SECTION I

INTRODUCTION TO MUDLOGGING

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. WHAT THE MUDLOGGERS CAN PROVIDE ..................................... 2

2. THE ROLE OF THE WELLSITE DRILLING ENGINEER WITH
REGARD TO THE MUDLOGGING CREW ......................................... 3
3. WELLSITE ANALYSIS PERFORMED ON THE COLLECTED
SAMPLES .......................................................................................... 4
3.1 Appendix A Visual Estimation Percentage Charts ....................................................... 12
3.2 Appendix B Summary of Primary Drilling Incidents and Common Causes..................... 13

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1. WHAT THE MUDLOGGERS CAN PROVIDE

• Lithological data of the current well.

• Lithological data for offset wells that may provide a prediction of ‘what lies
ahead’.
• Analysis of drilling data trends to pick up ASAP any developing problems, e.g.
Increased Torque and drag, Increased Drilled Gas, Drill String Problems or
Pressure Abnormalities.
• Casing Running Calculations, Swab and Surge and various Hydraulic
calculations.
• Information on Oil/Gas Shows.
• Pore Pressure Prediction.
• Borehole stability information from cuttings.
• Pit level and Mud Flow monitoring.
• Hole Volume data

Typical Mudlogging Sensors

• Stand Pipe Pressure (SPP)
• Weight on Hook (WOH)
• RPM
• Torque
• Hook Height
• Pump Stroke Counters
• Mud Weight In and Out
• Mud Temperature
• Return Flow amounts
• Pit Volumes
• Gas Detectors and Analysers

From these measurements other parameters can be calculated:-

• Weight On Bit (WOB= WOH in mud -WOH on bottom)
• Strokes per Minute (SPM)
• Downhole Losses or Gain
• Rate of Penetration
• The d’Exponent and other ‘offline’ calculations.
• Bit Cost per foot/metre
• Gas Ratio Plots

The information gathered from the sensors and the cuttings samples are plotted
up on the Mudlog (Formation Evaluation Log):-
Each Log will be tailored to the Operators individual requirements but there is a
general layout, the Scale and Field data is on the log header:

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• First Column: ROP and Bit Data.

• Second Column: Depth Scale, along which may also be marked Core Depths
or Sidewall Core points.
• Third Column: Show Details.
• Fourth Column: Total Gas (%).
• Fifth Column: Gas Component Breakdown.
• Sixth Column: Hydrocarbon Cut Type.
• Seventh Column: Shale Density Values.
• Eighth Column: Interpreted Lithology.
• Ninth Column: Cuttings Description, Survey Details and Casing Details.

2. THE ROLE OF THE WELLSITE DRILLING ENGINEER WITH REGARD TO

THE MUDLOGGING CREW

The WSDE and the mudloggers interact with each other in several respects, both
being able to help the other with their work. To do this efficiently and effectively it
is necessary for the WSDE to spend time in becoming familiar with the services
provided and with the crew themselves, knowing their individual areas of
expertise.

A WSDE should ensure at all times that the mudloggers are aware of the
ongoing operations by way of:

• Providing the loggers with all drilling programmes, mud programmes and
offset data at the start of the well so they can prepare the relevant equipment
and ensure the correct supplies.
• Whilst drilling, providing the loggers with all written work instructions and to
take the time to explain it to them so they are aware of all the issues that may
surround a new or complex operation.
• To inform the loggers in advance of all post operational reports that will be
required of them to allow them to ensure all sensors are recording correctly.
• Discussing the drilling trend sheets with the logging crews to help both parties
recognise any developing trends, - many loggers are very experienced at this
but few people rarely ask for the benefit of that experience!.
• To review the lithological descriptions and hydrocarbon shows with the actual
samples, this helps the WSDE to gain a direct feel of the relationship between
the current geology and the current drilling trends and performance.

The WSDE will also gain a good overall knowledge of the existing and recent
trends by a good study of the daily morning report supplied by the mudloggers. It
is necessary to QA check the morni ng reports before they are sent to town to
avoid panic or confusion if erroneous data is recorded. It is also important to
ensure that all important data is actually sent to town, e.g. mud losses, gas
trends etc. and that there is no conflicting data between the mudloggers and
other reports.

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By working with the loggers, the WSDE can benefit from their often considerable
knowledge, and by ensuring they are informed and ‘kept in the loop’, they are
able to perform their job to the highest standard possible.

3. WELLSITE ANALYSIS PERFORMED ON THE COLLECTED SAMPLES

Cuttings Examination

There are many potential sources of contamination when undertaking estimates

of lithology percentages. Some examples are ;

1. Cavings : (cuttings from previously drilled intervals rather than from the
bottom of the hole). Although the cuttings are first washed through a coarse
sieve to remove cavings, some may remain in the sample.

2. Recycled Cuttings : If cuttings are not efficiently removed from the drilling
fluid at the shale shakers, desanders, and desilters, they may be recycled
through the mud system. Recycled cuttings are recognised as being small,
abraded, rounded rock fragments in the sample. Microfossils, which have
been recycled, can lead to serious correlation problems.

3. Mud Chemicals : Some mud chemicals can be confused with rock types,
e.g. barite for sand.

4. Cement : Cement contamination is usually encountered when drilling after

casing or while side tracking. Cement is readily identified by testing with a
phenolphthalein solution. Man-made cement stains purple due to its high pH.

5. Metal : Metal is occasionally found in samples and frequently originates from

wearing the inside of the casing by the drillstring. This is often remedied by
using rubber drillpipe protectors. Other sources of metal fragments are bits,
lost sidewall bullets and the products of milling operations. Mudloggers should
collect the ditch magnet swarf on a daily basis and report it to chart wear.

In some cases, samples may be totally unrepresentative of the formation being

drilled. For example, in evaporite sections drilled with a water-based mud, salts
will dissolve and there will be no lithological indication of their presence in the
lagged samples. However, evaporites can still be recognised using good logging
practices :

a. Evaporites generally have consistent drill rates.

b. Gas values through evaporites will be very low.
c. There will be poor or no returns at the shale shakers.
d. Limestone and dolomites are frequently found in association with evaporite
deposits.
e. Anhydrite sections can usually be identified by BaCI2 solution which produces
BaSO4 precipitate.
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f. The chloride content of the drilling fluid will increase significantly.

Sample Description

A single layer of cuttings on the sample tray is used for percentage estimation.
Care should be taken to select a representative sample from the sieves because
a large degree of shape and density sorting can occur during washing. Getting
the absolute percentage correct is not the most important part, what is important
is:

• to be consistent
• to identify trends
• to identify when a new rock occurs
• to identify when a rock no longer occurs

Once the percentages of the various constituents have been estimated, the
sample description is made in a logical order. Appendix A shows comparison
charts for the visual representation of cuttings.

For these reasons, the cuttings description must be graphic and include all
observable features. A detailed description format, which should be followed at
all times, is :

1. Rock Type 7. Sorting

2. Classification 8. Lustre
3. Colour 9. Cementation or Matrix
4. Hardness or Indication 10. Visual Structures
5 Grain Size 11. Visual Porosity
6. Grain Shape 12. Accessories or Inclusions

In addition to a description format, there are standardised abbreviations to be

used on the various logs, however individual operators have their own preferred
version of abbreviations so it is advisable to ensure the correct ones are in use.

1. Rock Type
The most commonly used method to describe clastic rock type is based upon the
grain size and induration of the fragments making up the rock.
The three major sub -divisions of grain sizes are :

1. Rudaceous : grain size discernible to the naked eye

2. Arenaceous : grain size discernible with a microscope
3. Argillaceous : grain size indiscernible in the field

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The two major sub-divisions of induration grains :

• Unconsolidated : occurring as individual grains

• Consolidated : grains held together by cement or through dewatering

2. Classification

e.g. sandstone, claystone or shale.

3. Colour

4. Hardness

Common descriptions are :

Rudaceous and Arenaceous Rocks

Unconsolidated : Cuttings fall apart or occur as individual grains.
Friable : Rock crumbles with light pressure. Grains detach easily with a
sample probe.
Moderately Hard : Grains detach with sample probe. Cuttings can be
broken with some pressure.
Hard : Grains difficult to detach. Extreme pressure causes cuttings to
break between grains.
Extremely Hard : Grains cannot be detached. Cuttings will break through
the grains.

Argillaceous Rocks

Soluble : Readily is dispersed by running water.

Soft : No shape or strength. Material tends to flow.
Plastic : Easily moulded and holds shape. Difficult to wash through a
sieve.
Firm : Material has definite shape and structure. Readily penetrated and
broken by sample probe.
Hard : Sharp angular edges. Not readily broken by probe.

Several other descriptive terms include :

Brittle Crumbly Loose
Dense Blocky Amorphous

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5. Grain Size
Grain size determination from drill cuttings should follow a disciplined procedure
in order to obtain an accurate overall estimate of the :

1. Size of individual grains

2. Mean size of grains in an individual cutting
3. Mean size of grains in all cuttings of the same lithology

An accurate visual estimate can be made using a Grain Size Comparitor.

6. Grain Shape

For practical well-site descriptions, grain shape is a function of roundness and

sphericity.
Descriptive terms include :
Angular - Edges and corners are sharp. Little or no wear is present.
Subangular - Faces are untouched, but edges and corners are rounded.
Subrounded - Edges and corners are rounded to smooth curves. The
areas of the original faces are reduced.
Rounded - Original faces are almost completely destroyed, but some
comparatively flat faces may be present. All original edges and corners
are smoothed off to broad curves.
Well Rounded - No original faces, edges or corners remain. The entire
surface consists of broad curves. Flat areas are absent.

In addition, other descriptive terms may be used to supplement the above

descriptions. For example :
Sharp Elongate Bladed
Flat Concoidal Blocky
Platy Faceted Irregular
Fibrous

7. Sorting

It is generally understood that if more than 50% of the cuttings are of the same
modal size, then the sample is well sorted.

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8. Lustre

This is the term used to define the surface features of the cutting under reflected
light.
Common terms are :
Coated - Precipitated or accretionary material on the surface of the
cutting. The cutting is not thick enough to develop a visible colour.
Vitreous, glassy, faceted - It appears as clear, shiny, fresh appearance.
Silky, pearly (nacreous), polished - It appears as lightly etched or scoured.
Frosted, dull, etched - It appears as deeply etched or scoured.
Pitted - It appears as solution or impact pits, often pinpoint size.
Striated - It appears as parallel abrasion lines or scratches.

Argillaceous rocks also exhibit observable surface texture under reflected

light. Common terms are :
Earthy Waxy Soapy
Silky Velvety Resinous

9. Cement or Matrix

Cementation is the result of crystallisation from a solution of silica, carbonates, or

other soluble minerals in the pores of clastic rocks. Cementing materials may be
derived from, or related to, the rock particles, matrix, or can externally derived.
Common cementing agents are :

Calcite Sulphates Silica Clays

Siderite Iron Oxides Dolomite Pyrite

Pressure solutions and recrystallisation at grain boundaries may lead to a

rock, becoming indurated and hard, without cementing agents being
discernible.

The difference between “cement” and matrix is one of degree, and may not be
obvious in the sample. In general, where intergranular contact does not occur,
the fill material between grains is matrix. Matrix material does have cementing
qualities which holds the grains fixed relative to each other.

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10. Visual Structures

Some structural types, which may be visible in cuttings, are :

Fractures - usually with some type of filing
Jointing/Partings
Bioturbation
Lamination

11. Visual Porosity

Thus theoretical maximum porosity for a clastic rock is about 26%. This is
normally much reduced by other factors. When estimating porosity use:
> 15% Good
10 to 15% Fair
5 to 10% Poor
<5 Trace

12. Accessories or Inclusions

Fossils are common accessory materials. Macrofossils are rare, though

fragments may be present. A brief description, or possible identification, should
be included.
Fossil amount is estimated as :
> 25% Abundant
10 to 25% Common
< 10% Trace

Other descriptive and tests available are:

Calcimetry

At the wellsite it is often important to not only distinguish the difference between
dolomite and limestone but also the relative percentages of each. This is found
using a Calcimeter. This works on the basic principle that Carbonates react with
Hydrochloric acid to produce carbon dioxide.

Shale Density

One of the methods used to try to detect overpressure is the measurement of

shale density, normally shale density should increase with depth due to the
increased compaction due to the overlying formations. Thus if a decrease in the
shale density is seen it may indicate undercompacted shales which may contain
higher than normal pore pressures.

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There are two main methods for measuring shale density, either in a Variable
Density column or with a Hydrometer. It must always be remembered however
that any cracks or hydration will affect the density figure obtained. All cuttings
that have migrated up the wellbore have been subject to some form of hydration.
Shales and clays are usually hydrophilic, that is they will absorb water
molecules. In a water based mud the reaction with clays and shales can often be
quite severe causing Gumbo (a sticky amorphous mass that blocks shakers and
flow lines beautifully). Thus inhibitors are added to the mud system to try to
reduce the hydrophilic tendencies or Oil based mud systems (or POBMs) are
used. When choosing samples for use in shale density measurements it is
important to choose firm, non hydrated cuttings. Whichever density
measurement method is used, both are prone to distortion of results due to
hydration.

Hydrocarbon Analysis.

Another analytical test that is frequently performed at the rig site is Fluorescence
testing. Luminescence is a common property in nature since molecules of many
compounds will absorb electromagnetic radiation and as a result will be
promoted to a higher energy state. This is not a stable state however and by re-
emitting the energy at a longer emission wavelength, will return to their original
state. There are numerous fluorescent compounds in crude petroleum, all with
different emission wavelengths. Unfortunately crude oil is not the only material
found in cuttings that will fluorescence under ultraviolet light. Minerals are the
most common source of fluorescence in cuttings, fortunately their fluorescence
tends to be dark and the intensity low. For example;
Dolomite: Yellow, yellowish brown to dark brown.
Aragonite and Calcareous Mudstones: yellow white to pale brown.
Chalky Limestones: Purple.
Anhydrite: Blue to mid Gary.
Pyrite: Mustard yellow to greenish brown.

Mud additives and pipe dope will also fluoresce so it is important to compare any
shows to these to eliminate them.

When describing the show it is described in the order, colour, intensity and
distribution. The Solvent Cut Test is used to determine the oils mobility.
Typically Trichloroethane is used (carcinogenic so beware!). Once solvent is
added to a sample in a spot dish several things can be noted:
I. The Cut Speed, solution of the oil in the solvent can take place instantly or
more slowly, this is an indication of the solubility of the oil and the permeability of
the cutting- the ease with which the solvent can flow in and out of the cutting.
II. The Cut Nature, colouration of the solvent with dissolved oil may occur in a
uniform manner or with streams of colour spreading unevenly out from the
cutting. A streaming cut also indicates low oil mobility, either due to unconnected
pores or a discontinuous (immovable) oil phase.

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III. The Cut Colours, the colour of the oil dissolved in the solvent is observed in
both natural and ultraviolet light. After solution the solvent rapidly evaporates,
leaving an oil residue around the cuttings on the spot plate, the true colour of the
oil can then be observed. The intensity and opacity of the colour especially in the
residue is an indicator of the oil density and the quality of oil originally contained
in the cutting.

It should be noted that the mudloggers should check any potential rock for shows
wherever it occurs, and in the sample description should write down that there
was no show if there was no show, thus indicating that the loggers have
checked.

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3.1 Appendix A Visual Estimation Percentage Charts

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3.2 Appendix B Summary of Primary Drilling Incidents and Common

Causes.

Drilling Break Less Resistant formation

Undercompaction
Spurious Sensor Signal
Stuck Geolograph cable
Reverse Drilling Break: Worn Bit
Balled Bit
Formation Change

Pit Level Increase: Fluid Inflow or addition, or dilution from

Increase/Decrease surface, or hole infill while tripping in hole.
Decrease: Losses to formation or due to surface
losses or loss due to hole infill whilst tripping out
of hole.
Gradual Decrease: loss due to infill of new hole
volume
or losses due to surface conditioning equipment
(centrifuging)

Mud Flow Rate Increase: due to fluid inflow.

Increase/Decrease Decrease: loss to formation or due to pump
failure.

Mud Density Variation due to addition/dilution at surface or

Increase/Decrease fluid contamination from the formation.
Decrease due to fluid inflow.
Increase due to water loss, addition of weighting
material.

Gas Increase Pipe connection /trip gas: swabbing action

during pipe movement.
Liberated Gas: from more porous formation and
greater rock volume drilled.
Produced Gas: from negative differential
pressure in permeable formation.
Recycled Gas: gas not removed at surface.
Contamination Gas: as recycled.

Changes to Increase: Mud Additive additions.

Conductivity of mud in. Decrease: Water Addition.
Changes to Increase: Drilling of salt zone, salt water inflow.
Conductivity of mud Decrease: Fresh water inflow, oil/gas inflow,
out. aeriated mud.

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Mud Temperature Decrease in Temperature in: Fluid addition at

Changes. the surface, water addition to pits.
Increase in temperature out: reduced thermal
conductivity in undercompacted shales.

Rotary Torque Increase: Drilling on junk

clay balling on stabilisers
formation change
Bit Wear (progressive)
Cuttings build-up

Decrease: Formation Change

Pump Pressure Increase: Mud density change or viscosity

Changes increase
Blocked bit nozzle
Decrease: Drill String washout
Pump Leaking
Mud Density variation
Lost bit nozzle

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