TTS - Basic Computer Structure

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Module 5.6 Basic Computer Structure
Basic Computer Architecture

A Microcomputer comprises of a number of devices which together make the overall computer
system. At the heart of the computer system is the microprocessor, which carries out all of the
processing of data to formulate an answer. The microprocessor is a programmable logic device
made by large scale integration on a single silicon chip. As will be seen, a microprocessor has a
large degree of flexibility built into it. By itself it cannot perform a given task but must be
programmed and connected to a set of additional system devices. These additional system
devices usually include memory elements and inputioutput devices. ln general, a set of system
devices, including the microprocessor, memory, and input/output elements, interconnected for
the purpose of performing some well-defined function, is known as a microcomputer or
microprocessor based system.
As with the purpose of a basic computer, the structure of a basic computer does not vary
between computers. Each computer is comprised of an input section, output section, central
processing unit, and memory section. The differences in the computers are in the
characteristics of devices used to make up each section of the computer, and the instruction
steps used to control the operation of the computer.
A basic computer system consists of four functional system device units:
1) the input unit

2) the memory unit
3) the Central Processing Unit
4) the output unit
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Figure 6.1 - The basic computer architecture
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The physical components and circuits that comprise a computer system are known as its
hardware. These circuits are capable of performing only a small number of different operations.
Any additional operational capabilities of the computer must be accomplished by programming.
A program is an organized collection of elementary computer operations, called instructions,
that manipulate information, called data. The programs that are written for a computer are called
its software.
The program and data are first stored in the memory unit via the input unit. The individual
instructions of the program are then automatically entered, one at a time as directed by the
Control Unit, into the Gentral Processing Unit (CPU), where they are interpreted and
executed. The execution usually requires data to be entered into the Arithmetic/Logic Unit
(ALU) where the circuitry necessary for manipulating the data is contained. During the course of
computation, or at its completion, the derived results are sent to the output unit. The ALU and
control unit together are normally called the Central Processing Unit (CPU).
ln addition to the memory unit, the other computer units are also capable of storing information.
lnformation is stored as groups of binary digits (bits) in storage devices called registers.
Essentially the operation of the computer can be. regarded as a series of information transfers
from register to register with possible information modification (e.9. addition) being performed
between transfers. The group of bits handled all at the same time by the computer is known as
a word, and the number of bits that make up the word is the word length. A word is the basic
logical unit of information in a computer. Microprocessors are available with 4, 8, and 16 bit
word lengths. The 8 bit word length is so common that it is given the special name 'byte' (4 bits
is called a nibble).
Memory
System Bus
Figure 6.2 - The computer bus
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Buses
ln a microcomputer the various units are connected by Buses. A bus is a set of lines over which
information is transferred from any of several sources to any of several destinations. A common
bus structure is:-
Memory
Data Bus
Add ress Bus
Control Bus
$ystem Bus
Figure 6.3 - Data Bus, Address Bus and Control Bus
The Address Bus.

The Address Bus consists of up to '16 parallel lines and is uni-directional: i.e. information flows
in only one direction. This bus is used to transmit an address from the microprocessor to the
memory, input or output unit.
The Data Bus

The Data Bus normally consists of 8 parallel lines and is bi-directional: i.e. information can flow
in either direction on these lines. This bus is used to carry data and instructions from one unit to
another.
The Control Bus.

No standard format exists for the Control Bus lines, their function and number varying
considerably between different types of processors. Some of the lines are bi-directional and
others uni-directional. This bus is a set of lines over which signals travel to maintain timing and
status information.
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lnput Section
A digital computer requires a means of sensing and communicating with the outside world. This
requirement is satisfied by the input section which converts the inputs into the proper format for
the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The input section is commanded by the CpU io bring in
data. This data is sent either to memory for storage or to the CPU for processing. There are
three types of inputs which the computer may receive. analogue, digital, and discrete.
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Figure 6.4 - Computer inputs

Analogue lnputs
Analogue inputs are constantly varying with respect to iime. This is a smooth changing voltage.
An example of an analogue input would be a voltage representing flap position. As the flap
position changes, the voltage from the positional sensor also changes. ln order to use this
positional voltage, the voltage must be converted into a form the computer can use. The
conversion from analogue to digital is accomplished by analogue to digital converters (ADC).
Digital lnputs
Digital inputs are varying inputs also, but they vary in steps or increments. By using a positive
voltage to represent a logic "1" (HIGH), and ground or a negative voltage to represent a logic "0"
(LOW), information can be represented by a series of high and low levels. Depending upon the
input requirements of the computer, the digital input signal may need to be "conditionLd;' before
being used for processing. A digital receiver
For example, one type of digital input uses +10 volts to represent logic "1" and -10 volts to
represent a logic "0". However, the computer can only use +5 volts for a logic "1.' and a ground
potential for logic "0". The digital receiver converts the -10 volt levels to the proper ground
potential (logic "0") and converts the +10 volts to +5 volts (logic "1"). The computer can
understand these levels as the proper logic and thus process the information.
Discrete lnputs
Discrete inputs are represented by an on/off condition, such as the closure of a switch or relay.
8
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This onioff condition can be represented by a ground for logic "0" and an open for logic "1", or
open for logic "O" and +28 volts for logic because the computer can only use +5 volts and
ground in its processing. Another method of input interfacing is by the use of a multiplexer. A
multiplexer, similar in function to a mechanical rotary switch, allows the selection of one input of
many to be sent to the CPU for processing. The selection of the inputs is accomplished by
means of the Address Bus, a group of directional circuits or lines originating in the Central
Processing Unit. The selected input can be routed to the CPU on the Data Bus, a group of bi-
directional circuits or lines which connect the computer sections and allow the transfer of data
between the sections. The resultant output from the multiplexer is a serial group of high and low
states. This data is stored and/or processed by the computer as a "word" of information.
Output Section
The purpose of the Output section is to provide interface between the computer and the outside
world. lt provides output signal conditioning into a format usable by other systems and
computers. The CPU controls the transfer of data to the output section. Since the devices
outside the computer may require analogue, digital and discrete types of signals to
perform their tasks, the computer outputs need to be changed into proper formats.
Digital to Analogue Converter

Analogue devices, such as control surfaces drive units and analogue instruments, use varying
voltages to operate. The binary outputs from the CPU are transformed to analogue by using a
Digital to Analogue converter (DAC).
Digital Transmitters
Aeroplane systems often need digital data formatted differently than that of the source
computer. The binary data from the source computer is sent to a digital transmitter where it is
converted and transmitted in the correct format to the user system via a digital bus.
Demultiplexers
Binary outputs from the computer may be used directly by systems requiring on/off inputs.
However, the outputs are often buffered between the computer and the users of that signal. ln
addition, an output is often sent to several devices requiring that one output. The demultiplexer
accomplishes both of these functions. lt operates in reverse of a multiplexer by taking one input
and sending it to one of many outputs.
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The Central Processor Unit (CPU)

A microprocessor is a single integrated circuit which contains all the elements of a central
processing unit. These are:
. Accumulator.
o Arithmetic Logic Unit.
. Buffers/Registers.
o Timing and Control
DATA BUS
DATA BUS
BUFFEFYLATCH
INTERNAL DATA BUS
INSTRUCTION
ACCUMULATOR REGISTER REGISTERS
INSTRUCTION PROGRAM COUNTER

DECODER
ADDRESS BUFFER
Figure 6.5 - CPU structure
Accumulator
The accumulator has the result of any arithmetic or logic operation.
Arithmetic Logic Unit

The arithmetic and logic unit performs arithmetic and logical operations held in binary in the
accumulator. These are.
. Addition
o Subtraction
o Multiplication
. Division
The Buffers/Registers
The registers consist of a number of temporary storage locations (shift registers).
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Status Register
The status registers contain single bit registers which are:
. Zero Flag
- is the result zero?
. Sign Flag
- is the number plus or minus?
. Carry Flag
- did a carry occur?
o Parity Flag
- check whether the total number of bits is odd or even.
Timing and Control

The timing and control part of the microprocessor performs the following.
. Co-ordinates the internal operation of the microprocessor.

. Contains the clock for timing pulses.
. Controls the operation of the ALU and registers.
. Program counter initiates the next step in the program by incrementing and decrementing
the program counter.
. Provides read/write pulses for registers and memories.
. Provides read/write pulses for inpuUoutput devices via a control bus.
A more comprehensive description of the function of the CPU is provided in section 5.7 -
Microprocessors.

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Memory
The purpose of the memory is to store the program instructions and data. These are recalled at
appropriate times by the CPU while it is performing its functions.
Memory can be basically divided into two types: solid state and magnetic.
Magnetic memory is typically used where bulk-data is maintained on a long-term basis. ln this
type of memory, the data can be stored as a presence (or absence) of a magnetized area in the
storage medium.
Solid state memory can be used for transient or permanent data storage. ln this type of
memory, the data is stored as a voltage level.
Access to the memory elements is directed by the address bus. lnformation transfer is
accomplished using the bi-directional data bus.
Memory devices are the individual elements of the computer memory which can store Logic "1"
and Logic "0" bits, in such a manner, that a single bit or group of bits (words) can be stored and
retrieved. The memory can be physically part of the computer. For example, the computer-on-a-
chip has built-in memory. Although this memory is usually small, it does provide the Computer
with the necessary storage for instructions and data.
Memory devices may be on the same circuit card as the computer, in the same line replaceable
unit (LRU), or in a separate LRU. ln the case of aircraft computer systems, the memory is
usually within the same LRU.
There are many memory devices in use. The most common are the magnetic tape, magnetic
disc and solid state memory.
General Gharacteristics
Many devices have been used for storage of data in computers. Some of these devices have
found wide usage while others have seen only limited application. Because of the diversity
between the various memory types, it is difficult to define a set of standard characteristics which
apply to all. There are some characteristics, however, which are generally applied to memory
devices.
Volatile vs Non-Volatile Memories

The selection of a memory type for a given computer system can be based upon the need for
memory retention when system power is removed. lf the memory is of a type that loses its data
when power is removed, it is termed volatile memory; memory that retains data when power is
removed is termed non-volatile memory. Volatile memory is made temporarily non-volatile by
using a dedicated battery to provide enough power to the device to hold its memory.
Magnetic vs Solid State Memories

ln general, most memory devices are either classified as magnetic or solid state. Memory
devices using magnetic storage of data are typically employed where bulk data is maintained on
a long-term basis. ln this type of device, a binary "1" is noted by the presence of a small

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magnetized area in the storage medium. A binary "0" has no magnetized area or a magnetized
area of opposite flux.
Solid state memories are used for transient storage of data and for permanent storage of
data/instructions. Binary data is stored in these devices as a voltage level on a capacitor or at
the output of a latch circuit.
Destructive vs Non-Destructive Readouts

ln configuring a computer system, the designer must provide additional circuitry for memories
whose data is lost upon readout. These type of memories are referred to as having destructive
readouts. Their use requires that the system temporarily store the data readout then write that
data back into the memory before processing it. Memory devices which do not lose data upon
readout are referred to as having nondestructive readouts.
Memory Types
Magnetic Tape - The magnetic tape is a flexible plastic tape, with a uniform coating of magnetic
material on one surface. The tape is usually stored on a plastic or metal reel, and when the tape
is used, it is unwound off the supply reel past a read/write head and is wound onto a take-up
reel. As the tape passes the read/write head, the computer controls the reading and writing of
the magnetic bits from parallel tracks on the tape. These tracks extend from one end of the tape
to the other. The read/write head is divided into the same number of sections as there are
tracks on the tape being used. One track on the tape is usually reserved for the clock or timing
pulses to allow synchronization of the tape with the computer operation.
Magnetic tapes can be used to store the Computer program instructions and data. By means of
a bi-directional tape drive, the computer may access the stored information anywhere on the
length of the tape. Depending upon the length of the tape and the speed of the drive
mechanism, memory access times can be very long.
Magnetic tapes can also be used as a storage medium for permanent record or backup. lf a
program is on a magnetic disc, for example, a copy of the program can be recorded onto the
magnetic tape for backup. This is stored in a library. lf anything should happen to the disc, the
copy tape can be used to reprogram another disc. As revisions to the program are made,
revisions are also made to the stored backup tape.
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ln a typical digital flight data recorder, aeroplane operating parameters are recorded for later
use during performance evaluation or during accident investigation. The flight data recorder
uses a 450 foot tape, with end-oftape indicators. Recording of parameters begins on track one
of the tape. At the end of track one, the recorder senses the end of tape and changes direction.
lnformation is then recorded on track two in the opposite direction until the other end-oftape
indicator is detected. The direction is then reversed and the track is incremented. This continues
until track six is recorded to the end, then the recording changes direction and switches back to
track one. A total recording time of 25 hours is achieved by using this multi-track, bi-directional
recording method.
Figure 6.8 The memory tape used in a Cockpit Voice Recorder
Magnetic Disc - The magnetic disc is a flat magnetically coated disc. Digital information is
stored on the disc in magnetic tracks. Generally, there are 40 to 80 tracks on a disc. The tracks
are concentric about the disc center and each track is divided into pie-shaped sectors. Each
sector can store between 128 and 512 bytes of information and is accessible by using
readiwrite heads. The disc is rotated to allow the read/write heads to store or to read the
information on any of the sectors.

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Figure 6.9 A magnetic floppy disk (diskette)

There are several sizes of magnetic discs, ranging from 3 1/2 inches to 14 inches in diameter.
Memory capacity on these discs varies, depending on disc size and formatting. The most
common floppy disc is the 3 112 inch floppy. Usually it is formatted to hold i44OK bytes of
information.
Discs can be flexible (floppy discs) or rigid (hard discs). Rigid or hard discs can be stacked in
such a manner that one head or multiple heads on an access arm can extend between pairs of
discs to read or write on disc surfaces above and below the arm.
The flexible disc is usually packaged inside a more rigid plastic envelope or jacket. Head access
to the disc is provided through a slot in the envelope. A sliding guard protects the magnetic disc
when not in use. A drive spindle makes contact with the disc through a hole in the center of the
envelope. This allows the spindle to spin the disc at high speeds inside the envelope.A typical 3
112 inch disc spins at around 300 rpm when data is read or written.
The advantage of magnetic discs is their rapid access time. The access for magnetic tape is in
seconds (or minutes) while disc access time is in milliseconds. Size is a disadvantage due to
the mechanical components needed to drive and read the discs"
Magnetic Hard Disk Drive (HDD) - A hard disk is a sealed unit containing a number of platters
in a stack. Hard disks may be mounted in a horizontal or a vertical position. ln this description,
the hard drive is mounted horizontally.
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Figure 6.11 An HDD with and without its protective case cover
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Electromagnetic read/write heads are positioned above and below each platter. As the platters
spin, the drive heads move in toward the center surface and out toward the edge. ln this way,
the drive heads can reach the entire surface of each platter.
On a hard disk, data is stored in thin, concentric bands. A drive head, while in one position can
read or write a circular ring, or band called a track. There can be more than a thousand tracks
on a 3.5-inch hard disk. Sections within each track are called sectors. A sector is the smallest
physical storage unit on a disk, and is almost always 512 bytes (0.5 kB) in size.
The figure below shows a hard disk with two platters.
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Figure 6-12 Parls of a Hard Drive
The structure of older hard drives (i.e. prior to Windows 95) will refer to a cylinder/head/ sector
notation. A cylinder is formed while all drive heads are in the same position on the disk. The
tracks, stacked on top of each other form a cylinder. This scheme is slowly being eliminated
with modern hard drives. All new disks use a translation factor to make their actual hardware
layout appear continuous, as this is the way that operating systems from
Windows 95 onward like to work.
To the operating system of a computer, tracks are logical rather than physical in structure, and
are established when the disk is low-level formatted. Tracks are numbered, starting at 0 (the
outermost edge of the disk), and going up to the highest numbered track, typically 1023, (close
to the center). Similarly, there are 1,024 cylinders (numbered from 0 to 1023) on a hard disk.
The stack of platters rotate at a constant speed. The drive head, while positioned close to the
center of the disk reads from a surface that is passing by more slowly than the surface at the
outer edges of the disk. To compensate for this physical difference, tracks near the outside of
the disk are less-densely populated with data than the tracks near the center of the disk. The

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result of the different data density is that the same amount of data can be read over the same
period of time, from any drive head position.
The disk space is filled with data according to a standard plan. One side of one platter contains
space reserved for hardware track-positioning information and is not available to the operating
system. Thus, a disk assembly containing two platters has three sides available for data. Track-
positioning data is written to the disk during assembly at the factory. The system disk controller
reads this data to place the drive heads in the correct sector position.
A sector, being the smallest physical storage unit on the disk, is almost always 512 bytes in size
because 512 is a power of 2 (2 to the power of 9). The number 2 is used because there are two
states in the most basic of computer languages - on and off.
Each disk sector is labeled using the factory track-positioning data. Sector identification data is
written to the area immediately before the contents of the sector and identifies the starting
address of the sector.
The optimal method of storing a file on a disk is in a contiguous series, i.e. all data in a stream
stored end-to-end in a single line. As many files. are larger than 512 bytes, it is up to the file
system to allocate sectors to store the file's data. For example, if the file size is 800 bytes, two
512 k sectors are allocated for the file. A cluster is typically the same size as a sector. These
two sectors with 800 bytes of data are called two clusters.
They are called clusters because the space is reserved for the data contents. This process
protects the stored data from being over-written. Later, if data is appended to the file and its size
grows to 1600 bytes, another two clusters are allocated, storing the entire file within four
clusters.
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Figure 6-13 Sectors and Clusters
lf contiguous clusters are not available (clusters that are adjacent to each other on the disk), the
second two clusters may be written elsewhere on the same disk or within the same cylinder or
on a different cylinder - wherever the file system finds two sectors available. A file stored in this
non-contiguous manner is considered to be fragmented. Fragmentation can slow down system
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performance if the file system must direct the drive heads to several different addresses to find
all the data in the file you want to read. The extra time for the heads to travel to a number of
addresses causes a delay before the entire file is retrieved.
Cluster size can be changed to optimize file storage. A larger cluster size reduces the potential
for fragmentation, but increases the likelihood that clusters will have unused space. Using
clusters larger than one sector reduces fragmentation, and reduces the amount of disk space
needed to store the information about the used and unused areas on the disk.
Most disks used in personal computers today rotate at a constant angular velocity. The tracks
near the outside of the disk are less densely populated with data than the tracks near the center
of the disk. Thus, a fixed amount of data can be read in a constant period of time, even though
the speed of the disk surface is faster on the tracks located further away from the center of the
disk.
Modern disks reserve one side of one platter for track positioning information, which is written to
the disk at the factory during disk assembly. lt is not available to the operating system. The disk
controller uses this information to fine tune the head locations when the heads move to another
location on the disk. When a side contains the track position information, that side cannot be
used for data. Thus, a disk assembly containing two platters has three sides that are available
for data.
Optical Laser Disc - One of the developments in memory storage is the optical laser disc or
Compact Disc (CD). This method of storage uses a technique which allows a large volume of
information to be stored in a much smaller area.
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Figure 6.14 The optical laser disc
The '12 centimeter disc currently stores over 600 megabytes (600MB or 600 000 000 bytes).
This is enough data for an average 24 volume encyclopedia. This small compact size is used in
the smaller computers (or home computers). Other laser disc systems will be used with large
mainframe computers. For instance, one manufacturer produces a system which stores one
trillion bytes of information on four 14-inch laser discs. This is approximately equivalent to 400
billiontyped pages.
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There are several configurations for optical laser disc. One configuration is called CD-ROM
(Compact Disc, Read Only Memory). This performs a similar function as a Read Only Memory
microcircuit. A second configuration is called WORM (Write-Once, Read Many times) often
referred to as CD-R. This optical disc can be written onto only once but read many times. Once
data has been written onto the disc it can not be erased or written over. Currently, the capacity
for a WORM is up to 650 Meg. A third configuration is the rewritable CD-RW. These discs allow
the user to write, read, erase and rewrite up to 650MB of information on the disc.
There are two methods currently used to organize an optical disc. The first method is called
Constant Linear Velocity. ln this method the disc is organized much like an old vinyl record
played on a stereo. The second is called Linear Angular Velocity where the data is arranged
on the disc in concentric rings, much like the tracks on a floppy disc.
lnformation is stored on the disc as "pits" or "bumps" which are only 0.83 to 3.04 microns long
and 0.50 microns (0.002 inches) wide. Each "track" is 1.6 microns apart.
The Digital Versatile Disc (DVD) is the same size as a standard CD but by using different data
encoding techniques, has a capacity of up to 4.7 Gigabytes (41GB or 4 7O0 000 000 bytes) .
Like the CD they are available in both DVD-R and DVD-RW versions but due to the variety of
encoding methods compatibility can be a problem.
Both CDs and DVDs are available as double sided discs, with double the capacity, for specialist
applications.
ln all configurations a laser disc has a special Dye-polymer coating which respond to the
wavelength of the recording laser to create either "bumps" or "pits". When reading the disc, the
absence or presence of these pits is detected by a photodetector. The photodetector compares
a beam of light being sent from the recording laser to a beam being returned from the disc. This
is done by using a beamsplitter in the laser disc system. The beamsplitter sends part of the light
to the detector. The other part of the light is sent to the laser disc, reflected back to the
beamsplitter and reflected onto the photodetector. The photodetector can now compare the two
beams of light.
An erasable Laser disc system uses a second laser to heat the dyepolymer layer and remove
the bump or pit created by the recording laser.
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Solid State Memory

Semiconductor or solid state memory chips have been used for small capacity memories.
However, the development of high capacity semiconductor memory chips, with the ability to
store millions of bits within a single integrated circuit (lC), has greatly modified the whole
technology of building computer memories. Semiconductor memories have made possible the
building of faster, more compact, lower power consumption memories for computers.
The two principal types of solid state memory devices are the Random Access Memory (RAM)
and the Read Only Memory (ROM).
Classifications of Solid State Memory

Up to this point, you have learned some of the general functions of the CPU, the physical
characteristics of memory, and how data is stored in the internal storage section. Now, we will
explain yet another way to classify internal (primary or main) storage. This is by the different
kinds of memories solid state memory: read-only memory, random-access memory,
programmable read-only memory, and erasable programmable read-only memory.
Magnetic Core Memory - Although magnetic core storage is no longer as popular as it once
was, we will cover it in some detail because its concepts are easily understood and apply
generally to the more integrated semiconductor and bubbletype memories. Magnetic core
storage is made up of tiny doughnut-shaped rings made of ferrite (iron), that are strung on a grid
of very thin wires (fig. 2-3). Since data in computers is stored in binary form, a two-state device
is needed to represent the two binary digits (bits), 0 for off and 1 for on. ln core storage, each
ferrite ring can represent a 0 or 1 bit, depending on its magnetic state. lf magnetized in one
direction, it represents a 1 bit, and if magnetized in the opposite direction, it represents a 0 bit.
These cores are magnetized by sending an electric current through the wires on which the core
is strung. lt is this direction of current that determines the state of each core.
Figure 6.15 A core memory array
Core memory consisted of small toroid (donut) shaped pieces of metallic, magnetic material.
Each toroid (or core) stored a single bit of information whose value was determined by its
21 use and/or drsclosure is

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magnetic polarity. Cores were arranged in a 3D fashion with the number of planes equal to the
number of bits in a word.
li Write
Figure 6.16 A single core memory (1 bit)
Each core was held in place with a horizontal and vertical wire. A third sense wire passed
through each diagonally. (ln fact a single sense wire was threaded through every core on a
plane.) A fourth inhibit wire ran in parallel to each horizontal wire and was also threaded through
every core in a plane. To reduce the number of addressing circuits, all the corresponding X and
Y wires were connected between planes. (ln other words, the processor addressed words
rather than individual bits.)
t lndirates a crlnnectir:in ta all planes
Figure 6.17 A single plane core memory (16 bits)
To read a word, pulses were sent down the appropriate pair of X and Y wires. The amplitude of
the pulses were such that, alone, they were insufficient to change the state of a core. However,
At the intersection, the coincident pulse was strong enough to set the core. lf the core's polarity
was changed during this operation, voltage was induced which could be detected on the sense
line. (The polarity of the pulses were set to leave the core in a zero state so that a one in the
core caused a pulse in the sense line.) Since the X and Y wires for each plane were connected,
the values for each corresponding core were produced at the same time, each on the sense
wire for that plane. (This also resulted in the cores for that word all having the same polarity - in
other words that word was read and cleared.)

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The destructive read needed to be followed by a write to restore the original polarities. Writing,
was like reading, only with the pulses applied in the opposite polarity (to turn the zeroed cores
back to ones) and any voltages produced on the sense lines were ignored. An additional
complication, however, was that since the X and Y lines were connected across all planes, a
write would set all bits in a word to the same value. The inhibit lines were activated on selected
planes to prevent this. They provided a pulse of the opposite polarity to cancel out the write
pulse for those planes which were supposed to remain cleared.
The first question many people ask when seeing core memory is how all the tiny cores (typically
1l30" in diameter) got threaded on all those wires. The answer in most cases is: by hand. Core
threading was a delicate and laborious process, however, in the U.S. alone, about 2b billion
cores were threaded annually by the late 1960's.
Core memory was inherently nonvolatile, but it is destructive.
Bubble Memory - Bubble memory is a type of computer memory that uses a thin film of a
magnetic material to hold small magnetized areas, known as bubbles, which each store one bit
of data. Bubble memory was a very promising technology in the 1970s, but flopped
commercially when hard disks proliferated in the 1980s.
Bubble memory is largely the brainchild of a single person, Andrew Bobeck. Bobeck had
worked on all sorts of magnetics related projects through the 1960s, and two of his projects put
him in a particularly good position for the development of bubble memory. The first was the
development of the first magnetic core memory system driven by a transistor-based controller,
and the second was the development of Twistor memory.
Twistor memory was based on magnetostriction, an effect which can be used to move magnetic
fields. lf you place a pattern on a medium, magnetic tape for instance, and then pass a current
through the tape, the patterns will slowly be "pushed" down the tape while the patterns
themselves will remain unchanged. By placing a detector at some point over the tape, the fields
will pass under it in turn without any physical motion. ln effect it is a non-moving version of a
single track from a drum memory. ln the 1960s AT&T had used Twistor in a number of
applications.
ln 1967 Bobeck joined a team at Bell Labs and started work on improving Twistor. He thought
that if he could find a material that allowed the movement of the fields easily in only one
direction, a 2D Twistor could be constructed. Patterns would be introduced at one edge of the
material and pushed along just as in Twistor, but since they could be moved in one direction
only, they would naturally form "tracks".
Starting with work on orthoferrite Bobeck noticed an additional interesting effect: if an external
field was applied to a magnetized patch of the material, the magnetized area would contract into
a tiny circle, which he called a bubble. These bubbles were much smaller than the "domains" of
normal media like tape, which suggested that very high densities were possible.
took some time to find it, but eventually garnet turned out to have the right properties. Bubbles
It
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was to make them move to the proper location where they could be read back out Twistor was
-
a wire and there was only one place to go, but in a 2D sheet things would not be so easy. The
solution was to imprint a pattern of tiny magnetic bars onto the surface of the garnet, when a
small magnetic field was applied they would become magnetized, and the bubbles would "stick"
to one end. By then reversing the field they would be attracted to the far end, and another
reversal would pop them to the next bar in line.
A memory is formed by lining up tiny electromagnets at one end with detectors at the other end.
Bubbles written in would be slowly pushed to the other, forming a sheet of Twistors lined up
beside each other. Attaching the output from the detector back to the electromagnets turns the
sheet into a series of loops, which can hold the information as as you like.
Figure 6.18 lntel's Bubble memory package
Bubble memory is a non-volatile memory. lf the power was removed the bubbles remained.
Better yet, they needed no moving parts, the field that pushed the bubbles along the surface
was generated electrically, whereas media like tape and disk drives had to move the medium
under the detectors instead. Finally the density was, in theory, much higher due to the small
size of the bubbles. The only downside was speed, you had to wait for the bubbles to cycle to
the far end of the sheet before they could be read.
Bobeck's team soon had 1 cm memories that stored 4,096 bits, the same as a then-standard
plane of core memory. This sparked considerable interest in the industry. Not only could bubble
memories replace core, but it seemed that they could replace tapes and disks as well. ln fact it
seemed that bubble memory would soon be the only form of memory used in the vast majority
of applications, with the high-speed market being the only one they couldn't serye.
By the mid-1970s practically every large electronics company had teams working on bubble
memory. By the late 1970s several products were on the market, and lntel released their own 1
Megabit version, the 71 10. Soon, however, bubble memory was a dead end and almost all work
on it stopped, as the introduction of higher-density and faster hard disk systems in the early
1980s pretty much killed bubble memory entirely.
Bubble memory found uses in niche markets through the 80's in systems needing to avoid the
higher rates of mechanical failures of disk drives, and in systems operating in high vibration or
harsh environments.
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Read-Only Memory (ROM)

ln most computers, it is useful to have often used instructions, such as those used to bootstrap
(initial system load) the computer or other specialized programs, permanently stored inside the
computer. Memory that enables us to do this without the programs and data being lost (even
when the computer is powered down) is called read-only memory. Only the computer
manufacturer can provide these programs in ROM and once done, they cannot be changed.
Consequently, you cannot put any of your own data or programs in ROM. Many complex
functions such as routines to extract square roots, translators for programming languages, and
operating systems can be placed in ROM memory. Since these instructions are hard wired
(permanent), they can be performed quickly and accurately. Another advantage of ROM is that
your computer facility can order programs tailored for its needs and have them permanently
installed in ROM by the manufacturer. Such programs are called microprograms or firmware.
Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)

An alternative to ROM is programmable read only memory (PROM) that can be purchased
already programmed by the manufacturer or in a blank state.
To implant programs, or data, into a PROM a programming machine (called a PROM

programmer) is used to apply the correct voltage for the proper time to the appropriate
addresses selected by the programmer. As the PROM is simply an array of fusible links the
programming machine essentially blows the various unwanted links within the PROM leaving
the correct data patterns, a process which clearly cannot be reversed.
By using a blank PROM, you can enter any program into the memory. However, once the
PROM has been written into, it can never be altered or changed. Thus you have the advantage
of ROM with the additional flexibility to program the memory to meet a unique need. The main
disadvantage of PROM is that if a mistake is made and entered into PROM, it cannot be
corrected or erased. Also, a special device is needed to "burn" the program into PROM.
Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM)

The erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) was developed to overcome the
drawback of PROM. EPROMs can also be purchased blank from the manufacturer and
programmed locally at your command/activity. Again, this requires special equipment. The big
difference with EPROM is that it can be erased if and when the need arises. Data and programs
can be retrieved over and over again without destroying the contents of the EPROM. They will
stay there quite safely until you want to reprogram it by first erasing the EPROM with a burst of
ultra-violet light. This is to your advantage, because if a mistake is made while programming the
EPROM, it is not considered fatal. The EPROM can be erased and corrected. Also, it allows you
the flexibility to change programs to include improvements or modifications in the future.
EPROM is re-usable by exposing the EPROM to ultraviolet (UV) light. The EPROM has to be
removed from the microprocessor board and usually requires 15 to 20 minutes of exposure. A
quartz window is installed on the top side of an EPROM to facilitate access to the UV light.
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM) was developed to replace
the difficulty of reprogramming EPROM. This type of ROM is electrically alterable and the
programming circuitry is included as part of the system.

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Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-only Memory (EEpRoM)

EEPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge.
Like other types of PROM, EEPROM retains its contents even when the power is turned off.
Also like other types of ROM, EEPROM is not as fast as RAM.
Figure 6.19 An EPROM package
Random-Access Memory (RAM)

Another kind of memory used inside computers is called random-access memory (RAM) or
read/write memory. RAM memory is rather like a blackboard on which you can scribble down
notes, read them, and rub them out when you are finished with them. ln the computer, RAM is
the working memory. Data can be read (retrieved) from or written (stored) into RAM just by
giving the computer the address of the location where the data is stored or is to be stored.
When the data is no longer needed, you can simply write over it. This allows you to use the
storage again for something else. Core, semiconductor, and bubble storage all have random
access capabilities.
Most modern RAM is of the integrated circuit (lC) or 'chip' form, containing flip flops, or
MOSFETS, each flip-flop being switched to the '1 or 0 position, corresponding to a 'bit' of
information.
Figure 6.20 A RAM stick

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Older RAM used magnetic (ferrite) cores. There were two types as follows:
Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) - gR",A[/'s store bits (1's or 0's) in memory cells that
are basically flip flops. ln a logic diagram, an SRAM memory cell looks like two cross-
connected NAND or NOR gates - that is, the output of each NAND or NOR gate is connected to
one input of the other NAND or NOR gate. This is a "flip flop", which can store a 1 or a zero for
as long as you apply power - but not very much power. Very little power consumption is
required except during transitions - writing into the memory cell. Static power consumption
(without transitions) is very low because the flip flop is based on CMOS NAND or NOR gates
where either a P-channel or an N-channel transistor conducts, but not both - and the P and N
channel transistors are connected in such a way that there is no conduction path from the
power supply to ground so power is not consumed in the static state (except through leakage).
The advantages of SRAM's are their very high speed and very low power consumption - but
SRAM memory cells generally require 6 transistors.
Static Random Access Memories are the fastest type of memory.
Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) - DRAM's store bits in memory cells that are
basically capacitors under transistors. The transistor is used as a relay to the capacitor, and the
capacitor stores a bit (a "1" or a "0") as either storing charge on the capacitor or not storing
charge. However, the charge on a capacitor gradually leaks out over time - so, periodically
(generally several thousand times per second), the contents of a DRAM need to read out and
then rewritten back in - this is called a "refresh cycle", or a "refresh". As you might expect, the
refresh consumes a lot of power. pR A[/l's consume more power, and are slower than SRAM's
- but because a DRAM cell uses just one transistor (with a capacitor) compared to 6 transistors
for an SRAM cell, a DRAM memory is much cheaper than an SRAM memory.
SDRAM - Synchronous DRAM - Short for Synchronous DRAM, a type of DRAM that can run
at much higher clock speeds than conventional memory. SDRAM actually synchronizes itself
with the CPU's bus. SDRAM is the new memory standard for modern PCs.
DDR SDRAM - Double Data Rate - Short for Double Data Rate-Synchronous DRAM, a type of
SDRAM that supports data transfers on both edges of each clock cycle (the rising and falling
edges), effectively doubling the memory chip's data throughput. DDR-SDRAM also consumes
less power, which makes it well-suited to notebook computers. DDR-SDRAM is also called
SDRAM ll. and DDRAM. DDR-SDRAM and RDRAM are the two technologies expected to
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Software
Up to now we have been discussing computer operational concepts and hardware (the
computer and its peripheral devices), and how these devices work and communicate with each
other.
What about this thing called software? Do we really need it? We most certainly do! Software
plays a major role in computer data processing. For example, without software, the computer
could not perform simple addition. lt's the software that makes everything happen. Or putting it
another way, software brings the computer to life.
You already know it takes a program to make the computer function. You load an operating
system into the computer to manage the computer's resources and operations. You give job
information to the operating system to tell it what you want the computer to do. You may tell it to
assemble or compile a cobol program. You may tell it to run the payroll or print inventory
reports. You may tell it to copy a tape using a utility program. You may tell it to print the data
from a disk file, also using a utility program. You may tell it to test a program.
This job information may be entered through the console or read into the computer from tape or
disk. lt also may be entered by the programmer or user from a remote computer terminal. The
operating system receives and processes the job information and executes the programs
according to that job information.
Software can be defined as all the stored programs and routines (operating aids) needed to fully
use the capabilities of a computer. Generally speaking, we say, "lf it is not hardware then it must
be software."
Operating Systems
The operating system is the heart of any computer system. Through it, everything else is done.
Basically, operating systems are designed to provide the operator with the most efficient way of
executing many user programs.
An operating system is a collection of many programs used by the computer to manage its own
resources and operations. These programs control the execution of other programs. They
schedule, assign resources, monitor, and control the work of the computer. There are several
types.
Sort-Merge Programs
Sorting is the term given to arranging data records in a predefined sequence or order. Merging
is the combining of two or more ordered files into one file. For example, we normally think of
putting a list of people's names in alphabetical order arranging them in sequence by last name.
We arrange those with the same last name in order by first name.
lf we do this ourselves, we know the alphabetic sequence .B comes after A, C after B, and so
on, and it is easy to arrange the list, even if it is a time consuming job. On a computer, the
sequence of characters is also defined. lt is called the collating sequence. Every coding system
has a collating sequence. The capability of a computer to compare two values and determine

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which is greater (B is greater than A, C is greater than B, and so on) makes sorting possible.
What about numbers and special characters? They are also part of the collating sequence. ln
EBCDIC, (EBCDIC is a computer code that is discussed in detail in chapter 4) special
characters, such as #, $, &, and *, come in front of the alphabetic characters, and numbers
follow. When you sort records in the defined sequence, they are in ascending sequence. Most
sort programs also allow you to sort in reverse order. This is called descending sequence. ln
EBCDIC, it is 9-0, Z-A, then special characters.
To sort a data file, you must tell the sort program what data field or fields to sort on. These fields
are called sort (or sorting) keys. ln our example, the last name is the major sort key and the first
name is the minor sort key.
Sorting is needed in many applications. For example, for mailing we need addresses in ZIP
Code order; personnel records may be kept in service number order; and inventory records may
be kept in stock number order. We could go on and on. Because many of our files are large,
sorting is very time consuming, and it is one of the processes most used on computer systems.
As a user, you will become very familiar with this process.
Sort-merge programs usually have phases. First they initialize: read the parameters, produce
the program code for the sort, allocate the memory space, and set up other functions. The sort-
merge program then reads in as many input data records as the memory space allocated can
hold, arranges (sorts) them in sequence, and writes them out to an intermediate sort-work file. lt
continues reading input, sorling and writing intermediate sort-work files until all the input is
processed. lt then merges (combines) the ordered intermediate sort-work files to produce one
output file in the sequence specified. The merging process can be accomplished with less
memory than the sort process since the intermediate sort work files are all in the same
sequence. Records from each work file can be read, the sort keys compared based on the
collating sequence and sort parameters, and records written to the output file maintaining the
specified sequence.
Report Program Generators

Report program generators (RPG) are used to generate programs to print detail and summary
reports of data files. RPGs were designed to save programming time. Rather than writing
procedural steps in a language like BASIC or COBOL, the RPG programmer writes the printed
report requirements on specially designed forms.
lncluded in the requirements are an input file description, the report heading information lines,
the input data record fields, the calculations to be done, and the data fields to be printed and
summarized. The RPG program takes this information and generates a program for the specific
problem. You then run that program with the specified input data file to produce the printed
report. The input data file must be in the sequence in which you want the report to summarize
the data.
You can also use RPGs to generate a program to update data files.

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Programming Languages
All languages are defined as either Low Level or High Level.
A Low Level language is a string of 1's and 0's which the computer understands. lt is also
known as machine code.
A High Level language is an assembly language whereby the machine language, a pattern of
bits encoding machine operations, is made readable by replacing the raw values with symbols
called mnemonics. Any programming language that uses easy to understand words to
represent commands to the computer. Examples of HLL's include BASIC, Fortran, Pascal,
JAVA, and C++. A single statement in a high level language may represent several instructions
to the computer.
Programmers must use a language that can be understood by the computer. Several methods
can achieve human-computer communication. For example, let us assume the computer only
understands French and the programmer speaks English. The question arises: How are we to
comrnunicate with the computer? One approach is for the programmer to code the instructions
with the help of a translating dictionary before giving them to the processor. This would be fine
so far as the computer is concerned; however, it would be very awkward for the programmer.
Another approach is a compromise between the programmer and computer. The programmer
first writes instructions in a code that is easier to relate to English. This code is not the
computer's language; therefore, the computer does not understand the orders. The programmer
solves this problem by giving the computer another program, one that enables it to translate the
instruction codes into its own language.
This translation program, for example, would be equivalent to an Englishto-French dictionary,

leaving the translating job to be done by the computer.
The third and most desirable approach from an individual's standpoint is for the computer to
accept and interpret instructions written in everyday English terms. Each of these approaches
has its place in the evolution of programming languages and is used in computers today.
Machine Languages
With early computers, the programmer had to translate instructions into the machine language
form that the computers understood. This language was a string of numbers that represented
the instruction code and operand address(es).
ln addition to remembering dozens of code numbers for the instructions in the computer's
instruction set, the programmer also had to keep track of the storage locations of data and
instructions. This process was very time consuming, quite expensive, and often resulted in
errors. Correcting errors or making modifications to these programs was a very tedious process.
Symbolic Languages
ln the early 1950s, mnemonic instruction codes and symbolic addresses were developed. This
improved the program preparation process by substituting letter symbols (mnemonic codes) for
basic machine language instruction codes. Each computer has mnemonic codes, although the
symbols vary among the different makes and models of computers. The computer still uses

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machine language in actual processing, but it translates the symbolic language into machine
language equivalent. Symbolic languages have many advantages over machine language
coding. Less time is required to write a program. Detail is reduced. Fewer errors are made.
Errors which are made are easier to find, and programs are easier to modify.
Procedu re-Oriented Languages

The development of mnemonic techniques and macroinstructions led to the development of
procedure-oriented languages. Macroinstructions allow the programmer to write a single
instruction that is equivalent to a specified sequence of machine instructions. These procedure-
oriented languages are oriented toward a specific class of processing problems. A class of
similar problems is isolated, and a language is developed to process these types of
applications. Several languages have been designed to process problems of a scientific-
mathematical nature and others that emphasize file processing.
Procedure-oriented languages were developed to allow a programmer to work in a language

that is close to English or mathematical notation. This improves overall efficiency and simplifies
the communications process between the programmer and the computer. These languages
have allowed us to be more concerned with the problems to be solved rather than with the
details of computer operation. For example:
. COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language) was developed for business

applications. lt uses statements of everyday English and is good for handling large data
files.
. FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator) was developed for mathematicalwork. lt is used by
engineers, scientists, statisticians, and others where mathematical operations are most
important.
. BASIC (Beginner's All-Purpose Symbolic lnstruction Code) was designed as a teaching
language to help beginning programmers write programs. Therefore, it is a general-
purpose, introductory language that is fairly easy to learn and to use. With the increase in
the use of microcomputers, BASIC has regained popularity and is available on most
microcom puter systems.
Other languages gaining in popularity are PASCAL and Ada. PASCAL is being used by many
colleges and universities to teach programming because it is fairly easy to learn; yet is a more
powerful language than BASIC. Although PASCAL is not yet a standardized language, it is still
used rather extensively on microcomputers. lt has greater programming capabilities on small
computers than are possible with BASIC.
The most familiar of the procedure-oriented languages are BASIC and FORTRAN for scientific
or mathematical problems, and COBOL for file processing. Programs written in procedure-
oriented languages, unlike those in symbolic languages, may be used with a number of different
computer makes and models. This feature greatly reduces reprogramming expenses when
changing from one computer system to another. Other advantages to procedure-oriented
languages are (1) they are easier to learn than symbolic languages; (2) they require less time to
write; (3) they provide better documentation; and (4) they are easier to maintain. However, there
are some disadvantages of procedure-oriented languages. They require more space in
memory, and they process data at a slower rate than symbolic languages.
32 use and/or disclosure rs

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Glossary of Computer Terms
Address
The number used to identify a storage location.
Access Time
The amount of time between the time a request for data from a storage device is made and the
time the data is delivered
Analogue Computer
A computer that solves problems using continuous data from physical quantities like voltage or
temperature
Analogue-to-Di g ital Converter

A device used to convert analogue (continuously varying) signals to digital (discrete number of
values) signals before input.
Arithmetic/Logic Unit
The part of the CPU that contains the logic capability and performs all the arithmetic functions
(addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division)
ASCII (American Standard Code for lnformation lnterchange)

A standardized 8-bit code (originally a 7-bit code) designed for transmitting and processing data
Assembler
A computer program that translates source programs written in assembly language into
machine language (object) programs
Assembly Language
A low-level, machine-oriented programming language in which each instruction (written as a
mnemonic) translates into a single machine language (computer) instruction
BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic lnstruction Code)

A high-level, general-purpose programming language primarily used on microcomputers.
Baud/Baud Rate
A unit for measuring the speed with which data is transmitted. For convenience, one baud is
taken to be a transmission rate of one bit of data per second.
Bit
A Binary diglT, either one or zero.
Boot or Bootstrap
(1) A set of instructions that causes additional instructions to be loaded until the complete
computer program is in storage. (2) A technique or device designed to bring itself into a desired
state by means of its own action; e.9., a machine routine whose first few instructions are
sufficient to bring the rest of itself into the computer from an input device (3) That part of a
computer program used to establish another version of the computer program
33 Module 5.6 Basic Computer Structure Use and/or disclosure rs

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A common data pathway connecting together several components of a computer system.
Byte
A set of bits used to represent a single character. Usually eight bits are used.
Central Processing Unit (C.P.U.)

The main part of the computer where all processing takes place. . Within the Central Processing
Unit (CPU) are the registers, the Arithmetic/ logic Unit (ALU), and the Control Section
Ghip
A small piece of silicon impregnated with impurities in such a way as to form transistors, diodes,
and resistors. Electrical paths are formed on the silicon by depositing thin layers of aluminum or
gold
COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language)

A high-level programming language designed for businesstype applications
Gompiler
A program that translates source programs written in a high-level programming language (for
example COBOL or FORTRAN) into machine language
Gompiler Language
A computer language system made up of various sub routines that have been evaluated and
compiled into one routine that the computer can handle. FORTRAN, COBOL and ALGOL are
computer language systems of this type.
Gomputer
A machine, controlled by a stored programmed of instructions, which accepts input data,
processes the data and then supplies the results of the processing.
Computer Terminology Access Time

The time interval required to communicate with the memory or storage unit of a digital computer
or the time interval between the instant at which the arithmetic unit calls for information from the
memory and the instant at which this information is delivered.
Control Section
The part of the CPU which directs and synchronizes the execution of programme instructions.
Core Memory
A programmable, random access memory consisting of many ferromagnetic cores arranged in
matrices.
Data
lnformation coded into a suitable form for computer input, processing and output.
Database
An organized and structured collection of data. The structure is independent of any particular
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application and designed to allow the data to be processed in a variety of ways.
Databus
A common data pathway linking together the units of a computer.
Data Processing
A general description for the work done with a computer. lt is particularly associated with
commercial computing.
Decoder
A circuit network in which a combination of inputs produces a single output.
Digital Computer
A computer that solves problems on discrete data using 0's and 1's (OFF and ON states) to
represent data and operations
Disk Drive
A direct-access storage device for recording and retrieving data on hard (rigid) disk or floppy
disks (diskettes).
Diskette
A mass storage device in which information is stored on one or both sides of a flexible disk that
can be magnetized. The diskette is rotated by a diskette drive and information is stored and
retrieved by one or more magnetically sensitive readiwrite heads. Diskettes are also called
floppy disks because the disk bends easily
Electronic Mail
A method of transferring letters and documents between computer systems using a
comm un ications network.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

A type of memory chip which in normal use is non-volatile read only memory. When required
the chip can be removed and its contents erased by exposure to ultra-violet light. lt can then be
reprogrammed.
Fibre Optics
The use of very thin glass strands to transmit signals in the form of light waves.
Firmware
A set of program instructions, a microprogram, permanently stored in read-only memory
Floppy Disc
See Diskette
FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator)

A high-level programming language for scientific and mathematical applications.
Full Duplex Channel

A channel that provides for simultaneous transmission in both directions, such as the telephone

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Gate
An electronic device used to control the flow of data in a computer. Gates are the basic building
blocks from which logic circuits are built to combine, modify and direct data as it flows round the
computer.
Handshaking
The process through which the rules for exchanging data over a communications line are
defined for the two devices involved
Hard Copy
Computer output printed on paper.
Hardware
The physical components that make up a computer system.
Hexadecimal Numbers
The number system with base 16 (0-9 and A-F). A represents 10; B represents 1 1 ; C represents
12;D represents 13; E represents 14; and F represents 15. Used insomecomputersystems
High Level Languages

Programming languages that allow the programmer to write programs in English-like terms and
symbols and mathematical notation, rather than the 0's and 1's used by the computer. These
high-level programs must be translated into machine language before the computer can
execute them. FORTRAN, Ada, COBOL, and BASIC are examples
lnstruction
A machine word or set of characters in machine language that directs a computer to take a
certain action. Part of the instruction specifies the operation to be performed, and another parl
specifies the address.
lntegrated Circuit
A complete electrical circuit created on a single piece of semi-conductor material.
lnterface
The hardware and associated software needed to link peripheral devices to a computer. The
interface must compensate for differences between the computer and the peripheral - for
example, operating speeds, signal levels and internal codes.
lnput
The data entered into a computer system for processing
lnput Devices
Devices for reading data and programs into the computer system for processing
lnpuUoutput devices
Secondary storage devices for writing and reading data. Magnetic tape drives, magnetic disk
drives, and drums are examples
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K (kilo)
An abbreviation for the value 1,024 which is 210. Often used to express the memory capacity of
a computer. For example, a 512K computer has s24,288 bytes of memory.
Language
A defined group of representative characters of symbols combined with specific rules necessary
for their interpretation. The rules enable the translation of the characters into forms (such as
digits) which are meaningful to a machine.
Language Translator
A program that reads a source program and converts it into an object (machine language)
program. Assemblers and compilers are examples
Large Scale lntegration

A technique for producing a large number of components on a single integrated circuit. Very
large scale integration is an ever more advanced technique.
Logic Gate - See Gate.
M (Meg)
A unit of measurement approximately equal to one million and used to express the capacity of a
computer memory. 1M is about 1,000,000 units. Memory size is usually measured in words or
bytes.
Machine Gode or Machine Language

A programme written in machine code consists of a list of instructions in binary form to be
loaded into the computer memory for the computer to obey directly. They are machine
instructions in binary bit patterns that the central processing unit can execute directly without
additional interpretation or translation
Magnetic Gore
A form of storage in which information is represented by the direction of magnetization of a
core.
Magnetic Tape
A mass storage device in which information is stored on a plastic tape coated with a magnetic
film. The tape is wound on reels that are rotated by tape drives. lnformation is stored and
retrieved sequentially by magnetically sensitive read/write heads
Memory
The part of the computer where data and programmes in current use are stored. The Memory
Section contains elements for the storage of data and instructions. The CPU may access the
memory for instructions to perform a certain function, or to retrieve and store data. The Memory
Section is controlled by the Control Section within the CPU
Microcomputer
A computer which uses a micro-processor for its central processing unit.
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Microprocessor
The semiconductor central processing unit (CPU) of a microcomputer that fits on a small silicon
chip. The microprocessor is the central chip containing the control units of the computer
Modem
A computer communications device which converts digital data to and from the analogue
electrical signals used for transmission along telephone lines.
OCTAL Numbers
Base 8 numbers.
Operating System
Software that controls the execution of programs. An operating system may provide services
such as inpuUoutput control and data management. lt may also provide job scheduling, memory
allocation, and other general functions. lt is usually loaded by a bootstrap program
Parallel Transmission
A method of data transmission in which all bits of a particular character are transmitted
simultaneously
Parity Bit
A check bit; an extra bit added to a group of bits for use in detecting errors during data transfer
Parity Check
An internal error checking method in which the binary digits in a character or word are added
and the sum is checked against a single previously computed parity digit. The check tests
whether the number of one bits in a character or word are odd or even, depending on the parity
of the computer
Peripheral Device
Any input, output or storage device connected to the central processing unit.
Pixel
(Plcture Element) ln computer graphics, the smallest element of a display surface that can be
independently assigned color or intensity
Port
A connector used to link devices to a computer.
Programme
A set of instructions used to control the operation of a computer.
Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

A type of read only memory which is programmed after manufacture. A PROM memory can only
be programmed once, after this the software is fixed and cannot be erased.
Random Access
A method of accessing data (or instructions) without having to scan any preceding information.
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Magnetic core, semiconductor, and bubble memories are considered random access storage
devices
Random Access Memory (RAM)

Memory which may be both read from and written to. lts main use in a computer is to store
application programmes and data.
Read Only Memory (ROM)

Memory which can be read from but not written to. The software in ROM memory is fixed when
it is manufactured. lts main use is to store systems software.
Real-Time System
A computer system which can receive input data and process that data quickly enough to be
able to output signals to control the source of the input.
Remote Access
Computer access from a remote site, usually by means of a terminal, modem and telephone
line.
Routine
A set of coded instructions that direct a computer to perform a certain task.
Serial Data Transmission

A method of communication in which the bits which represent a character are sent one after the
other along a single wire.
Soft Copy
Output of a computer displayed on a display terminal or monitor (CRT). lt is nonpermanent
Sofhryare
Computer programmes and their associated documentation.
Systems Sofhryare
The set of computer programmes used to control the operation of the computer.
Terminal
An inpuuoutput device used to communicate with a large computer system.
Time Sharing
Using a device, such as a computer, to work on two or more tasks, alternating the work from
one task to the other. Thus the total operating time available is divided amongst several takes,
using the full capacity of the device.
Track
(1)One of seven or nine, horizontal rows stretching the entire length of a magnetictape and on
which data can be recorded. (2) One of a series of concentric circles on the surface of a disk.
(3) One of a series of circular bands on a drum

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Truth Table
A table showing every possible combination of inputs and outputs for a logic circuit.
Visual Display Unit (VDU)

A terminal which uses a keyboard for input and a screen for output.
Word length
A number of bits in each location of a computer's memory.
Word Processor
A computer system used to enter, edit, store, retrieve and print letters and documents.

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TTS - Basic Computer Structure

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I ntegrated Training System

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Module 5.6 Basic Computer Structure

Basic Computer Architecture

A basic computer system consists of four functional system device units:

1) the input unit

Irrput flFIJ ft*rtFrrt

Figure 6.1 - The basic computer architecture

5 Use and/or disclosure is

6 Module 5.6 Basic Computer Structure Use and/or disclosure is

The Address Bus.

The Data Bus

The Control Bus.

7 Module 5.6 Basic Computer Structure

Figure 6.4 - Computer inputs

Digital to Analogue Converter

I Module 5.6 Basic Computer Structure

The Central Processor Unit (CPU)

INSTRUCTION PROGRAM COUNTER

Figure 6.5 - CPU structure

Arithmetic Logic Unit

Timing and Control

. Co-ordinates the internal operation of the microprocessor.

11 Use and/or disclosure is

Volatile vs Non-Volatile Memories

Magnetic vs Solid State Memories

13 Module 5.6 Basic Computer Structure

Destructive vs Non-Destructive Readouts

Figure 6.7 The memory tape head

Figure 6.8 The memory tape used in a Cockpit Voice Recorder

15 Module 5.6 Basic Computer Structure

Figure 6.9 A magnetic floppy disk (diskette)

F{ead Arnr *ffiAiPla ler

The figure below shows a hard disk with two platters.

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Figure 6-12 Parls of a Hard Drive

17 Module 5.6 Basic Computer Structure

Figure 6-13 Sectors and Clusters

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Figure 6.14 The optical laser disc

19 Module 5.6 Basic Computer Structure use and/or dlsclosure rs

20 Use and/or disclosure rs

Solid State Memory

Classifications of Solid State Memory

Figure 6.15 A core memory array

21 use and/or drsclosure is

t lndirates a crlnnectir:in ta all planes

Figure 6.17 A single plane core memory (16 bits)

22 Use and/or disclosure is

Core memory was inherently nonvolatile, but it is destructive.

23 Use and/or disclosure is

Figure 6.18 lntel's Bubble memory package

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)

To implant programs, or data, into a PROM a programming machine (called a PROM

Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM)

25 Use and/or disclosure is

Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-only Memory (EEpRoM)

Figure 6.19 An EPROM package

Random-Access Memory (RAM)

Figure 6.20 A RAM stick

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