PAPER I: THEORIES&SYSTEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY

UNIT 2: SCHOOLSOF PSYCHOLOGY: GESTALT

NOTES BY: DR NITASHA KHEHRA
MCM DAV COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, CHANDIGARH
GESTALT PSYCHOL0GY AS ASYSTEM
Using McGeoch's criteria, Gestalt psychology may be evaluated as a system as follows:

. Definition of psychology: The orthodox Gestalt psychologists regarded psychology

primarily the study of immediate phenomenal experience of the organism. They inchded allreasof
psychology within their scope but they began with perception. Later Gestalt psychelogsts -ewin,
Brunswik, and Barker paid increasing attention to behaviour, always emphasizing emergen characteristics
of behaviour.

II. BasicPostulates: Certain important features of Gestalt Psychology aeasfollows

1. Gestalt psychologists were against the analysis of the structural type whieh hey called the "bundle
hypotheses". They believed that the whole is primary and has properties dififerent from a sum of the
parts. They also believed that all wholes tend towards equibrium
Isomorphism: According to Kohler underlying brain processes are similar in form to perceptual
experience, such that it i possibleto know one from the othor Woodworth (1948) used the analogy of
the country and its map to convey the idea of isomorphism. Themap is based on the country and vice-
versa.
3. Contemporaneity: Present experience can be nd d only in terms of present contemporary
factors. The past is important only as far asit isrepreented in the present.
4. Laws of perceptual organization: Wertheime92 stated six principles of perceptual organization
proved via demonstration. Others hae since bee added. Some of these principles are: Proximity,
Similarity,Good continuation, Closute, Familiarity and Einstellung
Insightful learning - Leaming depends pon insight into the situation. Insight is the sudden
restructuring of perceptual fielsuch thetthe solution "jumps at" the individual. Once learning by
insight takes place, it is stable, ard panbe easily transferred to a new situation.
6. Law of Pragnanz: Ourpercepts are "Gestalts' according to the law of Pragnanz.

Mind-body problem: Likegnost other psychologists the Gestalt psychologists try to evade this issue
by pointing to the unity of the organism and maintaining that there was no real problem. However, the
principle of Isomorphism implics at least some kind of dualism (possibly parallelism).

IV. Nature of the data: Immediate unanalyzed experience obtained by naive introspection furnished the
bulk ofdata for Gestált Psychology. Behavioral data was also used, notably in the fields of learning,
problemsolving,ard social interaction.
V Principles of connection: Gestalt psychologists did not think it was important to explain how the
clements f experience were connected because they felt that this problem was an artificial problem arising
from an artificial analysis. The laws of organization are not principles of connection. They state what
structures will arise' and not what elements would be connected. Experience itself is dynamic and can be
explained only on the basis of the relationships between contemporary factors. The basic data is a
Gestalten' that is already organized and needs no principles of connection.

VI. Principles of Selection: The response of an organism is just a part of total experience in a particular
situation. Why one experience occurs rather than the other depends upon the complex relations between all
contemporary factorS. In this sense the laws of perceptual organization also explain the particular
experience that occurs
 CRITICISSM
. Gestalt psychology is not new. Almost everything that they say had been said before. Perhaps their only
distinction lies in putting all of it together in an organized way (making a Gestalt) and saying things
more forccfully and clearly.
2. The Gestalt psychologists eriticize others a lot, particularly structuralism and behaviorism, but they
offer nothing positive to replace what they demolish.
3. Gestalt psychologists tend to be more theoretical rather than experimental. It is only the later Gestalt
psychologists. particularly Lewin who focused on the experimental method.
4. Even the experiments that they do conduct, are poorly controlled, non-quantitative, and non-suatistical.
5. There have been specific objections to the principle of isomorphism. Experimental evidence Viowsth
there is no one-to-one relationship between the brain processes and experiences of externafealky.
Thus, the principle of isomorphism has been criticized. Perhaps it is the only failure of \Gestalt
psychology. It goes much beyond the data that is obtained in experimentalork nbiólogical
investigations.

CONTRIBUTIONS
a. They changed the attitude of psychologists by the following assertions
i) They insisted that the whole must be examined before itisanalysed into parts.
ii) Inter-relationships between contemporary factors are imporant foraiderstanding and predicting
behaviors.
ii) The stability and instability of systems i.e. their emagent dynamic nature must be studied.
v They emphasized the role of physiological processes tn perception.
v) Central or brain processes are important inlearning.
b. Gestalt psychologists were ingenious experimenteproviding the data of research in naturalistic
settings in the areas of animal and social psycholog, and using phenomenological experience as the
basic data in cognitive psychology.
c. They were astute and sharp critics ofpthetsystemaThey forced a re-examination of every system in
opposition by pointing out phenomenathat could be explained only when other systems modified their
fundamental features.

FOUNDÉR`:WERTHEIMER, KOHLER AND KOFFKA

Analysis of phenomena essential for any science and the Gestalt psychologists made us realize that
synthesis is perhaps moremportant than analysis. They emphasized that the world is not bits and pieces, it
is an organized awhole, whics experienced in totality. The task of psychology is not only to analyze
human experience but aisoto understand it in all its complexity as a Gestalt. The Gestalt theory arose
primarily from two urces. A rejection of the reductionist, atomistic, approach of other schools and
theoriesent a negativé impetus; and the belief in naïve introspection and 'Gestalt' quality of experience
gave a posituvethrust to this movement.

Gestalt psychologists objected to structuralism:

1. It reduced mind to elements, and in doing so destroyed something very important -the pattern or
organization of sensory events. Any attempt to dissect this pattern into its component parts was held to
be artificial, mechanistic, and worst of all, misleading.
Stimulus error as conceptualized by the structuralists was not an 'error' at all according to the Gestalt
psychologists it was given the named 'constancy'. According to the structuralists, perceiving stimuli as
they were present in relation to other stimuli in the situation was a stimulus error. The Gestalt
psychologists held that the "stimulus error' was a naturally occurring event, the study of which could
supply important information about perception.
3. Structuralism used a kind of introspection which focused too much on analysis and which forced a
distinction between sensation and perception by disregarding the cues in the situation, which made any
set of the sensations meaningful. The Gestalt psychologists held "To dissect is to distort
Gestalt psrchologists had strong criticismsto behaviorism
of the behaviorist was to be criticized because it neglected many important
1 The extreme objectivity etc. Simply because behaviorists could find no scientific
aspects of behavior such as thinking, perception
way to investigate these phenomena, theybanished them frompsychology.
to simplistic S-R terms was also
The reductionism of behaviorists reducing every complex phenomena
criticized by the Gestalt psychologists who held that the experience of "wholes' has a distinctive quality

the of its parts and hence cannot be analyzed in simplistic terms. Gestalt
which is not merely sum

psychologists focused on molar rather than molecular behavior.

of the body were
3 The behaviorist explanations of phenomena based on changes in the peripheral organs
based on the central nervous
eriticizcd. In contrast, the Gestalt psychologists offered explanations
system

MAX WERTHEIMER (1880-1943)

in
Gestalt psychology was bon with a paper by Wertheimer on apparent movement or phi-phepomenon
used in
1912 using a 'stroboscope' that is essentially a device to expose a series of pictupés ais now
received were
movies. The problem was how to explain the perception of movement wheh the sensatioDs
that of a series of stationary stimuli. The experimental arrangement that Wertheimer used involved a light
time between the
shining through two slits first through one slit and then through tie other the from position to the
presentation of the two slits was within the proper range, the light appearedto move
one

I cm apart. If the interval

other. An interval of 60 milliseconds was optimal to perceive movemen in lights
was longer than 200 milliseconds, the lights appeared stationary; ifit was to short-30 milliseconds or less,
both lights seemed be on continuously. Wertheimer gave the apparentmovement the name phi. Pure phi

was movement i.e. an

objectless of movement that occarred'in the absence of any impression of
experience
an object that moved.

intensity between of light, time between

The phenomena was explained on the basis ofthe rationship
two phi
exposures, and the distance between two lights Hoffered hypotheses about physiological events,
which might account for the psychologica experienoeof phi-phenomena. He felt that the neurological
to a spreading excitation. In his words "There would
eventsthat to static stimuli
corespond hight give tise
occur a kind of psychological short-cireut rom a to b" in the brain. This implied isomorphism.
molar events
Psvchophvsical isomorphism means brain ihctions tend to take the form of specific
coresponding to these structures that are tound in experience. Isomorphism is not projection but it implies
it. The major utility of the phi phenomenoí was that the phenomenon nicely
illustrated the central theme of
Gestalt psychologists The experience of a whole is more than the mere sum of its parts". In fact,
Gestaltists say that not only is the whole different from the sum of its parts. but 'the part-processes are
themselves determiníed by the intriDsic nature of the whole' (Goodwin, 1999, p. 258).

Wertheimer noted taat two laws follow inevitably if the relation of whole to pats has to be properly stated:
1. Thelaw of membership character: Attributes or aspects of the component parts can be defined only in
the eontext of/ by their relation to the system as a whole.
2. Law of Pragnnz: There are certain directions in which one can predict the emergence of structured

Wholes. unstable equilibrium and unstable structure are 'given', one can predict what kind of
organizatión must supervene. It will be the kind of organization which is most orderly, most
Comprehensive, most stable, most symmetrical in a single word that which is most good. Goodness or
-

as Wertheimer calls it Pragnanz is the dynamic attribute of self-fulfillment intrinsic in all structured
totals. This goal directed tendency (equilibrium being the goal) has often been considered the main law
of Gestalt.

PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION: The best-known laws given by the Gestalt

psychologists, however, are the Principles of Perceptual Organization stated by Wertheimer (1923).
Wertheimer held that in most situations, but particularly in unstructured ones, the perceiving individual
organizes the stimuli according to the following principles of perceptual organization. These empirical
principles are "proved' via demonstration:

3
 . Proximity: Elements closc in time and space tend to be perceived together.
XX XX XX XX
Similarity: Similar clements are perceived together.
XXXOOOXXXO0OXXX
3. Closure: Incomplete figures are completed or closed to make a 'good' figure.

Continuity: We tend to see figures as continuous and smooth without breaks or sharp tur
ND
A B

Familiarity: Often we structure experiences according to past experience pr famiarnty

6. Set or Einstellung: It is the preparedness to perceive in a particular

a y , dependent on the context,
of which the stimulus is a part.

In the later years of his life, Wertheimer worked in the area of thinkng 1045 Wertheimer's book titled
Productive Thinking, was published posthumously, in which hg discnced maiy of his ideas. He drew a
distinction between the Laws of Logic and Laws of Thought.hd Laws oogic being habitual or imitative
behavior and the latter creative or productive acts ofthinking. heploredthe nature of problem solving and
the techniques that could be used to teach productive thinkinge sudied problem solving using many
subjects, ranging from children to Allbert Einstein. He distingui_hed three types of thought processes
Tvpe a processes are concened with decisiye issuand include operations such as grouping,
reorganization, discovery of essential features. They rekfe thsmeans to tasks, and goals, and to the total
situation. Type y processes are blind, resulsán preuatunconclusions, miscentering, pursuing hypothesis
without a sense of direction and subject o iuenceexternal factors. This corresponds to learning by
drill, associations, conditioning, and blnd trial and ciror. Type b processes are partially productive and
partially mechanized.

Productive thinking deals with whoe quakities rather than analysis into particles. It looks for the structural
truth rather than piecemeal ruth. One of the most important ideas in the theory of productive thinking
relates to centering and ydkentering. Icentering, there is a change or transition from a subjective/personal
view to a detached view with an objective grasp of the whole situation and of structural and functional
requirements. One'spersonal experience and beliefs are neutralized. Recentering is obtaining a new
penetrating perspective u theght of personal experiences and briefs. It is the reason behind the multiple
interests and achievements of creative persons - why success in one area leads to success in other areas as

well, after abrief intenyal of orientation.

WOLFGANG KÖHLER(1887-1967)
Kobler tried to solve many prevailing problems in the psychology of his time by applying the gestalt
principles His contributions in three areas were particularly noteworthy leaming, transposition, and
isomorphism. Kohler was particularly critical of Thorndike's conceptualization of leaming. To explain the
process of learning, Köhler introduced the term einsicht. According to Kohler (1925) "learning is a process
of discovering and understanding relationships and organizing and finding significance in sensory
experience aroused by external stimulation". When a problem is solved by the grasp of a single general
principle, the process is called learning by insight. Insightful learning implies understanding a whole and
not merely an arrangement of parts. Learming activities are insightful when they enable an individual to see
the situation and understand it as a whole. Insight implies a reorganization of the perceptual field, the
elements of which, are previously separated and are later seen as a whole. Kohler explains that, whenever
there is a change from one situation to another situation, we can say that learning has taken place. He holds
that all organisms make use of insight to solve their problems.

4
 The complex nature of learning is illustrated by the work of Köhler, which investigated the problem-solving
in German in 1917 and in English in 1924 as The
ability of chimpanzees. He published his reports
Mentali of Apes. Kohler conducted experiments on many apes, presenting them with simple problems to
solve to reach a particular goal. His most famous experimental subject was a chimpanzee called Sultan. In
one cxpeiment, Sultan was presented with two bamb0o sticks, one small enough to fit into the ends of the
other, and some other materials to play with. First Sultan learned to reach through the bars of his cell and he
also raked in a banana on the ground outside using a stick as tool. After Sultan had mastered this trick,
Köhler set the chimpanzee the more difficult task of putting two sticks together to obtain the food. Another
which he could not geeven after
experiment on Sultan presented him with bananas hanging from ceiling,
a
repeated jumps at them. He then started playing with the boxes, which were kept in the corner oftineoom:

suddenly he rushed back with the boxes to the middle of the room, placed one box on op of the other,
climbed up on them. and reached the bananas.

INSIGHT LEARNING: In both these experiments, the evidence of insight lieg in the sudden transition
from blind behavior to definite movements towards the goal. Since the organi_m and he vifonment form
a psvchological field, insightimplies a restructuring of the field. It takes a vefy shortperiod of time. Insight
is sudden. It involves very few errors and occurs among higher order animals and irquires intelligence.
There is a much greater transfer. In fact transfer is shown even if the suation is different, as long as the
response is effective in getting the goal. It is resistant to extinction I t s pot easily forgotten. It is goal
directed. All responses of the animal are directed towards the goal. Even the efrors are linked to the goal.
The performance of the organism is smooth and relatively freq of errors.The whole situation is presented to
the animal. There are no hidden aspects and thus insightful learningis possible. The situation is realistic and
environment.
quite close to situations that the organism might encounter in his aistence and

TRANSPOSITION: Another issue regarding the nature of learning that Kohler debated with the
behaviorists on the basis of experimental work, wasthat f TRANSPOSITION. When a principleIlearntin
one situation is applied to the solution of another problem, the process is referred to as transposition.
The typical experiment involved training an anmal to approach one of two shades of gray paper. For
example, chicks were fed on a darker shade of gray páper, but not on a lighter shade. After such training,
when the chick was given a choice between the wo shades of gray, it approached the darker one. After this
preliminary training, the animal was given a choice between the dark paper on which it was trained, anda
still darker sheet of gray paper Behaviorists would predict that the animal would approach the lighter of the
two shades of gray in the pew situatión shce it is the exact one that has been reinforced during the first
phase of the experiment, fHowever, Kphler predicted that what was learnt in this kind of situation was a
relational principle thatis the annal learnt the principle of approaching the darker of the two objects. This
prediction was foundto betrue. Thus Kohler discovered that animals learn structures and relations
rather than respondingto positiveor absolutestimuli.

KURTKOFFKA(1886-1941)
KfTka taied to develop a general field theory of behaviour. The dynamic field of psychological experience
is the indiyiddal and his environment and their interaction within the ficld forms the content of behaviour.
The taws ot Gestalt., particularly Pragnanz, apply to this field and tend to establish the best possiblebalance
the mos symmetrical, stable, and simple configuration. The environment as perceived and the pereeiving
subject. together form the psychological ficld. Koffka's psychological field, also called "behavioral
environment", coresponds to the phenomenological environment. Human actions are related to physical
reality not as it is, but as it appears to the perceiving subject.

The idea of a psychological field isomorphic to the physical field enabled Koftka to develop a theory of
volition and emotions. Disequilibrium between organism and environment causes tensions and activates
forces to restore the balance. A hungry man secks food, an angry man starts a fight. Each psychological field
contains an important subfield, the personality or ego. Emotions arise when an object with powerful
positive valence appears in the field but the subject cannot reach it. These impenetrable barriers cause
 tension, involving the cgo area, and explosive emotional behaviour will follow. This approach enabled the
Gestalt psychologists to emphasize not the past but the present factors in the environment as the
deteminants of behaviour. This was later known as the Principle of contemporáneity. However, there was
too much substantial evidence for the effects of prior experience on present experience to be ignored. Koffka
1935 1963) attempted to link the past with the present through his concept ofthe memory trace.

Koftka assumed that a current experience gave rise to what he called a memory process. The process is the
activity in the brain caused by an environmental experience. This process could be simple or complex,
depending on the experience it was based on. When a process is terminated, a trace of its effect remains in
the brain. This trace. in turm, will influence all similar processes that occur in the future. According to this
point of view. a process, which is caused by an experience, can occur only once in "pure" form-ater
similar experiences result from the interaction between the process and the memory trace Kofikappied
the laws of perception to learning, concluding that all learning is essentially percepaal reprgantion
which starts due to disequilibrium and ends in removal of tension as the goal of equioriuneakéd. The
most general principle of leaming is thus Pragnanz, the goal directed tendengy tostopquilibrium
Additional laws of leaming are similarity, proximity, closure, and good contihtation. Wier an organism
learns a certain material, which contains similar and dissimilar elements, e simila gnesare learmt more
readily than the dissimilar ones. This is the law ofsimilarit. The law ofproimi inpreption,becomes a
law of temporal contiguity in learning theory. The clements are groupedogetie botby factors of physical
proximity (to form a pattern in space), and by proximity in time (to im aupo configuration. suchas a
tune. a sentence, a story, etc.). The law of closure reflects the idea ofstaing for completion. Koffka (1921)
writes. "so long as activity is incomplete, every new situation greated by isstill to the animal, a transitional
situation: whereas when the animal has attained his goal, he haaivedadsituation,which is to him an end
situation". The law of good continuation, implied that we tend lear better those elements which show
continuity and consistency in their configurations. Koka also introduced the concept of goal in a learning
situation. which provides direction to learning actiyity, s o f reward or reinforcement.

Several gestalt experiments indicated three processes th take place in learming. The first is leveling or
changing in the direction of symmetry nd ood dispribution. The second, sharpening, consists of the
accentuation of the essential elements ofa hgure, whih makes it easily distinguishable. The third process,
normalizing. is related to the clarityand Smpeay of the perceived figure. All three processes correspond to
the general law of Pragnanz or moving towards good gestalt. At this point, we see considerable agreement
with Guthrie. It seems, for examplà that Kofika accepts the recency principle, which states that what an
organism did last in a situati is whàit will do if the situation recurs. Likewise, as we shall see below, the
Gestaltists are in essentialagrement ijth Guthrie's explanation as to how repetition results in improvement
of a skill.

Memory, like parception and jéarning, follows the law of Pragnanz. Memories tend to be completed and
meaningful. even when the original experience was not, Iregular experiences tend to be remembered as
regular, unigue evens are remembered in terms of something familiar (e.g., a catlike object will be
remembered as a car) and minor flaws or discrepancies in a figure will tend to be forgotten. It is the
enduring features of past experience, rather than uncommon occurrences, that guide our behaviour. Again,
theemphasisis on the pattern, the Gestalt, the wholeness of experience and the recollection of experience.
The Gestalists rejected association theory in favour of the law of the Pragnanz in explaining all aspects of
humap experience, including perception, learning, and memory.

6
 KURTLEWIN (1890-1947)
Kurt Lewin contributed to Gestalt psychology by expanding on gestalt theories and
applying them to human
bchavior. He was also onc of the first psychologists to systematically test human
behavior,
intluencing experimental psychology, social psychology, and personality psychology. He was a prolific
writer. publishing more than 80 articles and cight books on various psychology topics. Many of his
unfinished papers were published by his colleagues after his sudden death at age 56. Lewin is known as the
father of moderm social psychology because of his pioneering work that utilized scientific methods and
experimentation to look at social behavior. Lewin was a seminal theorist whose enduring impact on
psyehology makes him one of the preeminent psychologists of the 20th century

Kurt Lewin's theory is based on homeostatic or equilibrating principles and is variously nown
gestalt. topological, vector - valence, dynamic or field theory.
ashe neo
The theory has had a senificant imact on

experimental. cducational, and social psychology. Lewin holds that psychologieal la Tee not be
fomulated only on the basis of statistical averages rather, the individual case is igporta Thayhe favors a
psychology in which the focus is on the individual rather than the individuals.

Cartwright (1959) summarizes four directing principles (assumptions) jnbenin'stheory:

. Only what is concrete can have effects.
2. All aspects of a situation must be taken into account.
3. There is an interdependence of events in any given field.
4.
Only that which is present in the situation can influenceit outcome
To explain these ideas we may examine the basic postulatesthatewin adheres to:
I. Psychological laws must be based on realitieis only when we have determined what the
psychologically real processes are, that we can exlathebchavior. E.g.: Lewin holds that when we
learn to type, the beginner and the expert e engged n psychologically different activities. The
beginner is really hunting for letters whepeas theexperis punching out words.
2. Lewin holds that it is the total envipanmcnt whic interacts to produce the effect. Thus, to explain
behaviour, all aspects of the situatio mustbetakon into account.
3. There is an interdependence of the vànous aptórs in the field (environment). It is not sufficient to look
for simple associative links in bebayiour Wmust look for more global factors.
4. Only what is present in thasituatiopcanatiect the individual. This is the principle of contemporaneity.
This is in contrast to Frd and behaviorists, who emphasizes the past of the organism and humanistic
psychologists who epmphas futuregoals.

A major characterisficof Lin's fheory is that he never claimed to have a theory. He was concerned with
representing, classikying andmderstanding behaviour that was already present in psychological research at
that time. He merelysought to organize the available experimental results. Lewin's theory can be broadly
divided into descriptieconstructs and dynamic constructs.

DESCRIPiVE CONSTRUCTS
LIEESPACE: Behaviour is a function of the person and the environment.

B=f(P.E)
One may say that behaviour depends on the person himself and his environment. The life space is the
totality of all possible events that intluence the individual. In Lewin's words it represents "the person and
his environment as one constellation of interdependent factors". According to Lewin, each individual exists
in a psychological space, called life space. In this sense, since the life space is an interaction of the person
and the environment, one may say that behaviour is a function of life space.
B f(LSp)
The individual's life space is differentiated into various regions separated by boundaries, the individual
himself being in one region. Regions imply specific activities (e.g. watching TV), passive states of being
(e.g. being admired), group and class membership (e.g. family or association), roles and status (for e.g. being
 a teacher). self-percepts (c.g. beautiful, bright), and even ojects, events and other people (e.g. a doll, 26th
January. an aunt) as they are perceived or are functionally meaningful for the person. As a child develops,
various regions of the life space become more and more differentiated. This differentiation may take place
across various dimensions or along various dimensions. For example, the individual's life space contains a
past. prescnt and futurc. Similarly, it contains happenings and cvents, which have no relation to each other
(across events). Differentiation of life space depends upon the richness of experience that the individual has
enjoved throughout the course of his development.

LOCOMOTION: The second descriptive concept is locomotion. The main aim of Lewin's theory
is to describe locomotion in life space. In simple words, locomotion is behaviour. Locomotion deesn't mean
actual movement in space but it means change in psychological space, a restructuring of life spaeThus,
locomotion may be an overt act, an attitude shift, a newly established connection between-two events, tc.
Another assumption about Locomotion is that it happens due to motivation. Lewin hads that evcthose
bchaviors. which seem to be unmotivated or merely automatic, are in fact caused y tensonsip the life
space. All behaviour, all locomotion, is motivated.

DYNAMICcONSTRUCITS A

Locomotion in life space takes place due to motivation. Lewin has deseribed various concepts of
motivational nature. Collectively, they may be known as the dynamjoconstracts, of they provide dynamism
to behaviour.
EED: Need is Lewin's concept for any motivated state which can be brought about by
physiological conditions, the desire for an environmental o6jaetlor an itention to achieve a goal. Lewin
distinguished between genuine needs and quasi-needs. Genuine necds arise from conditions such as hunger,
thirst, etc. which are important for biological survial Quasi-neéds are purely psychic needs such as
tensions arising from intentions, acts of will, and otherassts of the individual. However, this distinction
does not play a very important part in Lewintheorbec.use of his insistence upon the principle of
contemporary action - which holds that it does not matterwhere a need comes from; the causes of an action
are present in the situation itself and mustbe analyzed taking all contemporary factors into account.

2 TENSION: Tension serves to motivate behaviour in the direction of tension reduction. Once the task
is completed and the aim is achieved, the orgaism returms to a state of equilibrium as a result of tension
reduction. Tensions may be inducedbyenvironmental objects, which have potential need significance for
the individuals. Thus, a cbild who apparently playing contently may experience need arousal and the
accompanying state of tension at the sight of an ice cream. For Lewin, one of the important classes of
motivating tension is,theeone arisng from needs that characterize any individual every individual has a
characteristic need structure that is more or less stable. The needs of an individual may be real needs or
quasi needs. They mayeven arise because of external circumstances. Lewin describes the hypothetical
relationship betwcen needsand tensions as follows - "Whenever psychological need exists, a system in a

state of tension existswithin the individual. Tension is a state of the system which tries to change itself in
such a way that it becomes equal to the state of surrounding system". Thus tensions are emotional states that
accompany anecd When the infant needs food, he is thrown into a state of tension, which is reduced by
fopd.Lewin carried out an extensive research program in which he found evidence for the concept of
tension. Someresults are: In the absence of a suitable goal object, the tension may be discharged by a
substitute action that obtains the same end. E.g. if a person has an intention to write to a trnend, this
establisbés a tension in him which would persist until the letter is written. However, the tension may be
discharged, if the person phones his friend instead. A task that has been interrupted is likely to be resumed
subsequently if the subject is given a chance to do so; because the tension for completing the task has not
been discharged. Interrupted tasks are recalled more than completed ones (Zeigamik effect), simply
because the tension to complete the task still persists in the individual. Lewin concluded that such
experiments show that "Intention is a Force. There exists an internal pressure of a detinite direction, an
internal tension state which presses (us) to carry out the tension even if no predetermined occasion invites
the action". Thus, tensions not only accompany need states but also arise along with intentions.

8
exist,
3.
FORCE: Force is generated by the environment whenever a need exists. Even if a need does not
objects inthe envinonment which satisfy needs or which lead to tension, gencrate a force. Force has

four explicit attributes:

) It has magnitude.
11) It has direction.
i) It has a point of application.
iN) It makes things happen. It leads to changes in the environment or the person himself.

VALENCE: Valence is another pulling construct in Lewin's theory. It helps to account for choices
in behavior. Objects may have either positive or negative valence. Objects that satisfy needs or are
attractive have positive valence, whereas objects that threaten the individual or are repellant have negative
valence. It is important to realize that objects do not literally possess valence permanentlyin the sense that
this idea of valence is used in chemistry. In psychology, it is a conceptual property of theobjects. Thus, to a
hungry child. an apple has positive valence. However, to a child who is experiencinghe ille of having
caten 7-8 apples, an apple has negative valence.

Briefly. Lewin holds that all behavior is motivated. Itis driven by tensions, moved by forces, directed
byvalence, and addressed to goals, The ultimate goalof all motivated behatoris tó return to a state
of equilibrium or homeostasis in which the individual obtains relef from teñsion. Lewin's theory
cannot perhaps be understood without the help of diagrams. Initiall he sed them only as illustrations on
blackboard. Later, however, he realized that they were depicting thine as they really are. He invented a
Lewinn's
fom of geometry based on his ideas in which he used varjous diagrammatical representations.
theory is known as Topological Psychology because he uses a geographichetaphor.

into various regions with the

A large ellipse represents the individual's life space,which is difierentiated
a new infant since he is too immature to
help of boundaries. A blank circle can represent the lipace of educated and imaginative man
have differentiated regions in his life space. Onthe othe hatd, the highly
is shown as +and signs. A
shows a well-differentiated life space. Valencé associatedwith certain region
-

vector indicates the force that acts upon the person. The length
of the vector indicates the intensity of the
arrowhead indicates the point of application.
force and its orientation indicates the diréction offorce. The

distance of the region from the

The distamccof any region from the individual represents the psychological
to another. Locomotion takes places because the
indrvidual. Behavior implies locomotion from one region The ultimate goal of all behaviour is to
system ismothated to returm to equilibrium from disequilibrium.
exists due to needs, tensions, and
returnto astate of equilibrium so that tension is reduced. Disequilibrium
Tensions are emotional states that accompany needs.
valences Need is the motivated state of the organism. valence. that threaten the individual have
Objects that satisfy needs are attractive and have positive Objects
negative valence. Thus there are various external and internal forces acting upon the individual. As
mentioned before, Lewin uses directed lines or vectors to show the magnitude and direction of forces acting
the individual. If only
on the individual. The more the psychological distance the less the force acting upon

one vector impinges upon the individual he will move in the

direction indicated by the vector. However, if
movement will be the result of all
two or more vectors are impelling him in different directions, the effective
Lewin (1936) has given the
the forces. If two equally balanced vectors are operating, the result is a conflict.
best framework for understanding various types of conflicts.

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L.enin(1936) defined a conflictsituationas onein which theforces actingon thepersonareopposite
indirectionand about cqualin strength, Hehas classified conflicts into three kinds:
1. Double approach conlict: These involve a choice between two or more desirable goals. The choice of
one implies the rejection of other E.g. deciding whether to go for a movie or a picnic on Saturday.
Inevitably these conflicts result from paucity of resources in terms of time, money, or energy.

There is an unstable equilibrium at the point of conflict: The moment the indiyidua move towards one
selects
goal, the force acting upon him increases and he is still more attracted towards it. Thuas the person
one alternative, he becomes even more attracted towards it, never returnipg to thcother alternative ever

again. Generally, delaying one option and doing the other first easily resólves strch çomlicts. However, if
neither of the two alternatives can be delayed, and one option must be dhosenat the cost of the other, the
decision can be very stressful and difficult. E.g. Deciding betwecn two equlygood career opportunities can

be very stressful.

2. Double avoidance conflict: These involve a forced chora betweentwo or more equally undesirable
choice between finishing a
goals. The individual is caught between the 'devil and the deep sea, E.g. the
war with possible death or
job we dislike, or leaving it and being called a ailure. Fighng during
torm by indecision. This
flecing during war resulting in guilt feelings, In isse the individual is
conflict is characterized by a stable equilibrien. Sinp fonsé increases with a decrease in psychological
distance, if the individual moves towardsa goa the epulsive force increases and he is thrown back to

his original position.

(G-

If he moves towards onealternative, the negative repelling force grows stronger and he is thrown back to the
other goal. As he approaches the other goal, it also throws him back towards the first one. Consequently,
this stable cquilibriumdoes not allow the individual to do anything. In fact, the soldier in the example
to resolve. Such
would probabiy eyperience a nervous breakdown. Thus the conflict is very difficult
which so often
conflicts are resolved only by 'leaving the field', signifying the flight from reality
Characterizes the behavior of persons caught in this web of unresolvable conflict.

3. Approach-avoidance conflict:_It involves strong tendencies to approach and avoid the same goal.
The individual is drawn to and repelled by the same situation at the same time. E.g. A
woman may want
to marry for sexual, social, or security reasons but she also wants to avoid marriage due to the
drawn toward a cure but
responsibilities and loss of freedom it engenders. A drug addict may be strongly
life. The
dreads undergoing the process of withdrawl symptoms and the return to a lonely, meaningless
a certain distance from the goal the
approach avoidance conflict is also a stable equilibrium because at
-

towards the goal the

positive and the negative forces are balanced. If the individual attempts to move
as he is still attracted to
negative factors repel him. However, neither can he move away from the goal,
it.

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 )
G

Lewin introduces two assumptions to explain this conflict:

Theavoidance,
avoidance force is greater than the approachforce:
there would be no conflict.
If approach tenden we mohe than
The magnitude of anavoidance forceAsdecreases more as aresult
the individual
ofpsvchglogia diseee than the
toward the goalhe ayoidance force
magnitude of an approach force. moves
increascs more than the approach force and he is repelled back to the point of comict. He cannot leave
the situation because beyond the point of conflict the approach fopce predominajes and he wants to
approach the goal.

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTANCE

ZEIGARNIK EFFECT: The Zeigarnik eftect is a psychological phenomenon describing a tendency to

rememberinterrupted or incomplete tasks or cventamore easily than tasks that have been completed. This
phenomenon was first noticed in the early 1900s and has been reproduced in a number of studies. The
founder, Russian psychiatrist and psychologist Bluma Wulfovna
Zeigarnik effect was named after its
Zeigamik. While dining at Arestauradtin the 1920s, Zeisgamik noticed waiters were able to keep track of
complex orders and unpar meals, but)ønce the orders were flled and paid for, the waiters were unable to
recall detailedinformarfog abourthe orders. Intrigued, she decided to study the phenomenon via a series of
experiments in her tb, Some theories mention the cognitive tension that arises from having an unfinished
task and the needtokeepghetask in mind in order to eventually complete it and release this intermal tension.
Studies indicate auner faeLors such as motivation, reward expectancy, time of interruption, and the
achievability of the task may have a significant impact on the strength of the Zeigarnik effect.
royuired
LEVEL OFASPIRATION: Another of Lewin's related concepts, which later attracted widespread
atyention as aresult of David McClelland's work on achievement motivation. A basic idea: Using your skills
aft the level at which they are, you can succeed. In Lewin's view, level of aspiration is detenined by two
factos: The person's relation to certain values and the person's sense of realism in regard to the probability
of reaching the goal.

FORCE FIELDANALYSIS: Force field analysis (Lewin 1951) is widely used in change management and
can be used to help understand most change processes in organisations. Force Field Analysis deals with
analyzing and evaluating the forces that can bring a change in business. By understanding the forces that
might bring a change in our business, we gain the knowledge to explain the need for the change as well as
we get solid arguments to bring aboutthe change actually into effect. In analyzing the forces ofa change
there are two main forces in action. Driving forces are the ones which are are sustaining the change and
restraining forces are the ones which are restraining the change. Thus, if customer wants a new product,
than it is a driving force for the company. On the other hand, if your company is not capable of handling
the technology for new futures, than it is a restraining force. The force field analysis helps in determining
which of the forces are strong (driving or restraining). And once the stronger force is decided, the company
can come down to an cftective decision for change. Completing a Force Field Analysis will help you in
better explaining your decisions and it will also be a useful tool in the actual process of decision making. By
identifying the forces which are strengthening the change, you can take decisions to support those forces.
The same goes for the restraining forces. Once identified, different strategies can be considered in order to
manage them. Examples of forces that can be taken into consideration when performing this analysis could
be the available resources, traditions. organizational structures, regulations. relationships, institutional
policies and noms, etc.

The CHANGE THEORY MODEL, is based around a 3-step process (Unfreeze-Change-Fecr that
provides a high-level approach to improvement. It gives a manager or other change agent a frambrork to
implement a change effort, which is always very sensitive and should be as seamlesas possible The
Kurt Lewin change theory or model can help a leader do the following three steps: lake arddica change
(innovation), Minimise the disruption of the structure's operations and Make sure thai the anmendment is
adopted permanently.

Lewin's Framework for Change

To reduce forces and change

existing attitudes which
Initial problem identification
Unfreeze 2. Preparing the ground and
maintain behaviour in Communicatton
present form/recognising Obtaining data
the need for change
Obtaining data
Development of new Problem diagnosis
attitudes or behaviour
and Impementing change 5. Action planning
6. Impiementation
7. Follow up and stabitlsation
8. Assessment of consequences

Consolidating the change at

a new level and reintforcement 8. Assessment of consequences
Re-freeze
through supporting 9. Ongoing monitoring
mechanisms/poikles/
structure/organisational 10. Leaning from process
norms

DR

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