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Module 9 The Circulatory System 2

Human Physiology (The University of Western Ontario)

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Module 9: The Circulatory System Ⅱ

Introduction
● Blood vessels allow blood to be pumped and distributed to all areas of the body
● Circulatory system is divided into 2 distinct loops: the pulmonary circulation and systemic
circulation

Anatomy - General Organization

● Circulatory system is a closed system of tubes (blood vessels) filled with fluid (blood) that is
moved around a central pump (the heart)
● Blood vessels consist of arteries and arterioles that transport blood away from the heart
● Gas exchange takes place at capillaries
● Venules and veins return blood back to the heart
● Larger arteries → smaller arteries → smaller arterioles → small vessels → capillaries
● Capillaries are the smallest of all blood vessels and are the functional units of the circulatory
system where substances enter and leave
○ Converge into small venules, which get larger and larger to form veins
● Two principal loops that the blood takes through the body
○ One loop begins on the right side of the heart and sends blood through arteries to the
lungs
■ Blood vessels branch into smaller and smaller blood vessels which eventually
become capillaries
■ Oxygen diffuses into blood and carbon dioxide out
■ Blood then enters venules and then larger veins, then to the left side of the
heart
■ Called​ pulmonary circulation
○ Second loop begins on the left side of heart
■ Freshly oxygenated blood travels from the left ventricle, through the aorta, into
arteries
■ Arteries branch into smaller arterioles that branch into capillaries
■ Deoxygenated blood returns to the right side of the heart through venules and
larger veins
■ Called ​systemic circulation
● Two smaller circulatory loops within larger systemic circulation:
○ Haptic portal loop: in digestive system
○ Hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system: in brain
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Blood Volume Distribution

● Total blood volume of an average human being is about 5 L
○ Largest portion is contained in the veins
○ Veins are often referred to as the capacitance vessels or blood “reservoir”
○ Arteries contain 10% of TBV
○ Heart and lungs contain about 15%
○ Capillaries contain 5% of TBV

Blood Velocity and Cross-Sectional

● Arteries have the highest blood pressure and velocity, yet they have a very low cross-sectional
area
○ Vessels rapidly distribute blood throughout the body
● Arterioles have a lower blood pressure and velocity, yet the cross-sectional area is higher
○ Vessels are the site of highest resistance in the circulation and help regulate blood flow
to an organ
● Blood velocity is lowest in the capillaries while their total cross-sectional area is the highest in
the circulation
○ Maximizes exchange of substances across blood vessels
● Blood pressure and cross-sectional area decrease while blood velocity increases in the venules
and veins
○ Vessels return blood back to the heart while storing a large percentage of total blood
volume

Pressure, Flow, and Resistance

● Force that moves blood through the entire circulatory system is a pressure gradient
● Large drop in pressure from high (in aorta) to low (in veins) is the pressure gradient that causes
blood to flow through both the pulmonary and systemic circulation
● The higher the pressure gradient, the higher the blood flow
● Blood flows through vessels as a result of the pressure gradient, and experiences resistance
○ Resistance is due to blood “dragging” along walls of vessels
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● The higher the resistance that blood encounters, the lower the flow
● Blood flow through a vessel is called laminar flow: thin layers of flow whose velocity varies
across the vessel - flow is slower at edges and faster in center

Resistance to Blood Flow

● Resistance to flow comes from blood “dragging along walls of vessels
● Several factors can affect resistance:

1. Thickness or viscosity of fluid in tube

a. The thicker the fluid, the higher the resistance
2. Length of vessel
a. The longer the blood vessel, the higher the resistance
3. Diameter or radius of blood vessel
a. The smaller the inside diameter, the higher the resistance

● To calculate resistance in a blood vessel, have to take into account the viscosity of the fluid and
length and radius of the blood vessel
● Viscosity of blood does not usually change and length of vessels remains constant over short
periods of time
● Radius of blood vessel and resistance have an inversely proportional relationship
● Small change in radius results in a large change in blood flow
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Viscosity and Length can change as follows:

1. Blood viscosity can be altered by dehydration or by blood doping
a. Blood doping: a practice where elite athletes remove their blood, allow more red blood
cells to grow, and then replace their original blood. This results in blood that contains
excess number of red blood cells that thicken the blood. This dangerous and illegal
practice has resulted in the deaths of elite cyclists due to the extra straun put on the
heart to pump this thick blood through the circulatory system
2. Over long periods of time, blood vessels can get longer - especially in very overweight
individuals. As the blood vessels get longer, the resistance to blood flow increases, making the
heart work faster

Control of Blood Flow in the Body

● The body can alter blood flow by changing the pressure gradient of radius of the vessel
○ Blood pressure is usually kept constant so it is better to regulate blood flow through an
organ by changing the radius of the vessels supplying it

Decreased radius = increased resistance = decreased blood flow into organ

● Arterioles are vessels that control blood flow in an organ

○ As blood flow decreases in the lower arteriole, blood flow in the other three arterioles
increases to maintain constant flow of 5 L/min
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Changing Blood Flow in Response to the Needs of an Organ

● Blood flow to an organ depends on the needs of that organ for oxygen or nutrient
● Diverting blood is achieved by altering the radius of the arterioles - by either vasodilating (wider)
or vasoconstricting (narrower)
○ Ex. after a meal, blood flow is diverted away from muscle to the intestine to help with
digestion of food
○ Ex. when exercising, blood is diverted away from intestine to working muscle to supply it
with oxygen and nutrients while removing carbon dioxide

Blood Pressure and Resistance throughout the Systemic Circulation

● Our blood produces Korotkoff sounds when flow becomes turbulent as it “squeezes” through
blood vessels pinched off by the pressure cuff as pressure is released
○ Pressure when sound first appears is the systolic pressure
○ Pressure when sound disappears (becomes laminar) is the diastolic pressure
● Pressure in aorta and large arteries is pulsatile
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○ In a normal healthy individual, it fluctuates between a systolic pressure of 120 mmHg

(contraction) and diastolic pressure of 90 mmHg (relaxation)
○ Aorta and large arteries are very elastic and have a large radius so there is very little
resistance to blood
■ Pressure remains high in these vessels

○ Fall in pressure begins in small arteries where resistance to blood begins to increase
○ Greatest drop in pressure occurs in arterioles due to very larger resistance
(decreases from 80 – 30 mmHg)
○ Pressure keeps dropping in capillary from 30 to 10 mmHg and then from 10 to 5
mmHg in veins
○ By the time blood reaches the right atrium, pressure is almost at 0 mmHg

Structure of the Blood Vessels

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● Arteries and veins contain three layers in their walls

● Outermost layers called tunica externa is composed mostly of fibrous connective tissue
● Middle layer, or tunica media, consists of smooth muscle and elastic tissue
● Innermost layer, called the tunica interna, is composed of endothelial cells
● Veins also contain valves to ensure blood flows in one direction - back to the heart
● Capillaries are composed entirely of a single layer of endothelial cells
○ Thin walls allow the diffusion of substances into and out of the blood

Arteries
● Have walls that contain a large proportion of elastic tissue
● Vessels must be able to withstand and absorb the large pulsatile pressure changes during
contractions of the heart

Vein walls
● Thinner than arteries
● Contain some smooth muscle and a little elastic tissue
● Flexible and distensible
● Contain 70% of TBV
● Small amount of muscle tissue and presence of valves allow vessels to constrict propelling blood
back to the heart

Arterioles
● Contain mostly smooth muscle and able to constrict or dilate to redirect blood to and from
organs

Venules
● Contain no smooth muscle or elastic tissue since blood pressure is very low and their function is
to return blood to the veins

Capillaries
● Composed entirely of endothelial cells
● Facilitate diffusion of substances into and out of the blood
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Exchange of Substances across the Capillary

● Movement of substances in capillaries is enhanced by very thin endothelial cell and the
presence of clefts and fenestrations in the capillary
○ These holes allow movement of water and dissolved solutes into and out of the blood
● Movement of dissolved substances across the capillary occurs by diffusion, filtration, and
reabsorption

The Capillary - Diffusion

● Both oxygen and carbon dioxide are lipid soluble so they can diffuse through the capillary
endothelium
● Oxygen and nutrients are in high concentration in the blood are they diffuse into interstitial fluid
● Carbon dioxide and waste products diffuse into the blood as their concentrations are high in the
tissue
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Filtration and Reabsorption (Starling Forces)

Filtration - the process where fluid moves from the capillary out to interstitial space

Reabsorption - movement of fluid from the interstitial space back into capillary

- Four different forces called Starling Forces, acting on fluid determine whether filtration of
reabsorption occurs

Starling Forces
● 4 Starling Forces can be broken into two hydrostatic pressures and two osmotic forces → each
of these forces will cause filtration or reabsorption
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Starling Forces - Hydrostatic Pressures

1. Capillary Hydrostatic Pressure (P​C​)
● Pressure on fluid forcing it outward on the walls of the capillaries
● 35 mmHG at arterial end
● 15 mmHg at venous end

2. Interstitial Fluid Hydrostatic Pressure (P​IF​)

● Pressure from fluid in interstitial compartment pushing back on capillary
● Pressure varies from organ to organ varying from -6 to +6 mmHg

Starling Forces - Osmotic Forces

● Osmotic forces cause fluid to move into an area due to osmosis
● Osmotic force of plasma proteins draw fluid back into the capillary, causing reabsorption
○ 28 mmHg
○ Contains lots of proteins
● Osmotic force of proteins in interstitial space will pull fluid out of capillaries causing filtration
○ 3 mmHg
○ Contains little proteins

Starling Forces - Net Filtration Pressure

● In order to find NET direction of fluid movement, we need to calculate the NET filtration
pressure
● Positive value = net filtration of fluid out of capillaries into the interstitial space
● Negative value = reabsorbing fluid back into capillary

Starling Forces and the Lymphatic System

● Sometimes, excess fluid is filtered from capillaries, causing an accumulation in interstitial space
● Ex. subcutaneous tissue has a negative hydrostatic pressure in interstitial space of about -6
mmHg. Results in net filtration pressure of +16 mmHg at arterial end and -4 mmHg at venous
end with an overall net filtration out of capillary. Excess fluid goes to lymphatic system.

The Lymphatic System

● Excess fluid and other dissolved substances which enter the interstitial space are returned back
into circulation through a system of vessels known as the lymphatic system
● Lymphatic system is a large network of capillaries and vessels that returns excess fluid to
systemic circulation
● Consists of small blind-ended capillaries where excess fluid passes through openings
● Lymphatic capillaries return the fluid to large collecting vessels that pass through lymph nodes
● Lymph nodes filter and screen the fluid for foreign particles before sending it back to venous
circulation through collecting ducts
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Edema
● Accumulation of fluid in the interstitial space causing swelling is called edema
● Under normal situations, edema doesn’t occur because the lymphatic system can remove excess
fluid

Some factors that can produce edema include:

1. An increase in capillary hydrostatic pressure caused by increased blood pressure
● Can occur during weight lifting when the muscles, which remain contracted for a long period
(and do not relax until the weight is put down), pinch off the veins and cause blood pressure to
increase in capillaries
● Edema in muscles causes “pumped up feeling” you get after lifting weights but disappears once
lymphatics pick up the excess fluid

2. A decrease in the plasma osmotic force

● Occurs in cases of severe malnutrition leading to a decrease in the amount of plasma proteins
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● With less water moving back into the capillaries, fluid accumulates in the interstitial space and
can result in a bloated abdomen of malnourished children

3. A blockage or disruption of lymphatic system

● Can occur after a radical mastectomy that removes the lymph nodes in and around arms
● Excess fluid in arms cannot be removed by disrupted lymphatic drainage so edeme results in
hands and upper limbs

Control and Regulation of the Cardiovascular System

● Regulating the cardiovascular system ensures that cardiac output increases during exercise and
decreases when at rest
○ Also ensures that blood flow to active tissues is increased while it is decreased to
inactive tissues

Three mechanisms that regulate the cardiovascular system:

1. Local control mechanisms in the organ themselves
2. Humoral mechanisms that rely on chemicals in blood
3. ANS, which alters the cardiac output and blood flow to organs

Control of Blood Flow - Local Control Mechanisms (Autoregulation)

● Most tissues have the ability to control their own blood flow by a process called​ autoregulation
● Autoregulation ​is the process where individual capillary beds maintain a relatively constant
blood flow when moderate changes occur in blood pressure
● Mechanisms responsible for local control are explained by 2 theories:
1. Myogenic Theory
2. Metabolic Theory

● According to these theories, regulation of blood flow is achieved through changes in vessel
radius - usually at the arteriole or precapillary sphincter

Myogenic Theory
● Myogenic theory refers to changes in blood flow that is produced by contraction and relaxation
of smooth muscle in the walls of the blood vessels
● A sudden increase in blood pressure to a vital organ will cause blood vessels feeding that organ
to briefly dilate
○ This vasodilation in turn causes a reflex contraction of the smooth muscle in the walls of
arterioles supplying the organ
○ Contraction of smooth muscle causes vasoconstriction, decreasing blood pressure and
flow
○ This mechanism protects the delicate capillary network in vital organs from sudden
increases in pressure
● Opposite process occurs when there is a sudden drop in blood pressure which produces a
vasodilation, increasing blood flow to the organ
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Metabolic Theory
● Changing the metabolic activity of an organ will also change blood flow to that organ
○ Ex. during exercise, working muscle heats up, uses oxygen, and produces carbon
dioxide, lactic acid, and adenosine.
■ These metabolic by-products act locally on the blood vessels, causing
vasodilation and increased blood flow to active tissue
■ Once exercise stops and these metabolites are washed out, the vessel will
return to its original size and flow decreases to normal

Humoral Regulation
● Involves regulation of blood flow by chemical substances circulating in the blood
● Humoral regulators fall into two categories:

1. Vasoconstrictors
2. Vasodilators

● *hormone epinephrine which is released from the adrenal glands can cause both
vasoconstriction and vasodilation
○ Binds to different receptors in different organs

Vasoconstricting agents include:

● Epinephrine
○ Released from the adrenal gland in response to a flight or fight situation
○ Has a weak effect on blood vessels of the intestine
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● Angiotensin II
○ One of the most powerful vasoconstrictors in the body
● Vasopressin (also known as antidiuretic hormone/ADH)
○ important hormone in the renal system

Vasodilating substances include:

● Epinephrine
● Kinins
○ A family of hormones formed in plasma and tissue
● Histamine
○ Released from cells after they have been damaged
● Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF)
○ Produced by atrial muscle cells

Neural Control Mechanisms

● Two divisions of the ANS can also regulate blood flow because both divisions innervate the
smooth muscle found in the walls of arterioles
● Contracting the smooth muscle will cause vasoconstriction (increasing resistance) leading to a
decrease in blood flow
● Relaxing the smooth muscle will produce vasodilation (decreasing resistance) leading to an
increase in blood flow

Sympathetic Nervous System

● Involved with fight or flight response
● Causes overall vasoconstriction by releasing norepinephrine onto smooth muscle of blood
vessels
● Releases ACh onto the blood vessels in skeletal muscle producing vasodilation
● Redirects blood away from the digestive system, kidneys and spleen and towards the muscle

Parasympathetic Nervous System

● Rest and relaxation
● Does not strongly innervate smooth muscle of blood vessels
● Releases Ach and produces vasodilation

Regulating Blood Pressure by the Baroreceptor Reflex

● The cardiovascular system uses the baroreceptor reflex to regulate blood pressure
● Increasing cardiac output or total peripheral resistance will increase pressure and vice
versa
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The Baroreceptor Reflex

● An example of a negative feedback mechanism
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Increasing blood pressure will dilate almost all blood vessels:

1. Walls of vessels stretch, activating baroreceptors in the aortic in aortic arch and carotid
sinus
2. As pressure increases, baroreceptors increase frequency of action potentials sent to
cardioregulatory center and vasomotor center in the brain stem
3. In order to return blood pressure to normal, cardiac output and total peripheral
resistance must be decreased

Returning blood pressure to normal:

1. Cardioregulatory center activates the parasympathetic nervous system and shuts down
sympathetic nervous system
2. Heart rate drops and force of contraction occurs (decreasing stroke volume and cardiac
output)
3. Vasomotor center causes vasodilation of most blood vessels (decreasing total peripheral
resistance)
4. Blood pressure returns to normal