Chapter 9: Transport in animals

Definitions:
1. Single circulatory system: A system in which blood passes through the heart
once on one complete circuit.
2. Double circulatory system: A system in which blood passes through the heart
twice on one complete circuit.
3.
Important pointers:
● A circulatory system is one with a pump, valves and blood vessels.
● Advantages of a double circulatory system:
○ Keeps oxygenated and deoxygenated blood separate.
○ Ensures high rates of metabolism.
○ Allows pressure to be different in different parts of the body so less
pressure in the pulmonary system to not burst the capillaries.
○ Allows Filtration to occur in the kidneys.
● Pathway of blood:
○ Blood enters the heart through the venae cavae, where they move into
the right atrium. Simultaneously blood enters the left atrium from the
left pulmonary vein.
○ The atria contract and the blood moves into the right ventricle from the
right atrium and the left ventricle from the left atrium.
○ During that time, atrioventricular valves open and semilunar valves
close.
○ Then the ventricles contract and blood moves into the pulmonary artery
from the right ventricle and into the aorta from the left ventricle.
○ During this time, atrioventricular valves close and semilunar valves
open.
○ Then all 4 chambers relax and atrioventricular valves open, semilunar
valves close.
● Adaptations of the heart:
○ There are coronary arteries that supply the heart with oxygen which
allows heart muscles to constantly contract.
○ The septum keeps the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood separated.
○ The ventricles have thicker walls than the atria because blood needs to
be pumped to only the ventricles by the atria but to the body and back
by the ventricles.
○ The left side of the heart has thicker walls than the right side because
the right side sends blood only to the lungs while the left sends it to the
whole body.
● Monitoring heart activity
○ ECG
○ Pulse rate
○ Listening to the sound of heart valves closing
● Coronary Heart Diseases
○ Human body produces cholesterol to make cell membranes but many
times it is produced or obtained in excess.
○ This is a form of fat which is circulated in the blood.
○ It gets collected in the small lumens of the coronary system blood
vessels.
○ Eventually this forms blockages in the coronary arteries.
○ This means that the heart gets less oxygen so heart rate increases.
○ This can eventually lead to cardiac arrest
● Prevention from CHD
○ Exercise regularly
○ Have a balanced diet
○ Do not smoke
○ Maintain stress levels
○ Be aware of genetic predisposition
○ Have regular check -ups
● Treatment of CHD
○ Pills
■ Disprin
■ Aspirin
○ Other
■ Angioplasty
■ Angiography
● Arteries
○ They have a small lumen to maintain the high pressure.
○ They have strong elastic walls to withstand the high pressure.

● Veins
● They have a wider lumen as the blood is no longer at high pressure.
● They have lesser elastic walls as the pressure is no longer as high.
● The have valves to prevent the backflow of blood
● Capillaries
○ They are one cell thick to increase the surface area of diffusion of
substances.
○ They are usually in a network so that the area is greater so that the
pressure is reduced.
● RBCs
○ Have a biconcave-disk-like shape without a nucleus.
○ Have haemoglobin which temporarily binds with oxygen to form an
oxyhaemoglobin compound to help transport oxygen throughout the
body.
○ They are relatively the smallest in size.

● Plasma
 ○ It is the liquid medium in which RBCs, WBCs, platelets, urea, water
and digested nutrients are dissolved in.
● Platelets
○ When a person gets a wound, his platelets are activated in the blood.
○ An enzyme-controlled reaction starts and the soluble fibrinogen is
converted to insoluble fibrin by the enzyme thrombin which is released
by the help of the enzyme, prothrombin.
○ The fibrin traps RBCs around the wound and forms a mesh like
structure.
○ This is done to prevent blood loss and prevent any microorganisms
from entering the blood.
● Lymphocytes
○ They are large cells with a relatively large nucleus.
○ They are responsible for antibody production when a pathogen is
detected.
● Phagocytes
○ They are cells with irregular shapes and a lobed nucleus.
○ They are responsible for digesting the detected pathogen.
● Heart: Coronary arteries
● Lungs: Pulmonary artery/ vein
● Kidneys: Renal artery/ vein
● Liver: Hepatic artery/ vein/ portal vein
Chapter 11: Gas exchange in humans
Important points:
● Gas exchange sites in humans (alveoli):
○ Have a good blood supply due to the large capillary network
○ Have a thin surface (only one cell thick)
○ And have good ventilation with air.
● Trachea is supported by cartillages.
● They are also lined by ciliated cells and goblet cells.
● Goblet cells produce and secrete mucus which traps microorganisms and the
wafting movement of cilia push this mucus up the trachea.

Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water vapour

Expired air 21% 4% varies

Inspired air 16% 0.04% varies

● The differences in oxygen is because cells use oxygen to aerobically respire
but not all oxygen is used up.
● The difference in carbon dioxide is because it is a product of aerobic
respiration in human cells.
Standard answers:
● Inspiration:
○ Diaphragm contracts and moves upwards.
○ Internal intercostal muscles contract and external intercostal muscles
relax.
○ Ribcage moves upwards and outwards
○ Volume increases, so pressure decreases, so air moves into the lungs.
● Oxygen debt:
○ When exercising, the heart rate increases to supply oxygen fast
enough to the muscles.
○ But after sometime, there is an oxygen debt created as oxygen is not
transported fast enough.
○ This causes muscles to respire anaerobically and creates a build up of
lactic acid in the body.
○ So after the exercise stops, the lactic acid needs to be broken down by
aerobic respiration of it in the liver.
○ For this heart needs to supply more oxygen.
○ This is why even after exercising stops, heart rate and breathing rate
remain high.
Chapter 12: Respiration
Definitions:
1. Aerobic respiration: chemical reactions that take place in the cells that use
oxygen to break down nutrient molecules to release energy.
2. Anaerobic respiration: chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient
molecules without using oxygen.

Important Points:
● Energy in animals is used for:
○ Muscle contraction
○ Protein synthesis
○ Cell division
○ Active transport
○ Growth
○ Passage of electrical impulses
○ And homeostasis

Aerobic Anaerobic

Human Glucose + Oxygen → Glucose → Lactic Acid

Carbon dioxide + Water

C6H12O6 → 2C3H6O3
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2
+ 6H2O

Yeast Glucose + Oxygen → Glucose → Ethanol +

Carbon dioxide + Water Carbon dioxide

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH +

+ 6H2O 2CO2