfor
cer

c)Mot
ivat
ion

d)Sel
fEf
fi
cacy

2.Discussther
oleoft
het
ri
adi
creci
procaldet
ermi
nism i
nhuman
behaviour
.

CHAPTEREI
GHT
THEBIOLOGI
CALAPPROACHTOPERSONALITY
GORDONALLPORT’STRAI
TFACTORTHEORY
Int
roducti
on
Wehav esof arlookedatt hepsy chody
nami candt hebehav i
ourali
stapproachestoper sonal
it
y.
I
nt hi
stopicweshal li
ntroducet heBiologicalAppr oachtopersonalit
y.Biol
ogicalpsychologi
sts
holdthev i
ew thathumanbehav i
ourisgenet icall
ydet er
minedandi nheri
tedfrom biologi
cal
parent
s.Assuchbehav iourinhumansi spassedonf rom onegener ati
ontot heother.Thisis
oneoft heradicalparadigmsi npsy chologywhi chstandsagai nstthebehav i
ourali
stv i
ew of
tot
alenvir
onment alcontrol.GordonAl lportwasconcer nedwitht hepersonali
tytypesamong
humansandhebel iev
edt hatthesewer econt roll
edbyi nher
it
edt rai
ts.

Page48of48
GordonWi ll
ardAllpor twasbor ni n1897,i nMont ezuma,I ndiana.Hest udi
edpsy chologyat
Harvardgr aduatingi n1919.Hel aterst udi
edEngl i
shandSoci ologyi nTur key.Her eturnedt o
Harvardonschol arshipandear nedaPhDi n1921.Het aughtpsy chologyatHar vardfrom 1930
to1967.Hi swor ksi uded,Per
ncl sonalit
y :Apsy chologicalInterpretation(1937) ,TheI ndiv
idual
andHi sRel i
gion:APsy chologicalInterpret
ation( 1950),Becomi ng:Basi cConsi derati
onsf ora
PsychologyofPer sonali
ty(1955) ,TheNat ureofPr ej
udi ce( 1958) ,andPat ternandGr owthi n
Personali
ty( 1961) .Hewasel ectedFel lowoft heAmer i
canAcademyofAr t
sandSci encesi n
1933,andpr esidentofAPAi n1939,andr eceivedt heDi st i
nguishedSci enti
ficCont ri
buti
on
Awardi n1964.I n1963,Al l
por twasawar dedt heGol dMedalAwar df rom t heAmer i
can
PsychologicalFoundat i
on.I
nt hef oll
owi ngyear, hereceiv edt heAPA' sDi sti
nguishedSci entif
ic
Contri
butionAwar d.Gor donAl lportdiedonOct ober9,1967i nCambr i
dge,Massachuset t
sof
l
ungcancer .Hewassev ent
yy earsold.

8.
1 I
ntr
oduct
iont
oGor
donAl
lpor
t’
sVi
ews
“Allportdef i
ned per sonalit
y as t he dy namic or gani zati
on wi t
hinthe indiv i
dualoft hose
psy chophysicalsystemst hatdet erminehi suni queadj ustmentstohisenv i
ronment .Tohi m,
personalitywasuni fied,const antl
ychangi ngandev ol v
ing, andcausedbyi nternalfor
ces.Ev en
i
ft hereisexternalinfluence,itistheinternalpercept ionoft heseexter
nalforcest hatdeter
mi ne
one’ sbehav i
our.Allportfoll
owedt hebi ol
ogicalar gumentandst at
edthatauni fynggenot
i y pe
i
sr esponsiblef ort wo phenot ypes,r esponsiblef oradapt iv
e and mal adapt i
ve behaviour
respectivel.Psy
y chophy sicalsy st
emsar ethei nternalf actorswhichconsi stoft hebodyand
themi nd.Thesear eor ganizedi nt
oacompl exuni ty,maki ngupt hepersonalit
y ”(Ngari
,2005).
Page49of49
Accordi
ngt oAll
port,humansarebor nwi t
hasetoft rai
tswhichgov er
nandcontrolthei
r
patt
ernsofbehaviour.Hedefnedat
i rai
tasneur ophy
sicsy st
em,whichinit
iat
esandguides
consi
stentfor
msofadapt i
veandexpressiv
ebehav i
our
.At r
aitisi
n-bui
l
tinapersonandithas
thecapaci
tytopr
edisposeanindi
vi
dual t
ocertai
nbehaviour
.
Al
l
por
t(1970p.44)madet
hef
oll
owi
ngasser
ti
onsaboutat
rai
t:
1.I
thasmor
ethannomi
nal
exi
stence(
iti
snoti
n“name”onl
y).
2.I
tismor
egener
ali
zedt
hanahabi
t.
3.I
tisdy
nami
c,oratl
eastdet
ermi
nat
ivei
nbehav
iour
.
4.Maybeest
abl
i
shedempi
ri
cal
l
y.
5.I
sonl
yrel
ati
vel
yindependentofot
hert
rai
ts.
6.I
snotsy
nony
mouswi
thmor
alorsoci
alj
udgement
.
7.Maybev iewedei
theri
nthel
ightoft
heper
sonal
i
tywhi
chcont
ainsi
t,ori
nthel
i
ghtofi
ts
di
str
ibut
ionint
hepopul
ati
onatlar
ge.
8.Acts,andevenhabits,t
hatar
einconsi
stentwi
that
rai
tar
enotpr
oofoft
henonexi
stentof
thetrai
t.(
Ngar
i,2005).
“
All
por
t(1970)i
ndi
cat
edt
hatt
rai
tscanbest
udi
edi
ntwoway
s:
1. Di
mensi
onal
l
y:meani
ngasanaspectoft
hepsy
chol
ogyofi
ndi
vi
dual
dif
fer
ences,
and,
2. I
ndi
vi
dual
l
y:asanaspectofper
sonal
disposi
ti
ons(
p.48-
49)
.
Trait
spresentwhatepi stemologycallsheuristi
cr eali
sm.Theytellusaboutaper sonandar e
quickandeffi
cientway s(alt
houghnotal way scor r
ectbecauseofst er
eoty
ping)tolookforthe
dynamicsatplayinaper sonwhoconst ant
lyorof tenbehavesinacer t
ainmanner.Anexampl e
i
sanaggr essiveper son;wecanconcl udet hatt hereissomethi
ngi nthatpersonthatmakes
him behaveandr eacttotheenv i
ronmentt hewayhedoes.I twouldbesi mpli
sti
ctot hi
nkthat
therearenoindividualdif
fer
encesi ntheneur opsy chi
ccompositesofaper sonwhi chexpl
ain
thevari
ati
onsinper sonali
typhenotype”(Ngari,2005) .
“
Trai
tsarereal
,i
nvi
sibl
e,androot
edint
henerv
oussystem.Thei
rexist
enceismanif
estedi
nan
i
ndiv
idual
’
sconsist
encyinbehavi
our
.Al
lpor
tdi
sti
ngui
shedthr
eetypesoftr
aitsasf
oll
ows:
1. Car
dinaltr
ait
s ar
ethosecharact
eri
sti
cswhi
ch aredomi
nantand per
vasi
vei
n an
i
ndi
vidual
.Theyar
eeminent
,power
fulmast
ermot
ives.
2. Cent
ralt
rai
tsareimpor
tantchar
acteri
sti
cs,whi
chdonothav
emuchcont
rolov
era
per
son’
sbehavi
ourasdocardi
nalt
rait
s.
3. Secondar
ytr
ait
saret hosecharact
eri
sti
cswhichar
eperi
pheralt
otheindi
vi
dual
.They
arel
essimpor
tant
;lessgeneral
i
zed,andarenotasof
tenusedastheot
hers.
Page50of50
Somet r
ait
sar eusedt ocategori
zepeoplei ntogr oups,basedonpar ti
cul ardimensi ons.These
tr
aitsareknownascommont rai
ts;
forexampl e,bei ngcharit
able,orbei ngintelli
gent.Therear e
al
sosomet rait
swhi chareuniquetoindividuals, andar enotshar edwi thot hers,forexampl e,a
parti
cularactofki ndnessshownbyaper son,orwhenwesayt hatJohni sapl easantper son.
These ar e known as per sonaldisposit i
ons.Common t r
aits are cat egor i
es into whi ch
i
ndividuals ar
ef orced,butper sonaldi sposi t
ions ar e partoft he indiv i
duals’per sonalit
y
str
uct ur
e.Ani mpor tantaspectofAllport
’st heoryofper sonali
tydev elopmenti st heproprium,
ortheself.Thisis,infact,
thefundament al pri
ncipl ebehindourident i
ty.Thepr oprium i
sauni t
y
ofal lthati s uniquelyour s,and the aspect s ofourper sonalityt hatar ei nt
ernal.The
developmentoft hepr opri
um foll
owst hef oll
owingst epsfrom birththroughdeat h:-
 Thebodilyself– Thi
si sexper i
encedininfancy
,whenwecont i
nuall
yrecei
vesensory
i
nformat
ionfrom ouri
nternalorgans.Thesensati
onst hatwef eeldependonourpresent
physi
cal
needs.Thesephysicalsensati
onsconfi
rm ourexist
ence.
 SelfI
dent
ity–Duringthef
ir
st18mont hs,wepercei
veour
sel
vesaswear
e,dev
elopi
nga
senseofselfandi
ndi
vi
dual
it
yinourper
cepti
ons.
 Sel
fEst eem – During the second and t
hir
dy ear
sofl i
fe,we become aware ofour
envi
ronmentandourpl aceini t
.Webeginderivi
ngsati
sfacti
oninourdevel
opingabil
i
tyto
conquertheenv
ironment.
 Sel
fExt ensi
on–Bet ween4and6y ears,webeginmovingfr
om egocent
ri
sm byextendi
ng
ourselv
est othefamil
yandoursocialsit
uat
ions.I
tisatthi
sti
met hatwedevelopmor al
pri
nciplesandideal
s.
 SelfImage–Att hi
sstage,welear
nt hevari
ousrol
esandexpect
ati
onsaccor
dedt
ousby
societ
y.Inaddi
ti
on,west ar
tdevelopingf
utureaspi
rat
ionst
hatwesetouttoatt
ain.We
str
uggletoavoi
ddisappr
ovalandseekapproval
.
 Sel
fRat
ionalCoper–Betweenages6and12,webegi
nrefl
ecti
vethinking;l
ogi
calpr
obl
em
sol
vi
ng,
rati
onali
singandwebecomeawar
eofouri
ntel
l
ectualcapaci
ties.
 Propri
ateStri
ving–Fr om age12,i ndividual
sdev el
optheselfinrelati
ontogr at
if
icationof
needs.Accor ding t
o All
port,t here existperipheraland propri
at e moti
ves.Per ipher
al
motives i
nvolvei mmediate gratif
ication ofneeds,f orexampl e,eat i
ng when hungr y.
Propri
atemot i
v esi
nvolv
epr olongingt hereductionoftensionsot hatmor efulf
il
li
nggoal s
canbeachi evedinthelongr un,forexampl e,stay i
nginschooltoear nadegree.Pr opri
ate
str
ivi
nginvolv
est heegoinuni fy
ingt hewhol epersonali
tyi
nt hepursuitofl
if
egoal s”(Ngari
,
2005).

8.2 Dev el
opmentofPersonal
it
yAccor
dingtoAll
por
t
“Accor
dingt
oAllpor
t,dev
elopmentofpersonal
i
tyiswhathet
ermed,becomi
ng,t
hati
s,i
t
Page51of51
i
nvolvessmoot handcont inuous,andsomet imesabr uptanddi sconti
nuousst eps,mov ing
towardsselfrealizat
ion.Dur ingthechildhoody ear
s,thei nfanti
l
emot i
vesareper ipher al,butas
wegr owupwebecomei ndependentandpr opri
atestrivi
ngset sin.Thepr ocesst hroughwhi ch
wef reeour sel
vesf r
om t hei nfantil
emot i
vest opropr iatestri
vingi sknownas f unct i
onal
autonomy .Accor di
ngt oAl l
port,functi
onalautonomyi mpl i
esthatadul tmotivesasv ar
iedand
self
-sustai
ning,contempor arysy st
emsgr owingoutofant ecedentsy stemsbutf unctional l
y
i
ndependentoft hem.Amat urepersoni sonewhohasbecomef reeofper i
pheralmot i
vesand
hasat t
ainedindependenceandwhosepr opri
atestri
vingi sfull
yfunctioni
ng.Int hisr egar d,the
fol
lowingqualit
ieschar acterizeamat ureperson:-
 Ext
ensi
onofthesenseofsel
f-Amat urepersonmustextendt
hesel
ftoot
her
s.Thusa
matur
eper
sonhasshedegocent
ri
sm andbecomealt
rui
sti
c.
 Warm relat
ednessto others– A mat ur
epersonmustbecapableofdev el
oping and
sust
aini
ngwarm soci
alrelat
ions.I
nthi
sregar
d,onemusthav
eint
imacyandcompassi
on.
 Sel
facceptance– Mat urepersonsar eincontroloft
heiremoti
ons.Theyhav
eahi
gh
thr
eshol
dforfrust
rat
iontol
erance.Theyunder
standandacceptt
hemsel
ves.
 Real
isti
cper cepti
onofreal
i
ty–Mat ur
epersonsper cei
veev
entsaccurat
ely.Theydonot
di
stortreal
it
y.Theyhaveabi
li
tytoli
veful
lli
vesandper f
ormt
askseff
ici
entl
y.Thesepeopl
e
ar
epr oblem-ori
entedi
ncont
rastt
obeingego-or
ient
ed.
 Sel
fobj ect
ifi
cat
ion–Maturepersonsknowthei
rabi
l
iti
esandl
imi
tat
ions.Theyknowt
hei
r
mistakes,canseeabsur
dit
iesi
nl i
feandar
enotover
whelmedbyt
hem.Theyhav eahi
ghl
y
developedsenseofhumour.
 Unif
yingphi l
osophyoflif
e–Accor di
ngtoAll
por
t,matureper
sonshav
edevel
opedacl
ear
compr ehensi
onofl i
fe’
spurposeintermsofanint
ell
i
giblet
heor
y.Matur
eper
sonshav
ea
di
recti
oni nli
fe,goal
s,andval
ues.

All
porthaspor t
rayedaper sonali
tythatisformedbybi ologicalandsocialvariables.Thistheory
demonst rat
esav eryideal
isti
cimageofaper son.Somecr i
ti
csindicatethati tlacksf ormal
academi cveri
fi
cationinresearch,especial
lytheconcept sheusest oel aboratehi spersonali
ty
theory.Howev er,hehasdev el
opedgoodt r
endsint hear easoft r
ait
s,mot i
vation,thesel f
,goal
setti
ng, andselfcont r
olinsetti
ngswhi chhav ebeenwi delyusedbyhumani st i
cpsy chologist
s”
(Ngari,2005).

Act
ivi
ty Discussthedevel
opmentofpr
opr
ium f
rom bi
rt
hto deat
has
advancedbyGor
donAll
port
.

Page52of52
Feedback/
Hint LookatAl
l
por
t’
svi
ewsofsel
f.

Assi
gnment 1.Def
inet
hef
oll
owi
ngt
erms:
-

a)Tr
ait

b)Per
sonal
Disposi
ti
on

c)Funct
ional
Anat
omy

2.Di
ff
erent
i egenot
at ypef
rom phenot
ype.

3.Discussqual
i
tiest
hatchar
act
eri
zeamat
ureper
sonaccor
ding
toAllpor
t.

Page53of53
 CHAPTERNINE
THEBIOLOGI
CALAPPROACHTOPERSONALITY
HANSEYSENCK’
SBIOLOGI
CALTYPOLOGY

I
ntroducti
on
I
nt histopicweshalllookatyetanot
herinf
luent
ialbiol
ogi
calpsychol
ogi
st,HansEy senk.
Eysencklookedatper
sonal
it
yastheper
sonofobservabl
ehabi
tualr
esponsesofanindi
vi
dual.

HansJur
genEy
senckwasbor
nonMar
ch4,1916i
nBer
li
n,Ger
many
,andwasbr
oughtupby

Page54of54
hisgr andmot heraf terhi spar entsdi vorcedi n1918.Hi sear lyi nterestswer einact ingand
poli
tics.Hej oinedhi sdi vorcedmot heri nFr ancei n1934,ent eringtheUni versit
yofDi jont o
studyHi storyand Li terat ure.I n 1940 hegr aduat ed wi th a PhD i n psy chologyf rom t he
Univer si
tyofLondon.Ey senckwasPr ofessorofPsy chol ogyatt heI nsti
tut eofPsy chiatry,
King'
sCol l
egeLondon, fr om 1955t o1983.Hewasamaj orcont ributortot hemoder nsci entifi
c
theoryofper sonal i
tyandabr ill
iantteacherwhohel pedf oundt reatmentf orment alill
nesses.
Eysenckal socr eatedanddev elopedadi stincti
vedi mensi onalmodelofper sonali
tyst ructure
basedonempi ricalfact or -
anal yti
cresear ch,at t
empt i
ngt oanchort hesef act orsinbiogenet i
c
vari
at i
on.Hewast hef oundi ngedi toroft hei nternationalj our nalPer sonal ityandI ndividual
Diff
er ences,andwr oteabout80booksandmor ethan1600j ournalar ti
cles.Amonghi swor ks
areThePsy chologyofPol i
ti
cs( 1954) ,ThePsy chologi calBasi sofI deology( 1978) Di
, mensi ons
nd
ofPer sonali
ty(1947,and2 ed.1998) ,Thesci entif
icSt udyofPer sonal i
ty( 1952),Usesand
AbusesofPsy chology( 1953) ,TheDy nami csofAnxi etyandHy steria( 1957),Senseand
Nonsensei nPsy chology( 1962) ,Smoki ng,Heal thandPsy chol ogy( 1965) ,TheCausesand
CuresofNeur osis(1965) ,Per sonalit
ySt ructureandMeasur ement (1969),TheSt r
uct ureof
HumanPer sonal i
ty( 1970) ,TheI Q Ar gument( 1971) ,Theexper iment alst udyofFr eudi an
Theor ies(1973) ,TheI nequal it
yofMan( 1975),Psy chotism asaDi mensi onofPer sonal ity
(1977) ,TheI ntelli
genceCont roversy(1981) ,Personal i
tyandI ndiv i
dualDi ff
er ences:ANat ur al
ScienceAppr oach( 1985) ,andTheCausesandCur esofCr imi nalit
y( 1989) .Ey senckwasa
Professoremer i
tusoft heI nst i
tuteofPsy chiatryandt heUni versityofLondon. Hediedofbr ain
tumouri n1997.

9.
1 I
ntr
oduct
iont
oEy
senck’
sBi
ologi
calTy
pol
ogi
calTheor
y
Eysenck v i
ewed per sonal it
y as t he obser vable characteri
st ics t hatconst it
ute habi tual
responses.“ Hedef inedper sonal it
yasamor eorl essendur ingor ganizationofaper son’ s
character,t emper ament ,intellect,andphy sique,whi chdet ermi neshi suniqueadj ustmentt o
theenv ironment .Hecl assi f
iedt wot y pesofbehav i
our ;thespeci fi
cr esponse( SR) ,andt he
habitualr esponse ( HR) .Speci f
icr esponses ar et hose behav i
our s expr essed dur ing an
exper i
mentort heexper i
encesofev erydayl i
fe.Theymaybeobser vedbutonce.Speci fi
c
responsescannotbeconsi der edaspar tofat r
aitoraper sonal it
yt y
pe.Theyar emai nly
determinedbyt hesi tuati
onoft heper sonandt heenv i
ronment .Theycannotbepr edicted, and
therefore,t heycannotpr ov i
deenoughempi ricalevi
dencet ocl assifyabehav iourpat ternor
personal i
ty .I
ncont r ast,theyar ehabi tual responses.Thesear ebehav i
our sthatoccuri nsimi lar
environment sand ar eof ten r epeated i nt hesameenv i
ronment .Forexampl e,test -r
et est
procedur es,inwhi cht hesubj ectpr oducesequi val
entr esponses.Ey senck( 1998)cal ledt hem
the“ r
esponseswhi cht endt or ecurundersi mi larcir
cumst ances”( p.28) .Theser esponsescan
beempi ricall
ypr edi ctedandmeasur edi nt ermsofr eli
abili
tycoef f
icients.Theyar et herefor e
consistentgi vent hei rrespect iv econdi tions”( Ngari,
2005) .
“
Habi
tual
responsescanbeor
gani
zedi
ntot
rai
ts;
forexampl
e,accur
acy
,ir
ri
tabi
l
ity
,per
sist
ence,
Page55of55
ri
gidi t
y ,andaut onomi ci mbal ance,amongot her s.Ey senckt ermedt heset rait
sasconst ruct s
thathav ebeenobser v edandv er if
iedst ati
st i
cal lythr oughcor relat i
ont echni ques.Theyar e
thenor gani zedi ntogr oupsoff act ors.Thesegr oupsoff act orsar ethenr eor gani zedata
higherl ev eltof orm agener alt y pe,f orexampl e,ani ntrov er t.Hehel dt hatt raitsar emeasur ed
byt hewayhumanbei ngsr elat et oot her sandsi tuat ions.Tr ai tsar et herefor emeasur ed
accor di ng t o how domi nantt hey ar ei n act ualr esponse t o human r elat i
ons and t he
env i
ronment .Hedev elopedt hr eet ypesoft raits:Ext rov ersion- Introv ersion, Neur otism- Stabi lit
y,
andPsy chot ism- Super egof unct ioning.Hemai ntainedt hateachper sonhasacombi nat ionof
i
nt r
ov er sionandext rov ersion,amongot hert raits.Howev er ,eachpar ticularexpr essi onof
behav iourdemonst ratesadomi nanceorpr ev alenceofonet raitov erot her s.Ani ntr ov ertwi l
l
somet imesr eactl ikeanext rov er tandv i
cev er sabasedont hesi tuationathand,butt heir
prev alentt ypewi llshowi tsel fmor ei nmostsi tuat i
ons( Allen, 2003) .Eysenckf ollowedapur ely
scient ifi
candempi ricalappr oacht oper sonal ityt ypes.Hewasopposedt oot hert heor etical
framewor kst hatdef inedper sonal ity.Mont e( 1995, p.777)quot esEy senckt hus:“ mostpeopl e
ofcour se, what ev ert heymaysay , donoti nfactwantasci ent ificaccountofhumannat ur eand
personal i
tyatal l….Hencet heymuchpr efert hegr eatst oryt eller,S.Fr eud, orthebr i
l
liantmy th-
creat or,C.G.Jung,t ot hose,whol i
keCat tellorGui lford,expectt hem t ol earnmat rixal gebr a,
studyphy siologi caldet ailsoft hener voussy st em,andact ual lycar ryoutexper iment sr ather
thanr elyoni nter estinganecdot es,sex- r
iddencasehi stor ies,andi ngeni ousspecul ation” .Hi s
wor koni ntrov ert,ext rov ert,nor mal ,andneur ot i
c per sonal itiesv er i
fi
edanddi sput edear l
ier
typesofper sonal it
ydev elopedbyt heor i
st sl i
keJung,andFr eud.Hi swor kt endedt osust ain
the f indi ngs ofWundti nt he ar eas ofemot ionaldi mensi ons ofi ntrov ertand ext rov ert
personal i
ties.Ey senckcar riedhi sexper iment sondi ffer entpopul at i
onsandcor relat edt he
behav iour swi t
hdi fferentbr ainst at esHewast her eforeabl et oseehowext rov erts,int rov er t
s,
psy chot ics,andneur oticsar edi f ferentiatedbyneur ologi calst imul ationbydi fferentsi tuat ions
oflife”( Ngar i,2005) .

Tabl
e2:Summar
yofEy
senck’
sPer
sonal
i
tyTy
pes
Per
sonal
it
yTy
pe Per
sonal
it
yTy
peChar
act
eri
sti
cs
I
ntr
over
t Reasonabl
e,qui
etness,controll
ed,unsociabil
i
ty,persi
stent,ser
ious,
perf
ormanceint
erf
eredwi t
hexci tement,cal
m,prefer
encef orsoli
tar
y
vocati
ons,
sensi
ti
vetopain,carefulnessandpassi
vit
y
Ext
rov
ert Tendencytobeout goi
ng,easygoing,pl
ayful
,car
efr
ee,i
mpulsiv
eness,
desi
refornov el
ty,per
for
manceenhancedbyexci t
ement,t
olerantt
o
pai
n,pref
erenceforvocat
ionsinv
olvingot
hers.
Neur
oti
c Lowemot
ionalcontrol
,restl
essness,egocent
ri
c,suspi
cious,unhappy
,
l
ackofpersi
stence,antisoci
al,bel
ow levelsensor
yacui t
ybuthi gh
Page56of56
 l
evelofact
ivat
ion.
Psy
chot
ic Poorconcent r
ati
on,poormemor y
,l ack ofcari
ng forothers,no
persi
stence,poorsociabi
li
ty,di
sregardf ordangerand conventi
on,
occasi
onal origi
nal
it
y and/ cr
eati
vity
,l i
king for unusual thi
ngs,
consi
deredpeculi
arbyotherpeopl
e.
Adapt
edfrom Eysenck(
1998p.
33-
61)Mont
e1995,p.786,Hal
landLi
ndzey
,1987,p.442-
445)
(Ngar
i,2005)
.
“Eysenckbel ievest hatper sonal i
tytypesar esubst ant
ial
lyinherited.He pl ay
edsaf ei nt he
i
nher i
tance f act orcont r
ov ersy and mai ntai
ned t hatthese behav i
our s are also learned.
Therefor e,neurosi sandot herobser vablebehav i
ourdonotdev elopoutoft heconf l
ict
si nt he
i
nst i
ncts,t heyar elearned,somet imest hroughcondi ti
onedf earr eaction( HallandLi ndzey ,
1985).Thi s happens when a st imuliis paired with a painfulphy sicalorpsy chological
experience.I fthest imulusi sstrongenought ocauseat r
auma, andi ftheper sonhasi nherit
ed
av ul
ner ablecondi t
ionf orneur oti
sm, thenhewi llbecomeneur otic.UnlikeFr eudwhor epor t
ed
thatneur ot
icbehav ioursar edev elopedt oreduceanxi ety,Eysenckmai ntainedthatneur ot i
c
behav i
our sraiseanxi et
yrat herthanreducingit”(Ngari,
2005) .

9.
2 HansEysenck’
sViewsonPersonal
ity
Ey
senck(
1998)defi
nedper
sonal
i
tycharacter
ist
icsi
nthef
oll
owi
ngmanner
:
1. Characteris a per
son'
s mor
e orl
ess st
abl
e and endur
ing sy
stem ofcogni
ti
ve
behaviour
2. Temper
amenti
sthemor
eorl
essst
abl
eandendur
ingsy
stem ofaf
fect
ivebehav
iour
3. I
ntel
l
ecti
sthemor
eorl
essst
abl
eandendur
ingsy
stem ofcogni
ti
vebehav
iour
,and
4. Physiqueisthemoreorlessstabl
eandendur
ingsy
stem ofbodi
l
yconf
igur
ati
onand
neuroendocr
ineendowment.(
Ngari
,2005)
.
“Inotherwor dschar acteristhewi l
l,temperamentt heemot ion,int
ellecttheintell
i
gence,and
physi
quet hebody .Thest ableandendur ingchar acter
isti
csar et r
aits,whichwhengr ouped
toget
herf ormt ypes.Ey senck’stypology(1998)i sahi erarchyofor ganisedtypes,traitsand
habit
s.Eacht ypei sbasedoncl osel
yr el
atedt r
ait
s, whil
eeacht r
aitisbasedoncl osel
yr elat
ed
habit
ualresponses.Habi t
ualresponsesar eint ur
nbasedonobser v
abl eresponses.Ey senck’s
studi
es led t ot hree maj ori ndi
vi
dual -
diff
erence dimensi ons:-i ntrover
sion/extr
av ersi
on,
stabi
li
ty/neurot
icism, andimpulsecont rol
/psychoticism.

 Ext
rov
ert
sar
esoci
abl
eandi
mpul
si
vei
ndi
vi
dual
swhol
i
keexci
tementandar
eor
ient
ed

Page57of57
 towards ext
ernalreal
it
y.Such peopl
e ar
eli
vel
y,act
ive,asser
ti
ve,sensat
ion-
seeki
ng,
caref
ree,
domi nant
,andvent
uresome.
 I
ntr
overt
sarequieti
ntr
ospect
iveindiv
idual
swhoar eor
ient
edt
owar
dsi
nnerr
eal
i
tyandwel
l
-
or
deredli
fe.Suchpeopl
earewithdrawn,ser
ious,
andcold.
 Neur
oti
csar
eemotional
l
yunstabl
eindi
vi
dual
s.Theyareanxi
ous,depr
essed,gui
l
ty,t
ense,
l
owselfest
eemed,
irr
ati
onal
,shy,
moodyandemotional
.
 Psychot
icsar
eindi
vi
dual
swhoareinsensi
ti
vet oother
s,host
il
e,cr
uel
,inhumane,r
eadyt
o
upsetot
hersandmakefool
soft
hem”( Ngar
i,2005)
.

Fi
gur
e9:Ey
senck’
sPer
sonal
i
tyTy
pes

9.3Ey senck’sInhibi
ti
onTheor y
“Eysenck postulated thati ndi
vidualdiff
erences al
ong wi t
hi ntr
oversi
on/extroversi
on ar e
genetical
lybasedandher editar
y.Thesear ebasedinthebraincontrol
l
ingthei nt
erpretati
onof
sensor yi
nformationfrom theenv i
ronment.Accordi
ngtohi m,brai
nsofext r
ov ertsare‘weak’,
reactslowly,andrequirelargeamount sofst i
mulati
on.Ont heotherhand,brainsofi ntr
overts
arestrong,reactquicklyandst r
ongly,andrequir
esmal lamountsofst imul
at i
on.Inaddi ti
on,
extrovert
sar emor el
ikelytosufferreacti
veinhi
bit
ion,acondit
ioninwhichani ndivi
dualcannot
Page58of58
r
espondduet
orepet
it
ionofanact
ion”(
Ngar
i,2005)
.

9.4 Eysenck’sArousalTheor y
“ToEysenck,intr
ov er
tshavehigherlevel
sofarousalthanextroverts,hencearemor eli
kelyto
besensiti
vetost i
mul at
ion.Headdedt hatver
yloworv er
yhighl evelsofsensor ysti
mul at
ion
l
eadstopr oductonofnegat
i iv
ehedonictone,t
hatis,negati
vefeelingsandnegat iveevaluat
ion
ofexperience.Intermediatelevel
sofsensor yst i
mulati
on lead t o product
ion ofposi ti
ve
hedoni
ctones, whichis,posi
ti
vefeeli
ngsandposit
iveevaluati
onofexper ience”(Ngari,
2005) .

9.5 Aut onomicAct i

vationandNeurot i
cism
“Eysenckpostulatedthatneuroti
cshav elowerthreshol
dsforacti
vi
tyinthevisceralpar
tofthe
brain,and greaterresponsivi
tyoft he sympatheti
c ner
vous system.Neur oti
cs are more
reacti
ve,ev en overr eacti
vet o smallamount s ofsensor y st
imulat
ion.Underst r
essful
conditi
ons,neuroticshav egreaterresponsiv
ityoft hesy
mpat het
icnervoussy stem”(Ngar i
,
2005).

9.6 Rol eofHeredity

“AccordingtoEy senck,per
sonal
it
iesaregeneti
call
ycontroll
edbecausetheyareuni
ver
sally
found;theyendurewi t
hinalongti
meinanindiv
idual’
sli
fe,andarefoundt
ocorrel
atei
ntwins.
Theset ypeshav ebeenseent otrav
ersecul
turalvari
ati
ons,vari
ati
onsinage,andgender
dif
ferences”(
Ngar i
,2005).

9.7 Rol eofSocialisati

on
“Behaviouristoal argeextentcontrol
l
edbyconscience.I
tisi
nt heconsci
encethatonestores
thepar ent
alandsoci etalnorms,v al
ues,et
hics,andexpectat
ions.Extr
over
tsaresl ow and
i
neffi
cienti nlearning societ
alrulesand hencear eundersoci al
i
sed.Ont heot herhand,
i
ntrovertslear
nsoci etalrul
esmor equickl
yandef f
ici
ent
lyandarehencemor emat ur
e”(Ngari
,
2005).

9.8 Intell
igence, Heredi
ty,
andSoci alPol
icy
“I
ntell
igenceisgenet i
cbuti tisalsogreatl
ycont r
oll
edbyt heenvi
ronment.Ther
eareot
her
i
nfluencesoni nt ell
i
gence,thegreatestofthesebeingcult
ure.Hencether
eisnoI Qt
estt
hat
canbecul turefreeorcultur
ef ai
raccordi
ngtoEy senck”(
Ngari,
2005).

Act
ivi
ty Discuss the t
wo di
mensi
ons (
axes)of Ey
senck’
svi
ews on
personal
i
ty.

Feedback/
Hint LookatEy
senck’
squadr
ant
sint
hesummar
y.

Page59of59
Assi
gnment 1.Def
inet
hef
oll
owi
ngt
erms:
-

a)Speci
fi
cResponse

b)Habi
tual
Response

2.Explai
nt he FOUR per
sonal
i
ty char
act
eri
sti
cs accor
ding t
o
Eysenck.

3.Whati
st her
oleofher
edi
tyi
nper
sonal
i
tyf
ormat
ionaccor
ding
t
oEysenck?

Page60of60
 CHAPTERTEN
THECOGNITIVEAPPROACHTOPERSONALI
TY
GEORGEKELLY’
STHEORYOFPERSONALCONSTRUCTS
Int
r oducti
on
Int hi
st opi
cweshal ll
ookattheCogni ti
veAppr oachtoper sonali
t y
.Cogniti
onisater mthat
referstothethought sandi
deast hatwehav eaboutthewor l
dar oundus, andtheenvi
ronment.
Itcanal sobeseenast hei
nternalpr ocessesthathelpusunder standandmakesenseoft he
wor ldaroundus.Thecogni t
iveper specti
veofper sonali
tyisani ntel
l
ectual
,pur
elycognit
ive
meansofunder standi
ngthewor l
d,ourpl aceini t
,andi tsinfluenceonus.Accor di
ngt o
cogni t
ivetheor
ists,humanbeingsbehav elikescient
ist
s,takinganempi ri
calpoi
ntofv i
ew of
under st
andingthewor l
d(Ngari
,2005) .

Geor geAl exanderKel l

ywasbor ninKansasi n1905,theonl ychi l
dofaPr esbyteri
anmini
ster.
Hisear l
ieri nt
erestsanddegr eeswer einmusi c& Publ i
cSpeaki ng,thenMat hemati
cs&
Phy sics.In1929,hest udi
edEducat i
onatt heUni v
ersi
tyofEdi nburgh.Her eturnedtoAmer i
ca
andr ecei v
edhi sPhDf r
om theUniversi
tyofI owain1931.Hi sdisser t
ati
onwasonSpeechand
Readi ng Di sabi
li
ties.He wor ked as a lectureratFor tHay s State Coll
ege,Kansas,and
establ i
shed manycl inicsin KansasSt ate.Dur i
ng theWor l
d WarI I
,hewasan Av i
ati
on
Psychol ogist,afterwhi chhebecamePr ofessoratt heUniv ersi
tyofMar yland.In1946he
becamePr ofessorofPsy chol
ogyandDi rectorofCl i
nicalPsychologyatOhi oStateUni
versi
ty.
In1965, heaccept edtheRil
esChai rofBehav i
ouralSci
enceatBr andeisUni versi
ty.Heaut
hored
Page61of61
ThePsy
chol
ogyofPer
sonalConst
ruct
sin1955.Hedi
edi
n1967.

10.
1Kel
ly
’sTheor
yofPer
sonalConst
ruct

“Kel
ly’
sbasi cassumpt ioni st hatev er
yper sonisascientist
.Heusedsci ent
if
icmet hodsi n
i
nterpret
ingper sonal
it
yandpr ovi
dingpsy chologi
cali
nter
vention.From hi
si nt
erventi
onswi th
peoplehavingpsy chol
ogi calproblems,Kel lyfoundthatpeoplewer ebehavi
nginawaysi milar
totheirproblems.Thei rinterpret
ationofr eali
tyhadledthem t obehaveinaccor dancewi th
thei
rcogni t
ivedef i
nit
ionsandper ceptionsoft hemsel
vesandt hewor l
dar oundt hem.He
wantedt oviewt hepatientorper sonasheorshev i
ewedt hemselves(Fri
edman&Schust ack,
2001)”(Ngari,2005).

10.2Const ruct iveAl ternat i

vism
“Thebasi sofKel l
y ’
st heor yistheconceptofconst ruct iveal ter nativi
sm,whi chisanasser tion
thatallindividual sar ecapabl eofchangi ngt heirinterpr etat i
onofev ents.Indi vi
dualscanf reely
rei
nterprett hei rmi ndsandexper iences.I nspi teoft hisf reedom,Kel lybel ievedt hatot her
phenomenaal socont r
olourbehav iour .Hepoi ntedoutt hatpeopl ear econt rolledbyani nt ernal
processwhi chi saconsequenceofext ernalsoci alr elations.Thei nternalpr ocessconst r
ues
thewor ldbasedont hesoci alrelati
onsaswel last heant ici
pat edgoal sthatoneconst rues.I n
thi
sway ,hesawdet ermi nism andf reedom asi nsepar abl e.Al thoughdet ermi nedbyt hef uture
goalsandsoci alr el
at i
ons,Kel l
yi ndicat edt hatpeopl ear ef ree,andt heycanchoosebet ween
alt
ernativeex per iencesandgoal sandconst ruet heirwor ldandsoci alplace.I nhisownwor ds,
determini sm andf reedom ar einsepar able,fort hatwhi chdet er mi nesanot her ,i
sbyt hesame
token,f reeoft heot her( Patterson,1978) .
Kel lydi stingui shedbet ween super -ordi
nat e and
subordinat e const r
uct s.Super -ordinat econst ructs ar et he mor ei mpor tantconst r
uct s,f or
exampl e,t hef ather ,mot her,trustandot herchoi cest hataper sonpr iori
tizes.Ont heot her
hand,subor dinat econst ructsar et hel essi mpor tantchoi cest hataper sonconst r
ues,l i
ke,
beingapat het ic,andbei ngpoor .Whatwedeem asi mpor tantandsetagoalt oachi ev e
becomest hesuper -or dinateconst ruct .Thisconst ructi nt urni nfluencest hei ndi
v i
dualt o
behavei nacer tainway ,soast oachi ev et hesetgoal ”( Ngar i,2005) .

Page62of62
Fi
gur
e10:Thi
nki
ngi
saCogni
ti
veAct
ivi
ty

10. 3 ThePer sonasaSci ent i

st
Each i ndiv i
dualt riest o beasci enti
sti n his/herwor l
d.An i ndi vi
duali st huscont i
nual l
y
attempt i
ngt ounder stand,cont rol ,andpr edictbehav i
our.Thi si sdonei nev erysi tuati
onby
obser ving human behav i
ourand byhy pothesi st esting. Oursci enti
ficv iew i s howev er
subj ect ivesincei tiscont rolledbyoursubj ecti
veper cept ionandconst ructi
onofr eali
ty.Human
bei ngsar econst ant l
ydev i
singandt esti
ngpr edictionsaboutt hemsel v
esandot hers’behav iour
(Mont e,1995) .Kel lysuggest edt hatpsy chologistsshoul dl ooki ntobr oaderper spect i
vest hat
stimul ate and shape t he di r
ect i
on oft he speci es t hrough t i
mel ess span.He di sput ed
traditionalt heor iesbypsy chologi stsasi mposi ngonot her st hei rownsubj ect i
v epr edi
ctions,
notknowi ngthatt hei rcl i
ent sal sohav et heirpredi ctionsaboutt heirpsy chologi sts,andar ei n
factt ryingt ov er i
fyt hem. Thef undament alhumanchar act eri
st icist heneedt oknow andt o
cont rolone’ sownuni verse.Kel l
ymai ntainedt hat“ mi ghtnott hei ndivi
dualman,eachi nhi s
ownper sonalway ,assumemor eoft hest atureofasci entist ,ev erseekingt opr edi
ctand
cont rolt hecour seofev entswi thwhi chhei sinv olved?Woul dhenothav ehist heor i
es, t
esthi s
hy pot heses,andwei ghhi sexper iment alevidence? ”( Kelly
,1955,p. 5inMont e,1995,p.526) .
He dev eloped a Rol e Const ructReper t
oryTest( REP)t o hel p demonst rate how cl i
ent s
const ructsi gnificantpeopl ei nt hei rli
ves.Wi tht hisconst ruct ,onecanpr edictsuchpeopl e’s
behav iouri nfut ure.Rat hert hanbei ngreactivet ot heenv i
ronment ,humanbei ngsar ecr eative
creat ur es wi t
h a capaci tyt o dr aw abst ractmeani ngs f rom t heirexper iences and t he
env ironmentandconsequent l
yi mpr esst heirrepr esent ati
onsoni t.
Aswecont i
nuet ohav e
differentexper iences,wei nterpr ett hem andconst ructourownper sonalisedmeani ngsabout
them.Themeani ngsassi gnedt ot heseexper iencesbecomef orusr eal
ity,andt heyi nf
luence
oursubsequenti nt erpr etationofl aterexperiences.Thesei nter pretat i
onsar emost l
ybasedon
simi l
ar ityandcont rast ,andsi ncet heyar eper sonal isedandsubj ect i
ve,differenti ndivi
dual s
givedi fferentinter pret ationst ot hesamet hi
ng.

Someconst r
uctsarev eryimpor t
antt ous,becauset heyr efl
ectourper sonalident i
tyandar e
veryr esist
anttochange.Suchconst r
uct sar eknownascor econst ructs. Otherconst r
ucts
whi char enotsoi mportanttousandar eeasyt ochangear eknownasper i
pher alconstructs.
Const ructsareor der
edhi erarchi
callyinourcogni ti
vewor l
d,anddi ff
eri ntheirr elat
ionand
relevancet ootherconstructs,ie.r
. angeofconv eni
ence( Kell
y,1955) .Inaddi t
ion,aconst r
uct
mayhav et heabil
i
tytoal l
owt heconst ruingofotherconst ruct
swhi charenotr elatedt oit
.This
proper t
yi sknownasper meabi l
ity.
Inaf urtherclassi
ficaton,pr
i e-empt i
veconst ructisone
whi chdoesnotal l
owi t
sel ement stobei ncludedi nanotherconstruct ,
itisli
kemaki ngachoi ce
bet weent woopposi ngi deas.A const ell
ateconst r
ucti sonet hatper mitsi t
sel ementst o
belongt oot herconstructs,butfixest heirrealm ofmember ship.Aconst ructthatal lowsits
element st ofreel
ybei ncludedi not herconst ructsisknownasa pr opositi
onalconst r
uct
Page63of63
(Gl
eit .
man,1986)Accor
ding to Kell
y,thebehaviourofan i
ndi
vi
dualisdet
ermi
ned bythe
expect
edout
come.Indi
vidual’
sconstructsaret
hebasiswi
thi
nwhicht
heyact
.Invi
ewofthis,
hecameupwiththefol
l
owi ngproposit
ions:
-

 I
ndiv
idual
itycor
oll
ary– Peopl
eant
ici
pat
eev
ent
sdi
ff
erent
lyandconst
ruet
hei
rmeani
ngs
di
ff
erentl
y.
 Organizat
ioncor
oll
ary– Ev
eryi
ndi
vi
dualev
olv
esf
orhi
s/herconv
eni
encei
nant
ici
pat
ing
ev
ent s.
 Choi
cecorol
lary-Wear econti
nual
lymaki
ngchoices,andthosechoi
cesar
egov
ernedby
howtheywil
lincr
easeourunder
standi
ngandi
nter
pretati
onoftheworl
d.
 Const
ruct
ioncor
oll
ary
:Aper
sonwi
l
lant
ici
pat
eev
ent
sbyconst
rui
ngt
hei
rrepl
i
cat
ions.
 Fragmentati
oncorol
lar
y–Wi thi
nourconst
ructsyst
em,thereareot
hersubsyst
emswhi ch
are notalways consi
stentwit
h each ot
her.These accountforourinconsi
stencyin
behaviour
.
 Commonal
it
ycorol
lary– Peoplewhointer
pretevent
sinasimil
arwaywil
lbehav
eina
si
mil
arway
,whi
lethosewhointerpr
etev
entsdif
fer
entl
ywi
ll
behav
edif
fer
ent
ly.
 Social
it
y cor
oll
ary– Kelly st
ated thattot he ext
entt hatone per
son const
rues the
constr
ucti
onprocessofanother,hemaypl ayaroleinasocialpr
ocessinv
olv
ingtheother
person(Monte,
1995,p.548Patterson1978,Glei
tman,1986).
These arer athernew t ermsand def i
nitionsdev eloped byKel l
yt oindi cat
e how peopl e
constructtheirwor ldandgi vemeani ngt oi t.Theyar er atherbr i
efdescr iptionsandt heywi l
l
becomemuchcl earerasKel l
y’stheorydev el opsandbecomesmor ewidel yused.Personality
devel
opsasonet ri
est omaxi misehisunder st
andingofhi sconst ructsy stem.Per sonalit
yi s
i
nherentlyactiveandi nconti
nuouspr ocessofusi ngitsconst ructsy stem toant ici
pateev ents.
Becauseofi tsemphasi sonant ici
patedout come,Kel ly’
st heoryi salsost rongonf orecast i
ng
orpredicti
ng.Theconst ruct
sar easusef ulandnecessar yinsof arast heycanbr ingout
predi
cted out comes.A per sonalit
y devel opmentf rom chi l
dhood shoul d be loaded wi t
h
predi
ctabil
ity
;t hi
sgi vest hepersonachancet ohav econst ructst hatarecont i
nuall
ygr owing
towardstheant i
cipatedgoals.Lackofant icipat edgoalsmayst agnat edevelopmentandl eave
apersonorchi l
dst agnatedinjustoneconst ructthatpredictsv eryfewout comes.

Act
ivi
ty DiscusshowGeor
geKel
l
y’sconst
ruct
iveal
ter
nat
ivi
sm di
ff
erswi
thFr
eud’
s
determini
sm.

Feedback/
Hint
Page64of64
Assi
gnment 1 Def
inet
hef
oll
owi
ngt
erms:
-

a) Per
ipher
alconst
ruct
s

b) Pr
e-empt
iveconst
ruct
s

c) Per
meabi
l
ity

2 Di
ff
erent
i esubor
at dinat
econst
ructf
rom super
-or
dinat
econst
ruct
.

3 Expl
ainthepr
oposi
ti
onst
hatdet
ermi
nehumanbehav
iouraccor
ding
toKel
ly.

CHAPTERELEVEN
THEHUMANISTIC/
EXISTENTI
ALAPPROACHTOPERSONALITY
ABRAHAM MASLOW’SSELF-
ACTUALIZATI
ONTHEORY
Intr
oduction
Inthistopicweshal llookatt heHumani st i
cAppr oacht oper sonal
i
ty.Humani st i
cApproaches
to psychologyar e also caled Exi
l stentialAppr oaches orPhenomenol ogi calAppr oaches.
Accordingt ohumani sti
capproach, allappr oachesshar eaf undament almisper cepti
onint hei
r
viewofhumannat ure.Ahumani sticappr oachemphasi zesthatpeople’sbasi cgoodnessand
thei
rtendency[ -
ies]togr owtohi gherl evelsoff uncti
oning.Itisthi
sconsci oussel f-
motivated
abil
it
ytochangeandi mpr ovealongwi thpeopl e’suniquecr eati
veimpulsest hatmakeupt he
coreofper sonal
ity.Themaj orproponent soft hehumani st
icpointofviewar eCar lRogersand
Abraham Masl ow.

Page65of65
Abraham Har oldMasl owwasbor ninBr ookly
n,NewYor ki n1908ofRussi anJewishpar ents
whohadmi gratedt ot heUSA.Heent eredCi t
yCol l
egeofNew Yor kt ostudyLaw,butgot
boredandqui t.Hej oinedCor nelltost udyPsy chologybutdr oppedout .Laterhej oi
nedt he
Universit
yofWi sconsin,wher ehest udi edpsy chol
ogicalmet hodsofWi lhelmnWundtand
JamesWat son.Wor kingwi thani malr esearchpsy chologist
s,hel ai
dthebasi sforhisSel f
-
actuali
zationTheor y.Masl owr eceivedhi sDoct oratefrom Wisconsinin1934,andwor kedas
Edwar dThor ndike’sassi stantatCol umbi aUniversi
ty.Hepubl i
shedhi spaperPsy chologi
cal
Review in1934.Hej oinedBr ookl
ynCol l
egeandcamei nt
ocont actwithwor ksofmany
scholars,amongt hem Kar enHor ney, Alfr
edAdl er,andFromm.I n1951,hemov edtoBr andeis
Universit
y,wher ehepubl shedMot
i i
vat i
onandPer sonali
ty,andTowar daPsy chol
ogyofBei ng.
In1967, hewasel ectedpr esidentoft heAPA.Hedi edofahear tatt
ackin1970.
11.1 I ntr
oducti
ont oMasl ow’sTheoryofSel f
-Actuali
zati
on
“Maslow’stheoryori
ginatedfrom hi
sst udyofanimal s.HisDoctoratewasastudyofdominance
hier
archiesamongacol onyofmonkey s.Hef oundt hatthedomi nantmonkeydidnotexerti
ts
powerbyaggr ession,butbyani nner“confidence”whi chotheranimalsseemedtosenseasan
expectati
onthatit
saut hori
tywouldprevail
”(Ngari,
2005) .

Abr
aham Masl
ow’
sbasi
swast
heassumpt
iont
hatev
eryper
sonpossessesani
ntr
insi
cnat
ure
Page66of66
thati
sgoodorneut ral
.Thustheindi
vidualshoul
dbeal l
owedtodevelopthi
snature,andthi
sis
onlypossi
blei
ftheindivi
duali
sleftf
reet odevel
opwi thouti
nter
fer
ence.Humani st
icbiol
ogyto
Maslowwast oestabli
shascient
if
icethi
cs,anaturalvaluesy
stem,acourtoful
ti
mat eappealf
or
thedeter
minat
ionofwhatisgoodorbad, ri
ghtorwr ong.

“Masl owmai ntai

nedthattruedev elopmenttowardsf ulf
il
mentandsel factual
izati
oncomesf rom
withi
n.Tohi m,psy chol
ogicalneedsar ethebasicbiologicalneedssuchasf ood,wat er,sex,and
shelter(Freidman&Schust ack,2003, p.
327).Ifwel
lutili
zedt heseneedsbr ingbot hbiologicaland
spiri
tualsat i
sfacti
onandl ovewi thinandbet weenpeopl e.Al t
houghsuchneedsar eshar edwi t
h
animal s,Masl owstatedthattoushumanbei ngs,t
heseneedsgobey ondmer einsti
ncts,theyare
tr
anscendent .Sexualexperi
ence, forexampleisnotjustasat i
sfacti
onoft heinstinct,
butl eadsto
aspi ri
tualloveoft heotherper son.Maslowst udi
edheal thy,wel ladj
ustedpeopl eanddev el
oped
hispost ulatesf r
om hisr el
ationshipwi t
hpeopl eandf r
om hi sschol arl
ysear chf orf ul
filment”
(Ngar i
,2005) .

11.
2TheHi er
archyofNeeds
Humanbei
ngshav etwotypesofneeds:
-
 Basi
cneedsordefici
encyneeds
 Metaneedsorgrowthneeds

Basicneedsar emor eur gentt hanMet aneedsandt heyarear rangedi nahi erarchicalor der.Met a
needsar enotar rangedi nahi er ar
chy ,t
heyar eequal l
yimpor t
anthowev er,butonecansubst i
tute
theot her.Ther ear ef ourbasi cneedsandt heycanonl ybesat isfi
edundert hecondi tionst hat
guarant eet hefreedom ofexpr ession,righttoi nformati
on,f r
eedom t odef endonesel f,andr ight
tojusticeandf airness.Theseneedsi nclude:-
 Phy siol
ogicalneeds– i ncludehunger ,thirst,andsex.I fthesear enotsat i
sfied,peopl ewi l
l
becomeov erconcer nedandobsessedwi tht hem andot herneedscan’ tar i
se.Whensat isf
ied,
thensaf et
yneedsseti n.
 Saf etyneeds– i ncl
udet heneedf orsecur it
y,protecti
on,st ructure,law,or der,li
mi ts,and
freedom f rom f ear,anxiety ,andchaos.Ful f
ilmentoft hesegi v
esr i
set olov eandbel ongi ng
needs.
 Bel ongi ngandl ov eneeds– Ther ei sani nnerneedi nev er
yi ndiv
idualt of eelwant edand
accept edbyot herpeopl e.Theseot hersincl udefami l
y,spouseandot her s.Lov emat urest o
becomeaneedt oloveot her s.
 Est eem needs– Ani ndi vidualstri
v est ogai nrecogniti
on,secur est atus,impor t
anceand
appr eciati
on.Goodsel fest eem isbasedonourownf eel
ingsofcompet ence,i ndependence,
andaccompl i
shment s,andont heev aluationofot hers.

Page67of67
Fi
gur
e11:Masl
ow’
sHi
erar
chyofNeeds

Whenbasi cneedsar esati

sfied,theMet aneedsseti n.Theseneedsar etheneedsf orsel
f-
actual
izati
on and cognit
ive understandi
ng.Ther eisa need to under
stand oneselff ul
ly,t
o
understandtheenvir
onmentbet ter
, andtotranscendbeyondthebasi
cneeds,thephysicalwor l
d,
andt oattai
nourut mostpotential
i
t i
es.Thef ul
fi
lmentoftheseneedsissometimesi nhibit
edby
ourfearsofvastresponsi
bil
it
iesandconf li
ctwithourownv al
uesandthoseoftheenvironment .

Characteri
sticsofSel f
-Actuali
zingPeopl e
AccordingtoNgar i(2005)Masl ow,self-actuali
sershavet
hefoll
owingcharacter
ist
ics:
-
 Theyhav eamor eeffi
cientperceptionofr eali
ty.
 Ar eabletoper ceivetr
uthindi f
ferentsituati
onsanddetectfaker
yinothers.Arenotinf
luenced
bytheirbi
asesi njudgement .
 Showagr eatacceptanceoft hemsel ves,othersandnatur
e.
Page68of68
 Theyr ecogni set heir
sandot herpeopl e’
sshor tcomings.
 Arehear tyi nt heirappetit
esandenj oythemsel veswithoutshame, r
egretorapology.
 Sleepwel l andenj oysexwi t
houti nhibit
ions.
 Are notashamed oft heirbi ologicalf unct i
ons e.g.ur i
nation,defecati
on,menst ruati
on,
pregnancy , andagei ng.
 Aremor epr obl em- centr
ed, andt ask-ori
ent ed.
 Resistencul turationandbei ngr uledbyt hei rownr ul
es.
 Reactst rongl yt oinjusti
ces.
 Possessademocr ati
cchar acterstructure.
 Lesslikelyt of ocusonsex, race,creed,religion,educati
on,orsoci alcl
ass.
 Donotconsi dert hemsel vessuper i
orinanyway .
 Acknowl edge t heirl i
mitations,seek adv ice,and r espectt hose who can t each them
somet hing.
 Theyt endt ohav eelit
efriendswhom t heychooseonbasi soft alentandabil
ityonly.
 Canbebor ing, stubborn,andi rri
tati
ng.
 Arenotf reef rom super fi
cial v
anity,pri
deandpar ti
ali
tytotheirownpr oducti
ons.
 Oftenhav et emper s.

11.
4Abr
aham Masl
ow’
sVi
ewsonMot
ivat
ion
Maslow devel
opedproposi
tionsconcer
ninghi
smot
ivat
iont
heor
y.Amongt
hemosti
mpor
tant
onesarethoseli
stedi
nthetablebel
ow:

Tabl
e3:Masl
ow’
sAssumpt
ionsonMot
ivat
ionTheor
y
Dr
ive/
mot
ive Meani
ng
1.The indi
vi
dualas Whole person i
s mot i
vated,notjustpar
tofi t.Ther
ei s need of
i
ntegr
atedwhol
e i
ndivi
dual-
not par t of him, e.g. st
omach or anot her organ.
Consequentl
y,sat
isfact
ionistothewhol
eperson.Whenaneedar i
ses,
theenti
reperson’spercepti
ons,andmemory,thi
nki
ngarechannell
ed
toseekthesati
sfacti
on.
2. Hunger as a Hungerisapar adigm f
orallothermoti
vat
ions.Itisnotasomat i
cor
par
adi
gm st
omachdr i
ve.Example,hungerforcompany,fr
iends,prai
se,andl
ove.
Al
ldr
ivesfol
lowt heexamplesetbythephysiol
ogicalneeds.
3.Meansandends Dri
vesindailyl
iv
esar emeanstoanend.Desir
eformoneyi snotan
endtoitsel
f;moneyisusedtobuyourhumanneedsati
sfi
ers.Money
hereisasymptom whichwouldleadt
ounderst
andthepsychol
ogical
needs, and psychopat
hol
ogy. Some goal
s symboli
zed by t he

Page69of69
 sy
mpt
omsar
enotal
way
sconsci
ous,
somear
eunconsci
ous.
4.Mot
ivat
ingst
ates. Anyorganismi
cst ateofaff
air
sisinit
selfamot ivat
ingst at
e.Feel
ings
ofrejecti
on,inf
eriori
ty,et
c are dri
ves to achievet heirdesir
able
opposit
es.Mot i
vati
on isa constantdri
v e which fl
uctuatesand is
complex.Moti
vati
oni sauni
versal
character
isti
cofev er
yor gani
sm.
5. Rel
ati
onshi
ps of Mani sawant i
ng animaland r arel
yr eachesast at
eofcompl ete
moti
vat
ions sati
sfact
ionexceptforashorttime.Sat i
sfacti
onofonedesiremakes
anotherdesi
resurface.Duet ot heinterl
inkagesofmot i
vati
ons,any
desir
e cannotbe t aken by i
tself
.These want s seem to ar
range
themselv
esinasor tofhi
erar
chyofpot ency .
6.Li
stofdr
ives Thepot encyofonedesi ret ocomet oconsciousnessdependsont he
stateofsat isf
acti
onordi ssati
sfactionofotherpot entdesir
es.States
arenoti solatedandcannotbel isted.A particul
ardesiremaybea
channelt hrough whi ch sev er
alot herdesi r
es expr ess t
hemsel ves.
Desiresar ranget hemsel vesin or derofhi erarchyspecifi
city
.Each
fundament aldesireisa“ coll
ecti
on”ofdesi res.Forexampl e,desir
ef or
l
ov eimpliesdr iv
e,desire,andgoalobj ect
-al lseem tobet hesame
thing.
7.Desi
reandcul
tur
e Allfundament alhumandesi resar esimilar
.Thedif f
erenceshowsi n
how theseneedsandsat i
sfi
ersar eperceiv
ed.Sel
fest eem isalway s
thesamebuti t
sexpr essi
onv ariesfrom oneculturet oanother.To
achi
ev eselfesteem mayi mplybei ngagoodhunt er,goodherbalist
,
unemot i
onal,etc.Endsar emor euni v
ersalthanr
oadst akentoattain
them.Wear emor eal
ikethandifferent.
8. Mul
ti
ple Onedesi reormotivat
ionmayhav eot herdesiresall
iedtoi t
.Asi ngl
e
moti
vat
ions psychologicalor pathologicalcomponent may r epresent same,
diff
erent,orevenopposingdesi res.Ahy ster
icall
ypar al
ysedarm may
representthemult
ipl
edesi r
esf orrevenge,pit
y,love,
andr espect
.
9. Classif
icati
on of A moti
vati
onalli
femayonlybeconstr
uctedfrom thefundament al
moti
vationalli
fe goal
s of needs.Needs cr
eatethe necessi
ti
es of l
i
fe.Wi thout
moti
vat
ion,li
femaybesever
elyl
imi
tedandlackasenseofdi r
ection
andpur
pose.
10. Moti
vat
ion and Humanbeingsandmostanimalshav ethesamebasi
cinst
inct
s,need
ani
maldat
a forf
ood,saf
ety
,sex,et
c.t
heref
ore,fi
ndingsf
rom t
hest
udyofanimals
canbeappli
edtohumanbeingswithcauti
on.
11.Env
ironment Mot
ivat
ors ar
e sat
isf
ied t
hrough behav
iour
s whi
ch happen i
n an

Page70of70
 environmentinv ol
vi
ngotherpeople,andcul tureasanadapt ivetool
.
Howev er
,iti
sal waysgoodnott ot r
eatanor ganism asapar tofthe
environmentorsi t
uati
on.Indi
vi
dualscreatet hei
rownbar ri
ersandits
objectsofv alueaswel lasthemostef fi
cientandf easi
blewayst o
achievei ts needs.This call
sf or t
he necessi t
y of taki
ng into
considerati
ont hemacroandmi cr
oenv i
ronment s.
12.I
ntegr
ati
on Anor ganism,alt
houghbehavi
nginani ntegr
alwayhasal somany
vari
abil
i
ties.Whenat hr
eati
sover
whelming,orwhentheorganism i
s
tooweakorhel pl
esstomanageadesi
re,
ittendst
odisi
ntegr
ate.Buti
f
l
ifeis successfuland easy,an or
ganism can do many t hi
ngs
simult
aneously
.
Sour
ce:
Masl
ow(
1971,
p.19-
33)(
Ngar
i,2005)
.

Act
ivi
ty Di
scusst
hef
lowofhumanneedsasadv
ancedbyMasl
ow.

Feedback/Hi
nt Maslow’
sHier
archyofneeds.
Assignment 1. Defi
net
hefoll
owingterms:
-

a) Sel
f-Act
ual
i
zat
ion

b) PeakExper
ience

2. Di
ff
erent
i ebasi
at cneedsf
rom gr
owt
hneeds.

3. Explai
nthechar
act
eri
sti
csofpeopl
ewi
thasel
f-
act
ual
i
zingt
endency
accordi
ngtoAbr
aham Masl
ow.

Page71of71
 CHAPTERTWELVE
THEHUMANISTI
C/EXI
STENTIALAPPROACHTOPERSONALI
TY
CARLROGERS’PERSONCENTEREDTHEORY
I
ntr
oduct
ion

Int
histopi
cweshallconti
nuetolookattheHumanist
icApproachtopersonal
it
y .Weshalll
ook
atwhatcouldbet hemostr evolut
ionarytheor
yofpersonali
tyinthiscentury,thePerson
Center
edTheor
y.Thistheorywasdev el
opedbyoneofthegreatestpsy
chologistsofourti
me,
Carl
Rogers.

“CarlRansom Rogerswasbor nonJanuary8,1902inOakPar k,Il

li
nois,
Chicago.Wheny oung,
herear edanimalsanddev el
opedaninterestinsci
enti
fi
cagr i
cultur
e.Heent er
edWi sconsi
n
Universit
yand graduated wi
th adegreei n sci
ent
if
icagriculture.Later
,heent er
ed Union
TheologicalSeminar
yi nNew York(C.RogersandRussel ,2002) .Duri
ngt hesamet ime,he
j
oined Col umbi
aUni ver
sit
yto studypsychology.Duetof ami l
yneeds,bef or
ecompl eti
ng

Page72of72
studieshet ookaj obasapsy chologi stattheSoci etyforthePr eventionofCr uel
tyt oChi l
dren
i
nRochest er,
NewYor k.Hecompl etedhi sDoct oratein1928.Hespent12y earsinRochest er,
wher ehewr otehisbookCl inicalTr eat mentoft heChi l
d.I
n1940, hebecameaf ul
lpr ofessorat
Ohio Uni v er
sit
y.Hi sl aterwor ks included Counsel li
ng and Psy chotherapy (1942) ,Client-
Center edTher apy( 1951) ,and,OnBecomi ngaPer son( 1961).I n1957,her eturnedt ot he
UniversityofWi sconsin,andi n1963becameamemberoft heWest ernBehav i
ouralSci ence
Insti
tuteinLaJol l
a,California.Hel aterwr otePer sont oPerson:ThePr oblem ofHumanBei ngs
(1967) ,Freedom t oLearn( 1969) ,Car lRogersonEncount erGr oups( 1970),Becomi ngPar tners:
Mar r
iageandi t
sAl ter
nat iv
es( 1972) ,CarlRoger sonPer sonalPower( 1977),AwayofBei ng
(1980) ,andFr eedom t oLear nf orthe80s( 1983).Hewaspr esidentofAPAi n1946- 1947.He
recei
v edmanyhonour sf orhi sacademi ccont r
ibuti
ont opsy chology.Hedi edofahear tat t
ack
i
nLaJol l
aonFebr uary4, 1987( Roger sandRussel ,2002)”(Ngar i
,2005) .
12.
1Car
lRoger
s’Vi
ewsofaPer
son

Car lRoger sv i
ewed a per son ( human bei ng)as a bei ng t hati sr ati
onal,r eal isti
c,and
responsi bl
ef orhis/herchoi ces,mat uri
ty,andgr owt h.Het ookaphenomenol ogi calappr oach
thatseest heper sonf r
om wi thi
nt heirexper ienceandt hel ensest heyuset ov iew t hewor ld
aroundt hem.Hi stheor ycal ledper soncent ereddef inesper sonal i
typr i
mar il
yf rom t hev iewof
consci ousev ents.Freudwhov i
ewedper sonal ityfrom unconsci ousper specti
v ewasnotv ery
wel comei nRoger ’
st heor y.Whatr egulatesourbehav i
ourisourunder standingofouri nt ernal
framewor kandourexper i
ences( Ngar i
,2005) .Hepr eferredt ocal lthosewhosoughthel p
clientsr atherthanpat i
ent saswast hecasebef ore.Thishear guedwasbecauseacl ienti sone
whomakesaconsci ousdeci siont oseekhel p,whi l
est il
lmai ntai
ni ngal ocusofev aluat i
onand
al ocusofdeci sion.“Ant isocialemot i
ons, host i
lit
y,andj ealousyar enotspont aneousi mpul ses
thatmustbecont r
olled;r athertheyar er eactionst of rustr
at i
onsofmor ebasici mpul ses;f or
exampl e, l
ove,belongi ng, andsexual i
ty.Humanbei ngsar ebasi callyco- operati
v e,const ructive,
andt rust wor t
hy.Whenaper sonisf reef r
om def ensiveness, hisreact i
onsar eposi ti
ve, for war d
mov ing,andconst ructive.Roger s’st heorydi dnotdwel loncont roll
ingt heper son’ sant i
soci al
aggr essi veandot hernegat iveimpul ses. Hebel i
ev edt hatonewi llbecomesel f-regul atory,
bal ancinghi s/herneedsagai nsteachot her.Aper son’ sneedf oraf fecti
onandcompani onshi p,
forexampl ewi l
lbalanceanyaggr essi vereact i
onorext r
emeneedf orsat i
sfactiont hatwoul d
i
nt erfer ewi ththesat i
sf act i
onofot herper sons”( Ngar i
,2005) .
Ani ndivi
dualpossessest hecapacitytoexper i
encef actorsofhi spsy chologicaladjustment,
thereby seeking and st ri
ving to achieve mor e adjustment and mov i
ng away f r
om
mal adj
ustment.Thet endencyt oadjustist hetendencyt oSel f-
Actuali
ze.Int hepr esenceof
permi t
ti
ngcircumstances,indivi
dualhast hecapaci tytogui de,regulat
eandcont rolhimself.
“Onlyintheabsenceoft heseconditi
ons, andnoti nanybasi csense, isitnecessaryt oprovi
de
externalcontr
olandr egul
ationofthei ndi
vidual
.Thi sway ,Rogersj usti
fi
edi nsti
tut
ionali
zati
on
ofpeopl ewhoseinternalcont r
olswereasoci alrisk”(Ngari,2005).Rogersunder st
oodpeopl e
Page73of73
andusedt
hef
oll
owi
ngt
odescr
ibet
hecondi
ti
onsofpeopl
easseeni
nNgar
i(2005)
.
 Act
ual
izi
ngTendency
:Theinher
enttendencyoftheorgani
sm t
odev
elopal
li
tscapaci
ti
esi
n
wayswhichser
vetomai
ntainorenhancetheorgani
sm.
 Experi
ence (
Noun): Allt
hatisgoingonint heorganism atagiv
ent i
me,whet
heri
n
awarenessorpot
enti
all
yavai
l
ablet
oawareness,ofapsychol
ogi
cal
natur
e.
 Exper
ience(Ver
b):Therecei
vi
ngint
heor
ganism oft
hei
mpactofsensor
yorphy
siol
ogi
cal
event
s,whichar
ehappeningatt
hemoment.
 Awareness,Sy
mbol
i
zat
ion,andConsci
ousness:Ther
epr
esent
ati
onofsomepor
ti
onof
exper
ience.
 I
dealSel
f:Thesel
fconcept
,whi
cht
hei
ndi
vi
dual
woul
dmostl
i
ket
opossess.
 Incongruence(bet weenselfandexper i
ence):Adi screpancybetweent hepercei
v edself
and actualexper i
enceaccompani ed byt ension,i
nternalconfusi
on,and di scordantor
i
ncompr ehensi
ble( t
hat i
s neur oti
c) behaviour r
esulti
ng fr
om conf li
ctbet ween t he
actual
izingandselfactual
izi
ngt endenci
es.Thesear eexperi
encest hatarenotor ganised
i
nt hesel fstr
uctur
e.Suchst ructur
esaredi st
ortedtomaket hem congr uentwithsel fand
expressedasbehav i
ourmar kedbydecr easei ncondit
ionsofwor th.Thi sincongr uence
l
eadst opsy chol
ogicalmal
adjustment.
 Congr
uence(ofsel
fandexperience)
;-Thest
ateinwhichsel
fexper
iencesar
eaccur
atel
y
symbol
izedi
nthesel
f-concept
,int
egrat
ed,
whole,
andgenui
ne.
 Posit
iveRegard:-
percept
ionofsomesel fexperi
enceinanot hert
hatmakesapositi
ve
di
ffer
ence in one’
sexper i
ent
ialf
iel
d,such as,li
ki
ng,respect,warmt
h,sympat
hy,and
acceptance.
 NeedforPosit
iveRegar
d:-Asecondar
yorl
ear
nedneedf
orl
ove,af
fect
ion,r
espect
,and
accept
ance.
 Posit
iveSel
fRegard;-A posi
ti
veatt
it
udetowardt hesel
fwhi
chisno longerdir
ect
ly
dependanton t
he att
it
udes ofot
hers,l
ike r
einf
orcement
,orpr
aise and rewar
d or
puni
shment(Car
lRoger
s,1959)
.

Page74of74
Fi
gur
e12:I
sthi
sWhoIAm?(
Sel
f-Concept
)

“Thegr owt hpr ocessoft hePer sonCent redt heoryi sbasedont heconcept sthatRoger s
attr
ibut edt oper sonality . Sincef rom i nfancy ,thechi l
dhasani nherentt endencyt owar ds
actual i
zinghisor ganism, hei sattract edbyposi ti
velyv aluedexper i
encesandav oidsthoset hat
arenegat i
vel
yv alued. Thi sdi ffer ent i
ati
oni swhati sknownassel f-experience. Thr ough
i
nter actionwi thsi gnifi
cantot hersi nt heenv ironment ,thisexper ienceofsel fleadst oaconcept
ofsel f.Thei nterdependenceoft hesel fandot hersduet ot hev al
uegi vingcondi ti
onhel pst o
dev elopt heper sonf rom needf orposi t
iver egardwhi chi sbasedonot hersf eedbackt o
uncondi t
ionalposi ti
ver egardwhi chi sbasedont heev aluationoft hesel fwor th.Thisi swhat
l
eadst o self-act uali
zat i
on.I ft her ei sani ncongruenceordi scr epancybet weent hesel f
conceptandt heper sonalexper ience,i tcausesat hreat eningaf fect,whi chl eadst oanxi ety
(Car lRoger s,1957) .Thi sisbecauset herei saconf lictbet weensel fstructureandexper ience.
Ifthisexper i
enceov erpower st heper sonaldef ensesy stemst henabr eakdownoccur sint he
form ofdi sor gani zati
on. Theper sonnow behav esatt imesi nway sconsi stentwi tht he
exper iencest hathav ebeendi stor tedordeni edandatt imesi nway sconsi stentwi tht he
conceptofsel f
,wi t
hi tsdi stortedordeni edexper iences.Forani ncreasei ncongr uencet o
occur ,theremustbeadecr easei ncondi tionsofwor thandani ncr easei nuncondi tionalself
regar d.Thi smustbedonei nanempat heticandunder standi ngcont ext.Thei ndiv i
dualisthen
l
esssuscept iblet oper cei
v i
ngt hreat ,lessdef ensive,mor econgr uentwi thi ncreasedsel f
-

Page75of75
regardandposi tiver egar dforot hersandi smor epsychologi call
yadj usted.Thesecondi ti
ons
andpr ocessesandconst i
tutepsy chotherapy( CarlRogers, 1957p. 386) .Theexpr essionofself
feel
ingst hroughv erbalormot orchannel s,whichhav er ef er
encet osel f,helpst osy mboli
ze
onesexper i
ences. Theseexpr essedf eeli
ngshav ereferencet ot hei ncongr uencebet ween
personalexper i
enceandsel f-concept .Theper soncomest oexper i
encef ull
y ,i
nawar enessthe
feel
ings,whi cht hreat ensel fconceptbecauseoft heuncondi t
ionalposi ti
ver egar doft he
therapist.Suchf eelingscoul dhav ebeendeni edt oawar enessordi stortedi nawar eness.The
therapistr oleoft het herapi
sti suncondi tionalpositi
ver egar disnotbei ngexper iencedi sto
helpt hecl ientdev elopabel ieft hathehast hecapacityt oachi ev eahi gherl evelofhuman
performanceandl ife. Thi spowerwi thint heper sonhel pst or e-organi ze,andassi mil
ate
dist
ort edordeni edexper i
ences.Thecl ientt henreconstr
uct st hesel fstructureandhi sconcept
of sel f becomes i ncr easi
ngl y congr uent wi th his exper i
ences.Def enses,t hreat and
i
ncongr uencear er educedandaper sonr e-devel
opsaf eel i
ngofuncondi ti
onalposi tiv
eself
regard.Fi nall
ythecl ientexper ienceshi msel fast helocusofev aluati
on.Hebecomesmor e
congruent , r
eali
sti
c, obj ecti
veandef f
ectivei nproblem-sol vi
ng”( Ngar i
,2005) .

12.
2 ThePer
sonwi
thaSel
f-
Act
ual
izi
ngTendency

ThePer
son’
sexper
iencesast
heUl
ti
mat
eAut
hor
it
y

Rogerssuggest edt hatpeopl ehav eaneedf oraposi ti

vegr owt ht hatrefl
ectsauni versal
requir
ementtobel ovedandr espect
ed.Behav i
ourisdet er
mi nedbyt heindiv
idual’
ssubjectiv
e
experi
enci
ngoft her eali
ty.Thisphenomenol ogicalinnerr ealit
y,ratherthanext er
nalfactors,
i
nfluence behav i
our.An i ndivi
dual
’s phenomenalf i
eldi ncludes al lthe conscious and
unconsci
ous exper iences,t he organi
smi c experiencing.Heal t
hy peopl e symbolise their
experi
encesaccur ately
,whi l
eunhealthypeopledi st
or torr epressthem,andar ehenceunabl e
tosymbolisethem.

Self-
Actuali
singTendency
Everyindivi
dualhasani nnatesel fmot i
vati
ngt owardsfulf
ill
i
ngone’ spot enti
als,adr iv
et o
achieveselfactual
ization.Thi si sacommonur get oexpand,extend,becomeaut onomous,
develop,andmat ur
e.Thesel fact ualizi
ngtendencyisbothbiological
,dri
vesai medatat tai
ning
basicneeds,andpsy chological,drivesaimedatat t
aini
ngone’ spotenti
als.Allhumanbei ngs
aregood,andal lst
rivet odev elopt hisgoodnessbutt hesocietyhast omaket hi
spossi bl
eby
helpingandencouragi ngt heindividuals.I
nspi t
eoft henaturalgoodnessofi ndivi
duals,some
developbadbehav i
ourduet of aul
tysoci al
izati
on.

TheValui
ngProcessi
nInfant
s
I
nfant
sv i
ewthei
rexperi
encesasr
eal
i
ty,t
heyar
enoti
nfl
uencedbyot
her
s’opi
nions,andt
hey
Page76of76
operatefrom aninter
nalframeofr ef
er nanor
ence.Theyengagei ganismicv al
uingprocess,
maki ngjudgementsaccordingtothei
rwor t
hinter
msofaidi
ngselfactuali
zat
ion.Experi
ences
thatpromot eselfactual
i
zat i
onare‘good’orpositi
vel
yval
ued,whil
et hoset hatinhi
bitself
actuali
zati
onar e‘
bad’ornegat i
vel
yvalued.Thusi
nfant
sknowinsti
nctivel
ywhatexper i
ences
are‘good’or‘bad’
.

TheVal ui
ngProcessinAdul t
s
Inadultsther
eisacompl expr ocessofexperi
enci
ngmanyt hingsandeventsli
kepol
it
ics,ar
t,
soci
alr el
ati
onshi
ps,personalrelat
ionshi
ps,andethi
cs.Val
uej udgement
sof t
enchangewi t
h
changingexperi
ences.Althoughadul t
sli
stentoot
herpeople,theytr
ustthei
rownwisdom in
thejudgementsthatt
heymake.

TheSel f-
Concept
Self
-conceptistheor ganisedsetofchar act erist
icsthattheindi
vidualper cei
vestobepeculi
ar
tohi m.I tdevelopssociallythroughthei nt eracti
onwi t
hsignif
icantot hers,andisbasedon
thei
rev al
uati
onofus.I tist husanev aluat ionbasedonwhatot herst hink.Ther eli
anceonthe
evaluati
onofot hersemer gesf r
om ourst rongneedf orpositi
veregar df rom them.Thisdesi
re
forposi t
iveregardinsomeci rcumstancesbecomesmor ecompel lingt oust hanourown
organismicvaluingprocess.Thi sneedal sol eadsust ohaveasel f
-conceptt hati
spinnedto
conditi
onsofwor t
h.Thati s,weat t
achv aluet oexper i
encesandbehav iour sbasedonwhether
theyareacceptabletoot hersandmeett hei rappr ovalornot.

Aheal thyself
-conceptcanonlydev elopint hepr esenceofuncondi ti
onalposi ti
ver egard,a
deepandgenui necar i
ngforot hers,uncontami natedbyj udgement sorev aluat
ionsofour
thoughts,feeli
ngs,orbehav iours.When t her ei s uncondi t
ionalpositiver egard,t herei s
congruence between the sel
f-conceptand t he organismi c exper
iencing.We cl assifyour
feeli
ngs as appr opri
ate or inappropriat
e dependi ng on our or ganismic exper i
encing.
Congr uenceleadst oaccuratesy mbol i
zati
onofexper iences,whil
ei ncongr uencel eadst o
distor
ted symbol i
sati
on ofexper i
ences,psy chologicalmal adj
ust
ment s and v ulnerabi
lit
y.
Incongruenceresult
stoanxiet
y ,
whichset sindef encemechani sms,andifanxi etyi
st oomuch,
defencesmayf ailandresul
ttodisorganisat
ion, psychosis.

ToRoger sandot herhumani sti

cappr oachtheorists,suchasAbr aham Masl
ow,thegoalof
personali
tygrowthissel f-
actual
izati
on.Self
-act
ualizati
oni sast at
eofselfful
fi
lmentinwhich
peoplereli
estheirhighestpotential
.Peoplewhoar esel f
-actual
izedacceptt
hemselvesasthey
areinreali
tywhichenabl esthem toachievehappinessandf ul
fi
lment.

Act
ivi
ty Di
scusshowhumansachi
eveSel
f-
Act
ual
i
zat
ionaccor
dingt
oCar
lRoger
s.

Page77of77
Feedback/Hi
nt LookattheSel
f-
Actual
izi
ngTendenci
es
Assignment 1.Definethef
oll
owingterms:
-

a) Posi
ti
veRegar
d

b) Congr
uence

c) Sel
f-
Concept

Page78of78
 CHAPTERTHI
RTEEN

RESEARCHMETHODSI
NPERSONALI
TY
I
ntr
oduct
ion

I
nthistopi
cweshal llookatresearchmethodsi
nper
sonal
i
ty.Aswement i
onedinTopi
cOne,
Psy
chologyi s a scienti
fi
c Disci
pli
ne and i
nit
s st
udi
es sci
ent
if
ic met
hods arefol
l
owed.
Welcometot hedi
scussi on.
13.
1Def i
nit
ionandMeani ngofResearch

 Researchisadi li
gentinquiryoracr it
icalexaminati
onofagivenphenomenon, withtheai
m
of solving an under l
y i
ng pr oblem.I ti nvol
ves exhaust
ive st udy,invest
igat
ion and
experimentati
onf oll
owingal ogicalsequence.
 Scienti
fi
cResear chisasy st
emat icandobj ect
iveatt
emptatpr oblem-sol
vingandpr ov
idi
ng
answer stocr i
ticalquest i
ons.Thi spr ocessisasy st
ematic,cont r
oll
ed,empi r
ical
,and
cri
ticalinvesti
gation ofhy potheti
calpr oposit
ions aboutpr esumed r el
ati
ons among
phenomena.
Sy
stemat i
c -Logi calandor derl
y.

Obj
ect
ive -Fr
eef
rom f
avourorbi
as.

Cont
rol
l
ed -Var
iabl
esar
emani
pul
ated.

Empi
ri
cal -Fol
l
owssomest
andar
dpr
ocedur
esofobser
vat
ionandmeasur
ement
.

Cr
it
ical -Quest
ionsexi
sti
ngknowl
edgeorpr
esupposi
ti
ons.

13.
2Met
hodol
ogi
esi
nResear
ch

Ar esear
chershoul d dev
elop oradoptinstr
ument st
o use i
n obt
aini
ng t
he necessary
i
nformati
on.Ineducationandpsy chol
ogy
,thet ool
smostcommonlyusedareobservati
on,
i
ntervi
ew,quest
ionnai
reandstandardi
zedt
ests.

a)Obser vat
ion
Obser vati
onisadi rectmeansofst udy
ingov ertbehavi
our.Ov ertbehaviourisonewhichi s
externall
yexpressed.Observati
onshoul
dbecar eful
lydonet oav oi
dt heobserver’
sbi
asort he
subject’smanipulat
ionofbehav iour
.Observ
ationisoft wot ypes;Uncont rol
ledObser
vation
whicht herearenodef i
nit
el ai
ddownr ul
esandpr oceduresofobser v
ation,andControll
ed
Obser vati
oninwhichcertai
nr ul
esandsyst
emat i
cproceduresaref ol
loweddur i
ngobserv
at i
on.

b)Intervi
ew
Thisprocedureinvolv
esadir
ectface-t
o-facecont
actbet
weentheresear
cherandt
hesubj
ect
,
thr
oughwhi chinformati
oni
scol
lected.Therearef
ourmaint
ypesofint
ervi
ews:
-
Page79of79
 (
i)StructuredI nterview–Thi st y
peofi nterviewi sri
gidl
ystandardi
zedandv er
yf ormal
.The
samequest ionsar epresentedtov ari
ousr espondent si
nthesameor derandt hechoice
ofalternat i
ver esponsesisr estr
ict
edt oapr edeterminedli
st.
(
ii
)Unst r
uct uredI nterv
iew–I sv eryflexi
bl eandnonr estri
cti
ve.Therangeofresponsesi s
unlimitedandopen, andtheor derofpr esent ati
onofquest i
onscanbealter
edt osuitthe
respondentoroccasi on.
(
ii
i)
Non- DirectiveDept hInter
view–I nwhi char espondentisall
owedtotalkfr
eelyandf ull
y
onapar ti
culart opi
c.Specificquest i
onscanbeaskedt of i
l
lingapsandr oundof fthe
discussi on.
(
iv)
FocusedI nterv i
ew –I nthiscaset her espondenti saskedt ofocushisattenti
onona
parti
cul arev entorexper i
ence.

c)Quest i
onnair
e
Aquest i
onnai
reisatoolwithali
stofquesti
onswhicharespondenti
srequiredt
orespondt
o.
Itseekstoobtai
ninformati
oninthesamewayast hei
nter
v i
ewdoes.Therearetwoformsof
questi
onnair
epresentat
ionsnamelyDi
rectCont
actandMailedQuesti
onnai
res.

Ther
ear
ethr
eemai
nty
pesofquest
ionnai
res:
-

(
i) ClosedOrStructur
ed-Hasali
stofspeci
fi
cquestionsandpossi
bleanswer
s.
(
ii
) OpenQuest i
onnair
es-Hasnospeci
ficgui
del
ineonhowt orespond.
(
ii
i) Pi
ctor
ialQuesti
onnai
res-Dr
awingsorphotographsarepresentedfr
om whi
chanswer
s
ar
eselect
ed.

d)St andardizedTests
Ast andardi
zedt estisonethathasconsi stencyanduni form pr
ocedur
esf oradminist
eri
ng,
scoring,andinter
preti
ngbehav i
ourofsubjects.Standardi
zedtestsar
etest
edf orval
idit
yand
rel
iabil
it
y.Examplesincludei
ntel
li
gencetests,att
it
udet est
s,apt
it
udetest
setc.

Rel
iabi
li
tyandVal
idi
tyofDat
aCol
lect
ionI
nst
rument
s

Reli
abil
i
tyisameasur eofthedegr
eetowhichani
nst
rumenty
iel
dsconsi
stentr
esul
tsordat
a
aft
errepeatt
ri
als.Rel
i
abil
it
yofinst
rument
scanbedet
ermi
nedbyusi
ngvari
ousmethods.

Val
i
dityisameasur
eoft
hedegr
eet
owhi
chani
nst
rumentmeasur
eswhati
tisi
ntendedt
o
measure.

Act
ivi
ty Discuss the methodologi
es used in conduct
ing r
esear
ch i
n
psychol
ogy .
Feedback/Hi
nt Lookatdiffer
entdatacoll
ecti
oninst
ruments.
Assignment 1. Def i
nescient
ifi
cresearch.

Page80of80
2. Di
ff
erent
iat
erel
i
abi
l
ityf
rom v
ali
dit
y.

Page81of81
 CHAPTERFOURTEEN
PERSONALITYASSESSMENT
I
nt r
oduct i
on
Thisist helastt
opicofthiscour seanditwi
lladdresspersonal
it
ytest
ing.Wehavei
nt helast
topicslearnedalotaboutper sonali
tyandi
tsvariousaspects.I
nthi
stopicweshal
llearnhow
todet erminepeople’
sper sonali
tyandhow toi nter
pretthemeasures.Ihopeyouenjoyt he
topic.Wel cometothediscussion.

14.
1Int
roduct
iont
oPer
sonal
it
yAssessment

Inourdai l
yl i
ves,wedealwi t
hmanypeopl ewhoi mpactonusi ndi f
fer
entway s.Doy ou
rememberi ny ourchildhoodpeopl ewhower ev erygoodt oy ou?Youmayhav eadmi redt hem
andwi shedt obel i
ket hem.Whywast his?Maybey ouclassifi
edt hem asv eryni ceper sons,
fri
endly ,helpful,prayer ful,orki nd.Today ,youmayknow peopl ewhoar et alkative,f unny ,
reserved, extrovertorint rovert
.Whataccount sforall t
hesedi f
ferences?
Thebehav i
our altheoryofpsy chol ogyi ndicatest hatt heenv ir
onmentpl aysamaj orpar tin
whatwear e.Theenv ironmenti ncludest hef amil
y ,school,chur ch,f ri
endsandal lt hef ronts
thatweengagewi t
h.Psy choanalytictheor yassertst hatourbehav ioursareapr oductofour
i
nf ancyandchi ldhoodexper i
ences.
How doweknow t hemaj orchar acteri
st i
cst hatmakeuswhowear e?Theanswert ot his
quest i
onbor rowsf rom ourdef i
niti
onofper sonali
ty .Personali
tyi sdef inedinmanyway s;f or
exampl e:
 Thev i
sibleaspectofone' schar act erandt rai
tsasi timpr essesot hers;f orexampl e,
Johnhasapl easantper sonal i
ty.
 Thesum t otaloft hephy sical,ment al,emot i
onal,andsoci alcharacteristicsofan
indivi
dualt hatmakehi m orherdi fferentfrom ot hers;li
ke,Janei sav erysoci allady ,
Dav i
di sanaggr essi veperson.
Int hi
st opi
c,weshal ldi scussaboutt heper sonalityinventori
esandhow t odev elopt hese
i
nv entor i
es.

14.
2Per
sonal
i
tyI
nvent
ori
es

Onecandef inepersonali
tyasther el
ativel
ystabl
eanddi sti
nctivepat t
ernsofbehav i
our.These
behavi
ourpat t
ernsarecalledt
r ai
t s.Trai
tsref
ertorelati
velyenduringbehav i
ourcharacteri
sti
cs
thatar
eobser vabl
einpeopl emostoft hetime.Trait
sar ealsor ef
er r
edtoast endenci
est oact,
behave,reactorr espondt odi f
ferentsi t
uat
ionsinapr edictabl
emanner .Thecol l
ecti
onof
thesetrait
swhati ssummed up t o becalled apersonal i
tyty pe.Personali
tyinventori
es
endeavourtomeasur ethesetraits.Var i
ousty
pesoft estswillbediscussedint hi
ssecti
on.
Page82of82
Mi
nnesot
aMul
ti
phasi
cPer
sonal
it
yInv
ent
ory(
MMPI
)

Thistestwasdev elopedin1940byMcKi nleyandHat haway .Itwasr e-standardi

zedi n1989
wit
hanew 567i tems.I tisat ruef al
sesel f-
reportquestionnaire.Thei temsar eofsel f-
ref
erenceIl i
kegoodf ood.I ti
sdesi gnedt odet ermineordi agnosemaj orpsychi at
ri
cor
psychologi
calper
sonalit
ydisorder
s.-E.g.depression,
paranoids,schizophr enia,Li
ar,etc.I
twas
i
ntendedt oassistinassessmentofpat i
entswhocamewi thpsy chiatricconditi
ons.This
hel
pedt oi
denti
fythesev eri
tyoft heirdistur
bances.TheMMPIi st hemosti mpor tantscal
e
usedbypsy chol
ogists.
TheolderMMPI -
2ismadeup10per sonal
ityt
y pecli
nicalsubscal
es, whi
char
e
ar
esul
tofanswer
ingcer
tai
nquest
ionsont
het
esti
naspeci
fi
cmanner
:

1.Hypochondr i
asi
s( Hs)–TheHy pochondri
asi sscal
etapesawidev ar
ietyofvagueand
non-specif
iccomplaint
saboutbodi l
yf unctioni
ng.Thesecomplai
ntstendt ofocuson
theabdomenandback, andtheypersisti
nt hefaceofnegat
ivemedicaltest
s.Therear
e
two primaryf act
orst hatt hi
s subscale measur es — poorphy sicalhealt
h and
gastroi
ntesti
naldi
ffi
cul
ti
es.Thescalecont ai
ns32i t
ems.

2.Depressi
on (D)– The Depr essi
on scal
e measures cl
ini
caldepr
essi
on,whi ch i
s
char
acter
izedbypoormorale,lackofhopeint
hef utur
e,andagener
aldissat
isf
acti
on
wit
hone’slif
e.Thescal
econtains57i
tems.

3.Hyst
eri
a(Hy)–TheHy st
eriascalepri
mari
l
ymeasur esf
ivecomponent
s—poorphysical
heal
th,
shyness,
cyni
cism, headachesandneur
oti
cism.Thesubscal
econt
ains60i
tems.

4.Psychopathi
cDeviat
e( Pd)–ThePsy chopat
hicDev i
atescalemeasuresgeneralsoci
al
maladj
ustmentandt heabsenceofst r
onglypleasantexperi
ences.Theitemsont his
scal
et apint
ocomplaintsaboutfamil
yandauthor i
tyfi
guresingeneral
,self
-al
i
enati
on,
soci
alali
enati
onandbor edom.Thescal
econtai
ns50i tems.

5.Masculini
ty/
Femini
nity(Mf)–TheMascul ini
ty/Feminini
tyscalemeasuresinter
estsin
vocat
ionsandhobbies,aest
heti
cpref
erences,acti
vi
ty-passi
vit
yandpersonalsensit
ivi
ty.
I
tmeasur esinagener alsensehow rigi
dlyaper sonconf ormstov er
yst er
eotypical
masculi
neorf emi
ninerol
es.Thescal
econtains56i t
ems.

6.Paranoia(Pa)–ThePar anoiascalepri
mari
lymeasur
esi nt
erper
sonalsensit
ivi
ty,moral
self-
ri
ghteousnessandsuspici
ousness.Someoftheit
emsusedt oscor ethi
sscaleare
clearl
ypsy chot
icinthattheyacknowledgetheexi
stenceofpar anoi
danddel usional
thoughts.Thisscal
ehas40i t
ems.

Page83of83
7.Psychat henia(Pt)-ThePsy chat
heniascaleisintendedtomeasureaper son’si
nabil
i
ty
tor esistspeci fi
c actions or thoughts,regardless of t
hei
r maladaptiv
e natur
e.
“Psychat heni
a”isanol dter
m usedt odescri
bewhatwenowcal lObsessiv
e-Compulsi
ve
Disorder( OCD),orhav ingobsessive-
compulsi
v ethoughtsandbehaviours.Thi
sscale
alsot apsi ntoabnor malfears,self-
cri
ti
ci
sms,di ffi
cul
ti
esinconcentrati
onandgui l
t
feel
ings.Thi sscal
econt ai
ns48i t
ems.

8.Schizophr eni
a( Sc)– TheSchi zophreniascal emeasur esbizar
rethought
s,peculi
ar
perceptions,socialal
ienati
on,poorfami l
ialrelati
onshi
ps,di
ffi
cult
iesi
nconcentrat
ion
andi mpul secontrol
,lackofdeepinterests,distur
bingquest
ionofself
-wort
handsel f
-
i
dent i
ty,andsexualdi ff
icul
ti
es.Thi
sscal ehas78i tems,morethananyotherscal
eon
thetest.

9.Hy pomani a(Ma)–TheHy pomaniascal eisint

endedt omeasuremi l
derdegr eesof
excitement,character
izedbyanel atedbutunst abl
emood,psy chomot orexci
tement
(e.
g.,shakyhands)andf l
ightofideas( e.
g.,anunstoppabl
estr
ingofideas).Thescale
tapsi nt
oov eract
ivi
ty— bothbehav ioral
lyandcogniti
vely— gr
andiosi
ty,ir
ri
tabi
l
ityand
egocentrici
ty.Thi
sscalecont ai
ns46i tems.

10.
SocialI
ntrover
sion(Si)–TheSoci alI
ntrov
ersi
onscalemeasur esthesoci
ali
ntroversion
andex tr
oversi
onofaper son.Aper sonwhoi sasoci
alintroverti
suncomf ort
ablei n
sociali
nteract
ionsandt y
picall
ywi t
hdrawsf r
om suchint
eractionswheneverpossi ble.
Theymayhav eli
mitedsocialski
ll
s,orsimplypref
ert
obeal oneorwi t
hasmal lgroupof
fri
ends.Thisscalehas69items.

Page84of84
Fi
gur
e13:AnExampl
eofMMPI

Fi
gur
e14:AnExampl
eofMMPIScor
e

PSY-
5(Per
sonal
it
yPsy
chopat
hol
ogyFi
ve)Scal
es

TheMMPIhasa5setofscalesmeasuri
ngdimensi
onaltrai
tsofper
sonal
i
tydi
sorders.These
werederi
vedfr heDi
om t agnost
icandSt
ati
sti
calManualofMentalDi
sor
der
s.Theyarelist
edin
thet
ablebel
ow.

Scal
eName Descr
ipt
ion

Page85of85
 Measures an i ndivi
dual
'
s t endency t
owards ov er
t and
Aggr
essi
veness i
nstr
ument alaggressi
on thattypical
l
yincl
udes a sense of
gr
andiosi
tyandadesi r
eforpower.

Measurestheaccuracyofani ndiv
idual
'
sinnerr
epresent
ati
on
Psy
chot
ici
sm ofobj
ecti
vereal
it
y,oftenassoci
atedwithper
cept
ualaberr
ati
on
andmagicali
deati
on.

Measures an indi
vidual
'
sl evelofcontroloverthei
rown
Const
rai
nt(
Disconst
rai
nt)
i
mpulses,phy
sicalr
iskaversi
on,andt
radi
ti
onal
ism.

Negati
ve Emot
ional
i
ty /Measures an i
ndiv
idual
'stendency t
o exper
ience negat
ive
Neurot
ici
sm emoti
ons,par
ti
cular
lyanxi
etyandworry
.

Posi
tive
Emotionali
ty/
Extrav
ersi
on Measures an i
ndi
vi
dual
'
st endency to exper
ience posi
ti
ve
(I
ntr
ov er
sion/Low Posi
ti
veemoti
onsandhaveenj
oymentfrom soci
alexper
iences.
Emotionali
ty)

Iti
simport
antt
oreal
i
zet
hatt
hescal
espr
oducet
heper
sonal
i
tyt
ypesnotadi
agnosi
sofa
condi
ti
on.

Mi
lt
onCl
ini
calMul
ti
axi
alI
nvent
ory

Based on Theodor e Mi l
lon, Ph.D. , D.Sc.’
s Ev olut i
onar y Theor y of per sonalit
y and
psychopat hol
ogy ,t
hebr i
efMi l
lonClinicalMul ti
axial I
nv ent or
y-I
II(MCMI -
III
)instrumentpr ovides
a measur e of24 per sonali
ty disorder s and cl inicalsy ndromes f oradul t
s under going
psychologicalorpsy chiatri
cassessmentort reatment .Speci f
icall
ydesignedt ohel passess
bothAxi sIandAxi sI Idisorders,thispsy chologicalt estassi stscli
niciansi npsy chiatri
c
diagnosis,dev el
opingat reatmentappr oacht hatt akesi ntoaccountt hepat ient’spersonal it
y
styl
eandcopi ngbehav i
our ,
andgui dingt r
eatmentdeci sionsbasedont hepat ient’spersonal it
y
patter
n.TheMCMI -
IIIiscomposedof175t r
ue-falsequest i
onsandusual l
yt akest heav erage
personlesst han30mi nutest ocompl ete.Af t
ert het esti sscor ed,itpr
oduces29scal es—24
personalit
yandcl i
nicalscal es,and5scal esusedt ov er i
fyhow t hepersonappr oachedand
tookthet est.

TheMill
onCl inicalMul t
iaxialInventory
,3rdedi ti
on(MCMI-I
II
)isanupdat eoftheMCMI -I
I
whichr
epresentsongoi ngr esearch,conceptualdevel
opment
s,andthechangesi nt
heDSM- I
V.
I
tisastandardized,sel
f-reportquest i
onnair
eassessingawiderangeofinformati
onrel
atedto
per
sonal
it
y,emot i
onali
ty,andt est-t
akingattit
ude.Changest
ot heMCMI -
IIincl
udeaddi
tionof
Page86of86
theDepr essi
veandPostt r
aumati
csyndromedisor der
s( PTSD)scales.
TheMi ll
oni soften
giveni nacli
ni calsett
ingwhenquest i
onsariseaboutt hespecif
icdiagnosi
saper sonmay
hav e,ortheper sonal
it
yt r
aitsorchar
acter
ist
icsthattheper sonhasthatmaybei mpacting
theirabil
i
tytoef f
ecti
velycopewithli
feorament alhealt
hconcern.Itcanreadil
yil
luminate
personali
tytraits and personal
i
tystyl
es farmor e quickl
yand effecti
vel
yt han a cl
i
nical
i
nter vi
ewcanf ormostcl i
nici
ans.

Benef
it
soft
heMi
ll
on

TheMCMI -
II
Ii sdistinguished from otherper sonal
it
yt est
spr imar i
lybyi tsshor t
ness,its
theoreti
calanchoring,mul ti
axialfor
mat ,t
ripart
iteconst
ructi
onandv ali
dationschema,useof
baser atescores,andi nterpr
et i
vedepth.ItisanchoredtoMi ll
on’stheoriesofpersonali
tyand
coordinatedtotheDi agnost i
candSt ati
sti
calManualofMent alDisorders(DSM-IV)personali
ty
disor
der sandot hermaj orclini
caldiagnoses.Apar toftheMCMI -
II
IisbaseduponMi ll
on’s
theoryofpersonali
ty,asi l
lustr
atedinthefollowing15personalit
ystylesandsubt ypes:

1.Ret
ir
ing/
Schi
zoi
d

2.Shy
/Av
oidant

3.Pessi
mist
ic/
Mel
anchol
i
c

4.Cooper
ati
ve/
Dependent

5.Exuber
ant
/Hy
pomani
c

6.Soci
abl
e/Hi
str
ioni
c

7.Conf
ident
/Nar
cissi
sti
c

8.Nonconf
ormi
ng/
Ant
isoci
al

9.Asser
ti
ve/
Sadi
sti
c

10.
Consci
ent
ious/
Compul
siv
e

11.
Skept
ical
/Negat
ivi
sti
c

12.
Aggr
iev
ed/
Masochi
sti
c

13.
Eccent
ri
c/Schi
zot
ypal

Page87of87
 14.
Capr
ici
ous/
Bor
der
li
ne

15.
Suspi
cious/
Par
anoi
d

16.
Inv
ent
orydev
elopment

(
htt
p:/
/psy
chcent
ral
.com/
li
b/mi
l
lon-
cli
nical
-mul
ti
axi
al-
inv
ent
ory
-mcmi
-i
ii
/)

Thereare90newi temsand85thatremai
nedt hesamemai ntai
ningthe175tot
ali
temsofthe
MCMI -I
I.Mostofthechangeshadtodowi t
ht heseveri
tyofthesy mptomstoincr
easethe
abil
it
ytodetectpathol
ogy.Thet
estconsi
stsof14personalitydi
sorderscal
esand10clini
cal
syndromescales,
eachofwhichhel
pstodeterminewhetherthepersonmayhaveapersonali
ty
di
sorder,oramentaldi
sor
dersuchasdepressi
onoranxiety.

Thet
esti
sbr
okendowni
ntot
hef
oll
owi
ngscal
es:

 Moder
atePer
sonal
it
yDi
sor
derScal
es

o 1.Schi
zoi
d

o 2A.Av
oidant

o 2B.Depr
essi
ve

o 3.Dependent

o 4.Hi
str
ioni
c

o 5.Nar
cissi
sti
c

o 6A.Ant
isoci
al

o 6B.Aggr
essi
ve(
Sadi
sti
c)

o 7.Compul
siv
e

o 8A.Passi
ve-
Aggr
essi
ve(
Negat
ivi
sti
c)

o 8B.Sel
f-
Def
eat
ing

 Sever
ePer
sonal
it
yPat
hol
ogyScal
es

Page88of88
 o S.Schi
zot
ypal

o C.Bor
der
li
ne

o P.Par
anoi
d

 Moder
ateCl
ini
calSy
ndr
omeScal
es

o A.Anxi
ety

o H.Somat
ofor
m

o N.Bi
pol
ar:
Mani
c

o D.Dy
sthy
mia

o B.Al
cohol
Dependence

o T.Dr
ugDependence

o R.Post
-Tr
aumat
icSt
ressDi
sor
der

 Sever
eSy
ndr
omeScal
es

o SS.ThoughtDi
sor
der

o CC.Maj
orDepr
essi
on

o PP.Del
usi
onal
Disor
der(
Mar
nat2003,
p.312)

TheMCMIhasagoodr el
i
abi
li
tyandv al
idit
y.I
tisaneasyi
nvent
oryt
oadmi
nist
erand
hasbeenal
sousedwi
del
ybypsychol
ogists.

14.
3Pr
oject
iveTechni
ques

Thepr oj
ecti
vetechniquesar ebasedont hehy pothesiswhi chpr oposest hatwhenpeopl e
att
emptt ounderstandanambi guousorv aguest i
mul us,theiri
nt erpr
etat
ionoft hatstimul us
ref
lectst hei
rneeds,f eel
i
ngs,exper i
ences,pr iorcondi ti
oning,thoughtpr ocessandsof orth
(Kaplan&Saccuzo, 2001,p.444).Therefore,theimagi nati
onder ivedfrom suchanambi guous
sti
mul uscoul dref
lectinnerdy namicsi naper son.Thest imulusi susuallyneutral
,butt he
thi
nkingbehi nditisusuallywhatmat ters.Themeani nggi vent oaneut ralobjectiswhati s
soughtandi nter
pretedtodenotet heinnerper cepti
ons, orrather
, whatthatobjecteli
cit
edf rom
Page89of89
aper
son.

Fi
gur
e15:Exampl
eofaPi
ctur
efr
om aPr
oject
iveTestf
orChi
l
dren

Therearemanypr oj
ecti
vetechniquesort estsusedtointerpr
ettheinter
nalcondi
ti
onsofa
person.Amongthem ar
e;theRorschachinkblott
est,
thematicpercept
iontest
s,dr
awaperson,
drawat r
ee,andsent
encecompletiontest
s.Weshal ldeal
withsomeoft hesetest
s.

Ror
schachI
nkbl
otTest
Thisisoneoft heoldestandmostusedt est
s.ThistestwasdevelopedbyJ.Ker
nerin1857,
butlaterr eshapedanddev elopedbyHermanRor schach.Hewant
edt oestabl
i
shpsychologi
cal
disorders.Thi s was bet ween 1911 and 1921 when he publ
ished hisfir
stbook call
ed
psychodi agnostik.Thet estconsistsof10i nkblot
swher esubjectsareaskedtot ellt
he
exami nerwhatt heinkblotremindsthem of
.

Page90of90
 Fi
gur
e16:Admi
nist
rat
ionofaPer
sonal
i
tyTest

Sour
ce:
htt
ps:
//medi
um.
com/
psy
c-406-
2015/
proj
ect
ive-
test
s-98557b64240c#.
dgui
uaw50

Pr
oject
ivetest
sar ederi
ved f
rom Freud’sterm “Pr
oject
ion”whichi soneoft hedef ense
mechani
sms.Itmeans “ Thepowersbywhi chspecif
icimpulses,wishesaspectsofsel f
,or
i
nter
nalobj
ectsar
eimaginedtobelocatedinsomeobjectsexter
naltoov ersel
f(Rycr
oft1968,
P.
A125cr i
ti
calDi
cti
onar
yofpsychoanalysi
s,Basi
cBooks,N.Y.
)

Howev erpr ojectionisal soaconceptofnor malper sonsasat endencyt oext ernali

zet heir
perceptionst ot heenv i
ronmentandi nterpreti
ngi t
.Itisf r
om thismeani ngthatproject i
vet ests
aredev el oped. Peopl ear econst antlyexpr essingt heirpersonalneeds,mot i
vations,and
uniquechar acterist
ics.Theref
ore,whenf acedwi thapar t
icul
arstimul us,oner espondsi nhis
own t erms and manner .Itisfrom t hese per sonalmodes t hatinf erence concer ning t he
personalitypr ocessesi smade.Suchr esponseshel pt oidenti
fyhowonecr eates,mai ntains,
and def ends hi s pr i
vate worl
d( Frank L,1948,Pr ojecti
ve met hods.Char l
es C.Thomas
Springsfield).
Gar nerand Li ndzey( 1961)st atet hatpr ojecti
vet echni ques are consi dered
sensiti
vet ocov ertorunconsci ousaspect sofbehav i
our .Itpr oducesunusual lyr ichand
profuser esponseaboutt heseaspect s.Studiesaboutt heRor schachi nkblotsinterpretv arious
responsesi nthef oll
owingmanner :

 “
Whol
e”r
esponsesar
eindi
cat
iveofi
ntegr
atedoror
gani
zedt
hinki
ng.

 Col
ourr
esponsessuggestemot
ional
impul
siv
ity
.

 Manydet
ail
edr
esponsesi
ndi
cat
ecompul
siv
ity
.

 Whi
tespacespoi
ntt
oopposi
ti
onal
tendenci
es.

 Mov
ementr
esponsesr
eveal
imagi
nat
ion.

 Del
ayi
nresponsesmaydenot
eanxi
ety
.

 Sev
eral
shadi
ngr
esponsesmayi
ndi
cat
esel
f-
cont
rol
.

 Unr
eal
char
act
erse.
g.ghost
,cl
owns–i
ndi
cat
einabi
l
ityt
oident
if
ywi
thr
eal
peopl
e.

 Masks–Rol
e-pl
ayt
oav
oidexposur
e.

 Food–asdependencyneedsoremot
ional
hunger
.

 Deat
hfi
gur
es–asl
onel
i
nessanddepr
essi
on.

 Ey
es–sensi
ti
vi
tyt
ocr
it
ici
sm.

Howev
er,uni
ver
sal
l
yaccept
ed codi
ng oft
hese r
esponses has notbeen f
ull
ydev
eloped

Page91of91
becauseoft
hepr
oject
iveaspectoft
het
est
.

Ror
schachi
sal
sousedt
omeasur
e

1.Cogni
ti
vef
unct
ioni
ngandschool
per
for
mance.

2.Per
sonal
i
tyf
unct
ioni
ng.

3.Sui
cidepot
ent
ial
anddepr
essi
on.

Fi
gur
e17:Exampl
eofaRor
schachI
nkbl
otTestandi
tsScor
ing

Themat
icApper
cept
ionTest(
TAT)

Themat icapper cepti

ont estcheckshow ani ndividualdescr ibespi cturesi nacar d,i ncl uding
thei
rint erpret
at i
onoft heemot ionsoft hei
rchar act ersint hepi cturet hinkingandf eelings.The
testconsi stsof20ambi guouscar ds.Theexami neei saskedt omakest oriesaboutt hem.The
resultgi venpr ovi
dest hemest hatcoul dtellaboutani ndividual ’
st hought .Thecar dspr esent
mor est ructuredstimulit hantheRor schach’scar ds.I tsadher entsasser tthatt heTATt apsa
subject '
sunconsci oust or evealr epressedaspect sofper sonal it
y ,mot ivesandneedsf or
achiev ement ,powerandi nti
macy ,andpr oblem- solvingabi li
ti
es. Theanal ysisandi nterpr etation
i
shol istic,thatis,thei nterpr
et ati
onar ri
vedati soft otalintegr atedanddy namicper sonal it
y
pict
ur e.Ther ei sa v er sion oft he t estdesi gned f orchi ldren and i ti scal led Chi ldren’s
Apper cept i
onTest( CAT)desi gnedf orchildrenbet weenages3and10y ears.Thepi ctures
depicthumansasopposedt ot heear li
erversiont hatdepi ctedani mal s.Thi swast houghtas
betterbecauset hechildrencoul didentifymor ewi tht hehumanpi ctures.

Page92of92
Proj
ectivetest sextractri
chcl ini
calinf
ormat i
onanddiagnosti
cdat aaboutaper sonali
ty.
The
TATdr awst hecont entofper sonali
tyandthei mpri
ntofpersonalit
ystr
ucture.I
neachst ory,
thepsy chol
ogi stobservestheher o,t
heneedsoft hehero,t
heenv i
ronmentalf
orces,thet
heme
andt heout comeoft hestoryt el
ler
.Itmayal sorevealthei
rstri
v i
ngsandobst acl
esinl if
e.
Therefore,t
hest or
yoft hetel
lercannotbet akenatthefacevalue.Caremustbet akensot hat
i
ncorrectinferencescannotbemadeont hetel
ler
.

Fi
gur
e18:AnExampl
eofaPi
ctur
einaTATTest

Dr
awaPer
sonTest

TheDr aw-A-Per sont est,fi

rstconceivedbyDr .Fl
orenceGoodenoughi n1926,i saski l
ltestto
measur eachi ld'
sment alaget hroughaf i
guredr awingt ask.Itesti
mat est hepr ogressof
l
earningv i
sual ,cogni ti
ve,andmot orskill
sbyhav ingt hecandidatedr aw ahumanf igure,
scori
ngt hedr awingf orpresenceandqual i
tyoffiguref eat
ures,andcompar i
ngt hescor eto
chil
dren'
st ypicalrateofacqui sit
ionoff i
gurefeatures.Itscult
uralbi
asi ssmal lerthant hatof
morev erbalintell
igencet estsbutstil
lpresenttoanext ent,especi
all
ywi threspectt oclothing,
andmanyedi tions'scor i
ngcr i
ter
iafailt
oaccountf ordi sabi
li
ti
esorot hernaturalv ar
iati
onsof
thehumanf orm, asat estcaseshows.I thasaf ewcl earopportuni
ti
esf orimpr ovement .Some
vari
antsofDraw- A-Personar eintendedasapr ojecti
vetesttomeasur eemotionaldist
urbancer at
her
than fi
gure drawing age.The Dr aw-A-Per
son:Scr eeni
ng ProcedureforEmot i
onalDi sturbance
(DAP:SPED)test,forinstance,requir
esthecandidatetomakedr awingsofman,woman,andsel f,and
gradesthem basedoni nclusionandomi ssionoff eat
uresthatcorr
elatewit
hemot ionaldist
urbance,
evenifthi
sdisturbancei sover-orunderreport
edbyt hecandidat
e'sparent
.Muchoft heint
erpretati
on
Page93of93
i
sbasedont hesizeofvari
ousfeatur
es.Ittreatsalar
geheadasr epr
esenti
ng" alargeego",apar
anoi
d
ornarcissi
sti
cpersonal
it
y,anddrawingitlastshows" dist
urbanceswithi
nterpersonalrel
ati
onshi
ps.
"A
di
sconnectedneckcouldmeanschi zophrenia,andeyelashesorhigh-
heelshoesdr awnbyamanmean
gayOv
. erworkingofl i
nesmayi ndicat
et ension,aggressiveandpossi bledel usi
onbehav i
our.
Dist
ort
edoromi t
tedf
acial
par
tsorot
herbodyf
eaturesmaydenot
eaconfl
i
ctpertai
ningt
othat
feat
ureororgan.
TheDrawaPersonTestcanprovi
dethecogni
ti
veandotheremoti
onalcues
aboutthechi
ldr
en.

SentenceCompl eti
onTest s
Anotherproject i
vet estist hesent encecompl eti
ont est.Theset estsaredev el
opedaccor ding
tocer t
aintheories,forexampl e,thepsy choanaly
tictheorythatst atesofpr oj
ectionasawayi n
which we expr ess ouri nnerf eelings thr
ough obj ects externalt o us.Itcoul d al so use
Loev i
nger’
st heoryofsel f
-conceptwhi chstat
est hatasaper sonwi thmat uri
ty,knowl edgeand
awar enesscomesat ransformat ionf r
om asel f
-imaget hatisessent i
all
yst ereotypicand
sociall
yaccept ablet oonet hatismor epersonali
zedandr ealist
ic(Cohen&Swer dlik,1999,p.
456).Thei nterpretati
ont het estf ocusesonf ami l
yat t
it
udes,soci alatti
tudes,char actertr
aits,
andper sonalpr eferences.Ther esponsesdenot et helevelofadj ustmentormal adjustmentof
aper sonandcani ndicateaneedf orcounselli
ng.

Someexampl esofasent
encecompl
eti
ont
estar
eli
stedbel
ow:
Il
iketo……………………………………………….
Someday ,
Iwill
…………………………………….
Iwishmyparents……………………………..
Mypar ent
s…………………………………………

Thest imulusint hi
stesti
sthei
ncompl etesent encewhi cht hepersoni saskedt ocompl et
e.As
i
ndicat edabov e,thi
smaydenoteinternaldisposi t
ionsandwor ldv i
ewoft herespondent.The
responsesmayal soindi
catet
hei ndi
vidual’
si nterests,educationalaspirati
ons,futuregoals,
fears,confli
cts,anxi
eti
esandotherint
ernaldy nami cs.Caremustbet akenintheinterpret
ati
on
oft histestbecausesomepeopl emayr espondwi t
ha“ halo”effectint hem andr efuseto
portraytheirgenuineselv
es.

Act
ivi
ty Discuss the methodologi
es used in conduct
ing r
esear
ch i
n
psychol
ogy .
Feedback/Hi
nt Lookatdiffer
entdat
acol l
ecti
oninst
rument
s.
Assignment 1. Def i
nescient
if
icresearch.

2. Di
ff
erent
iat
erel
i
abi
l
ityf
rom v
ali
dit
y.

Page94of94
Page95of95