Discipline and Ideas in the Social Sciences
governed
Social Science
- human groups and their
socio-physical environment.
Plato
- humans can achieve harmony by
creating classes/ divisions
Aristotle
- Father of Politics.
- different types of government can
be just or corrupt
Herodotus
- different cultures or societies
converged and diverged
Al Biruni
- lives of early populations in the Middle
east, South Asia and Mediterranean.
- Remaining signs of Past Centuries
Ibn Khaldun
- Key founders of demography,
history, sociology, anthropology
and economics
- Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun
Religious Orientation vs Scientific Inquiry
- The Church’s interest in the physical
sciences extends only to the degree
when the knowledge is in
accordance to its dogma and to
Sacred scriptures. Church’s opinion
affected all disciplines under social
science.
- In the Age of Enlightenment,
particular attention was given to
how societies originated, how they
functioned and how they were
Thomas Hobbes
- the monarch’s power came from
the people and not the divine right
John Locke
- Power of the state to govern is
given by the people for the
protection of alienable rights
Montesquieu
- idea of the government having a
system of checks and balances
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
- social contract exists which enables
a society to function toward a
general will or common good
French Revolution (1789 – 1799)
- Bloodiest Revolution
- Monarchy’s absolute control over
the people
- Economic, Social and political crisis
- Three Classes (Clergy, Nobility,
Masses)
- Masses (Largest yet with the less
rights and privilege)
- inequality led the peasants,
workers, and merchants to take
arms against the monarchy.
- Montesquieu, Lafayette,
Robespierre and Condorcet argued
that the monarchy should be based
on a constitution rather than on the
church’s dictates.
Industrial Revolution (1760-1840)
 - Shift from human labor to machine
dependence
Thomas Malthus
- growth of population, unless
checked, would be faster than what
the industries could produce.
Adam Smith
- intensification of production of
goods which must not be
restrained by government policies
John Stuart Mill
- free market would only favor the
ruling elite & would severely
oppress the working class
Development of Social Science Study and
Research
William Thompson
- Irish philosopher and political writer
- Coined “Social Science” Wealth
Most Conducive to Human
Happiness.
- proposed utilitarian in approach to
materialism
Thomas Malthus
- Economist
- Essay on the Principle of Population
he argued that the tension between
food supply and population ratio is
a significant threat to the balance
between resources and population
Karl Marx
- German Philosopher
- the unjust treatment of the working
class and the need for social reform.
The Communist Manifesto
- capitalism would inevitably
self-destruct, to be replaced by
socialism and ultimately
communism.
Das Kapital
- description of how the capitalist
system works and how, Marx
claims, it will destroy itself.
Alexis de Tocqueville
- French Philosopher and Historian
- technology deprived humans of
creativity and freedom as they were
made mere appendages to
machines in assembly lines.
Positivism and Post-Positivism: Approaches in
Social Science
August Comte
- He argued there are three stages in
the development of reason:
o Theological – based on
assumptions from sacred
texts
o Philosophical – based on
critical thinking
o Scientific - based on
positive observation
Empirical Method
- through observation or experiment.
Statistical Method
- Inspired by Charles Darwin’s
- Pragmatic approach. (Experience
first)
Sociological Method
- everything in the social realm could
be quantifiably understood.
 Emile Durkheim

- Father of Modern Sociology Writer NATURAL SCIENCE VS SOCIAL SCIENCE VS

of “Suicide” – the suicide rates HUMANITIE
between Catholic and Protestants
population.

Post-positivism/Postmodernism

- using a combination of logical

reasoning and empirical
observation.

Research Methods in Science

Inductive Research

- Concepts from available data

- Gather data – Look for patterns –
Develop Theory
- Specific – General

Deductive Research
Humanities
- Theories using new observed data
- General - Specific - Traditionally include philosophy,
literature, and creative writing
Two Research Design - Understanding social realities
Qualitative – relies on non-numerical data such through reflection
as texts and spoken words

Quantitative – relies on numerical data. ANTHROPOLOGY

Anthropos = Human Logos = Study

Research Methods and Instruments ● Everything about humans - from their
Survey – gathering the responses of a certain biological to evolutionary past
number of participants on a topic.

Key Informant Interview – asking individuals set THE DEVELOPMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY

of questions face-to-face.
● Rise of Empires and States
Participant Observation – the researcher ● Dawn of Colonialism and Imperialism
immerses in the environment and
circumstances of the people in the study.

The Interdisciplinary approach - sharing of Herodotus

theories and methodologies among the - He compared cultures of the people
disciplines of social sciences. under the Persian Empire “He paid
particular attention to how the
 different cultures of different
societies converged and diverged”
Ibn Khaldun
- He examined the social
psychological and economic factors
that led to rise of ancient
civilizations in the Mediterranean
(14th Century)
Dawn of Colonialism and Imperialism
Edward Burnett Taylor (1832-1917)
- Father of Cultural Anthropology
Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881)
- Lawyer and Anthropologist
Franz Boas (1858-1942)
- Father of American Anthropology
Fields of Anthropology
Physical Anthropology
- Humans and their nature as animal
species
- Human variation, evolution and
physical characteristics
Archaeology
- Study the past civilizations by
dealing with fossils (biological
remains) and artifacts (man-made
material remains)
Linguistic Anthropology
- Examines the relationship between
language and culture
o Historical (development and
evolution of languages)
o Descriptive (syntax and
grammar)
o Social (cultural norms)
Cultural Anthropology
- the lifeways and traditions of human
groups
o Ethnography (holistic study)
o Ethnology (cross-cultural
comparison)
Applied Anthropology
Forensic
- Identification of unrecognizable remains
of humans that may have been burned,
mutilated, or decomposed
Medical
- Process by which culture influences
people’s ways of seeking health care
and well-being
ECONOMICS
Oikos = House Nomos = Custom or Law
- Concerned with the production,
distribution, and consumption of goods
and services.
Adam Smith
- Father of Modern Economics.
 - The Wealth of Nations - he promoted ● fuses economic principles with the
the concept of free market. psychological framework.

THE FIELDS OF ECONOMICS ● depends on the behavior of the market

and consumers. pag magpapasko, dapat
Microeconomics Macroeconomics
related dun sa behaviors ng tao.
Focuses on Determinants of
taglamig = jackets | summer =
small-scale market economic aggregates
swimsuits, hats,
interactions (total output, total
(household and firms employment, and the Classical Economics
general price level)
● market must be free from the
intervention for it to have a dynamic
Mainstream Heterodox and self-perpetuating trajectory.
rationality, institutions, history,
individualism and social structure ● controlling the market and retaining the
equilibrium economy. ex: ukraine and russia war.
dapat walang ibang factors like
established small businesses na paghugot ng investments, pagretain ng
businesses na uusbong pa lang o investments.
ginagaya na lang mag uumpisa pa lang.
ngayon (sanay na may connection sa Computational Economics
tayo) mga nakapaligid.
● development of mathematical methods
social status and all
with the aid of computers

● pano kumita and magbenta thru

Economic Theory Applied Economics
computers
processes and economic theories
interactions related and formulas to the Econometrics
to production and real world scenarios
consumption of ● coined by Pawel Ciompa in 1910;
goods oriented toward the analysis of
economic data using mathematical and
dapat ganito, dapat statistical formulas
ganyan. pano nag
iinteract ang ● pano makikita if may kinita ka or wala.
production and use of mathematical and statistical
consumption formulas.

Evolutionary Economics
Positive Normative
● institutions and technologies are
explain economic how economic
considered variables that are constantly
phenomena or policies should be
behavior transforming

● dapat nagbabago yung techonology as

Research Methods in Economics time passes. para makasabay sa market,
dapat evolutionary yung mindset mo.
Behavioral Economics
Experimental Economics
 ● utilizes laboratory experiments to Geo = Earth or Ground
analyze the applicability of theories in Graphia = to write, and art or a study
real-life situations
- relation between Earth, its human
● high risks. may simulation muna before inhabitants and the changes and
iestablish. ex: free tastes. interplay that occurred over time

- cartography - study of drawing maps

Praxeology The Development of Geography

● human actions are done based on

calculated purpose or objective

● pagtaas ng presyo ay depende sa mga

human actions and behavior hindi lang
dahil trip mo.

Current Application of Economics

Education Economics

- impact of education in analyzing The Fields of Geography

economic behaviors of
individuals/groups Physical Geography

- inaaral kung ano yung impact. ano yung - natural patterns of Earth’s surface over
impact nito sa ibang tao? ano yung time
impact ng ekonomiya sa isang Human Geography
magsasaka? sa isang tricycle driver?
- relationship of people, communities
Environmental Economics and cultures across space and place
- interrelationship between the Integrated Geography
environment and economic
development - how human activities impact the
environment
Welfare Economics
Geomatics
- equitable allocation of resources and
goods among the populace - Scientific management of geographic
data
- equity - kung ano yung oangangailangan
mo, depende sa social status mo. Regional Geography

- Focuses on a particular region

Geography
Geopolitics - analyzing particular characteristics of land
or space upon which development will be
- how international relations, trade and done
economics are affected by political
actor’s location Regional Science

- spatial dimension of varying areas, whether

Biogeography
urban or rural
- why/how certain organisms thrive in
Planetary Science
particular locations
- Study of planets, moons, and planetary
Cultural Anthropology systems
- How society’s culture changed over History
time
Historia = finding out, inquiry and narrative

- Knowledge acquired by investigation

RESEARCH METHODS IN GEOGRAPHY
Will and Ariel Durant – they presented how
Cartography
history could be an industry, art and
- Study of representing Earth’s surface using philosophy
abstract symbols or through the creation of
maps - As an industry, history should discover
the primary sources that describe past
Geographic Information Systems events.
- proper storage of geographic information - As an art, history established a
using a computer meaningful order n the chaos of
materials
Culture
- As a philosophy, history seeks
- This is a key element of study in the field of perspective and enlightenment.
Anthropology.
The Development of History
Remote Sensing

- utilizes various instruments to obtain

geographic data about Earth’s surface

Geographic Quantitative Methods or Geostatistics

- application of statistical methodologies to

analyze geographic information.

Geographic Qualitative Methods or Ethnography

- undertaking participant observations on the

field and in conducting interviews

CURRENT APPLICATIONS OF GEOGRAPHY

Urban, Regional and Spatial Planning

 Current Applications of History

Museum studies

- museology, studies how museums

developed through time and their
current role in society

Historic Preservation

- Preservation of artifacts and fossils

Linguistics
The Fields of History
Lingua = language
Cultural History
- Since 1500’s individuals who study
- Study of belief systems, customs, social language have been called linguists
forms, political systems, material traits, - Inquires on the basic elements that
and economic activities allows societies to communicate ideas
across time and space.
Social History

- family and marriage, adolescence and Development of Linguistics

mass media, human rights and 19th century, linguistics was known as
inequality, industrialization and philology or study of history of words
development and work and leisure

Intellectual History

- history of idea and theories

Research Methods in History

Oral Tradition

- Passed through stories handed down

from one generation to the next

External Criticism
Historical Linguistics
- historian checks the validity and
- studies how a particular language
originality of the evidence used for
changed over time.
reconstruction of historical events.
Sociolinguistics
Internal Criticism
- how language is being used in
- Method where the historian checks the
relation to a people sociocultural
validity of the content of a historical
environment (we have to know
document or artifact.
their environment as well)
 - Study of political power, relations,
behavior and activities
Fields of Linguistics
- Politics is the theory and practice of
Developmental Linguistics influencing other people

- development of language, Development of Political Science

acquisition, language retention, and
language loss and bilingualism.

Neurolinguistics

- which the brain processes

information in relation to language

Research Methods in Linguistics

Corpus Linguistics Fields of Political Science

- Method of studying a language Comparative Politics

based on real-world text
- differences and similarities of the
(annotation, abstraction and
political systems of the world.
analysis) (body language)
(Monarchy, Republican, Common
Content Analysis Wealth, Democratic)

- create meaningful and data driven Political Philosophy

conclusions by evaluating how
- idea of justice, law, rights and
frequent a context appeared within
government
a particular discussion or narrative.
Public Law
Computational Linguistics
- legal concerns between the state
- how human language can be
and the people such as
computationally modelled. (is that
constitutional and administrative
language is still relevant today)
law.
Lexicography

- collecting words and their meaning

Research Methods in Political Science
in a systematic manner resembling
the structure of a dictionary. Case Study

- produce a viable public policy by

examining how political actors
POLITICAL SCIENCE
interact with the political system
Politikos = Politics, means of, for, or relating to
Comparative Approach
citizens
 - Compares political systems using The Fields of Psychology
selected variables such as the type
Biological Psychology
of regime, political values,
implemented and political events. ● Studies psychology from a biological
perspective

Behavioral Psychology
Applications of Political Science
● through the use of observable data
Public Administration
Cognitive Psychology
- management and implementation
of government policies ● Analyses how sensory data are
interpreted and are used by the mind to
International Relations
produce
- Study which covers the interaction
Social Psychology
of international state and non-state
actors. (Connection of our ● Interprets the behavior of groups in the
government to other governments presence of others.
internationally)
Psychoanalysis

● can be philosophical or practical inquiry

Psychology
Humanistic Psychology
Psyche = soul
● how a person can better achieve
● Study of behavior and mental processes self-actualization
● Seeks to answer why the human mind
works the way it does and how it
functions and operates Research Methods in Psychology

Controlled Experiments

● Involve two groups being researched

upon-the experimental and control
group

Quantitative and Qualitative

● Quantitative – uses mathematical

models, formulas and statistics
● Qualitative – naturalistic/philosophical
approach

Current Applications of Psychology

Mental Testing
 ● measure the respondent’s personality The Fields of Sociology
traits, behavior, beliefs and feelings
Human Ecology
Mental Health Care
● the society in relation to its
● Provided to individuals with personality environment
disorders, mental disorders or
Penology or Penal Science
emotional problems
● how punishment is conducted on the
Health, Well-being and Social Change
offending members of the society
● educate patients about how to cope
Sociology of Work
with illnesses or how to maintain
healthy lifestyle ● How individuals, groups, communities
and societies relate to and interact with
Health, Well-being and Social Change
different industries.
● Psychologists educate patients about
how to cope with illnesses or how to
maintain healthy lifestyle Research methods

Case Study
Sociology ● Research method which focuses on a
particular social phenomenon and its
Socious = companionship or friendship
effect on a specific group of people
Logos = study of
Survey
● It inquiries into social behavior and
● using questionnaires & statistical
historical development of social
analysis
institutions.
Current applications of Sociology

Clinical Sociologists

● Use of sociological methods and

practices in the understanding of,
intervention, and enhancement of
social life.

Social Engineering

● how a population could be influenced

to an elicit the desired response.

Public Sociology

● engage in debates and bring social

concerns and issues to the public
domain
 Demography
Demos = people
Graphia = a description of
Study of describing people
● Study of human populations through
the use of statistical analysis and
mathematical modeling.
Fields of Demography
Historical Demography
● Quantitative study of population n the
past
Social Demography
● Uses demographic data to describe and
explain social phenomena
Research Methods
Direct
● Two types: gathering of data through
registries & acquiring data through
census conducted by government.
Indirect
● Sister method, wherein they would ask
women how many sisters they have,
how many died, how many children and
at what age.
Current applications of Sociology
Biodemography
● Integration of biological theories with
the study of demography.
Population Geography
● Scientific study of people and their
distribution over regions and through
time.
Approaches in Social Sciences
Structural Functionalism
● that a society is composed of a system
of interconnected parts that have their
own particular functions. (Di ako pwede
sumama sakanila kasi iba function ko)
● It views societal living as shaped and
guided by social structures (patterns of
social relationships between groups or
individuals). It is like a readymade
script.
Macrostructures
● Social structures formed among groups
or institutions. (OUTSIDE)
Microstructures
● Social structures established among
individuals. (SARILI)

Robert Merton
Key Concepts in Structural Functionalism
Criticisms and limitations:
Manifest Functions – predicted, intended,
expected and knowable effect of a social
structure. (self-explanatory)
Latent Functions – unintended outcome of
social structure. (Alam yung trabaho pero di
sure sa function) (needed to be elaborated)
Important Theorist
August Comte
● Law of Tree Stages:
o Theological – Theory
/Assumptions
o Metaphysical –
Experimentations and
physicality and beyond the
physical reality.
o Positive – Outcomes
Herbert Spencer
● each social structure just like a body
part, has a purpose and function in the
overall well-being of the society. Equity
> Equality
Key Concepts in Marxism
Talcott Parsons
Social Inequality
● identified the different systems which
make up the structure of the society:
cultural, social, personality & biological
systems.
Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore
● known for the functionalist theory of
stratification or Davis Moore hypothesis
● developed the concepts of manifest and
latent functions and dysfunctions.
● Dysfunctions – It’s true and natural
function is not being fulfilled and can
result to the opposite and bad effects.
1. Functionalism compares the purposes
of an institution to that of an individual.
2. Functionalism falls for the fallacy of
circular reasoning.
3. Because of its idea that everything has a
function in society, functionalism finds it
difficult to explain social changes.
4. Functionalism is also criticized by how it
sees the individual as a nere actor who
follows roles and is shaped by society.
5. The idea of functional unity does not
take into account that conflicts can and
will arise in the society.
6. Social stratification can be considered as
a defense and argument for social
injustices.
Marxism
● Sociological, political, and economic
philosophy tat is based on the ideas
and theories of Karl Marx.
● Industrial Capitalism created two
classes society: bourgeoisie and
proletariat.
● Ideological Control- Ideas of the ruling
class are instilled n society through te
institution it dominates.
● False class consciousness – describe
ways in which material, ideological, and
 institutional processes are said to
mislead members of the proletariat.
● Class Conflict – it arises from the
oppression of the proletariat by the
bourgeoisie.
● Communist Society – characterized by a
classless society having common
ownership of property and resources.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
● They are regarded as the fathers of
Marxist theory.
● Communist Manifesto
Criticisms and Limitations:
1. General criticism to Marxist theory is
that the ideals of communism do not
require evolution to take place.
2. Marx’s Idea of historical materialism is
seen as very limiting
3. Historical determinism directly supports
historical materialism
4. The actual implementation of
communism is criticized by many
historians and political scientists.
Epistemology, Ontology,
Symbolic Interactionism
● A theory that focuses on the
individual interactions with object
and other people.
● Explores social dynamics between
people and how they assign
meaning to things.
Key concepts in Symbolic Interactionism
Interaction-based meaning
Symbolic Interactionism sees reality as an
association of meaning.
Human Agency – It is perceived to be active
social actors who willingly negotiate their roles
and identifies within and goes through,
Important Theorists
Herbert Blumer
● coined symbolic interactionism.
● A central idea to Blumer’s work is that
social reality is a continuous process of
creation.
George Herbert Mead
● developed theory of the social self,
which interprets the self as emerging
Criticisms and Limitations
1. The main criticisms against symbolic
interactionism and is its lack of
testability due to its focus on small
group interactions
2. Symbolic interactionism is seen as
unreliable in analyzing empirical
data and in predicting outcomes of
social activities
3. Cooley’s development of the self is
based on the person’s imagination
and reflection.
Psychoanalytic
Psychoanalysis
Refers to a theory of the mind and its direct
connection to personality and behavior.
Human mind has an unconscious state.
Psychosexual Development of Personality
● Oral Stage (Mouth)
● Anal Stage (anus)
● Phallic stage (attraction to the parent)
● Latency Stage (social skills)
● Genital Stage (sexual maturity)
Important Theories
Sigmund Freud – Father of Psychoanalysis and
Libido Theory (natural for man to sensual
aspiration toward another person)
William Stanley Jevons
● involves methods through which an
individual is guided to understand
himself or herself to a better through a
treatment called psychotherapy.
Criticisms and Limitations
● unscientific or even at times,
Gary Becker
pseudoscience.
● Critics argue that psychoanalysis a
phenomenological approach instead of
positivistic approach in investigating the
mind.
Rational Choice Theory
● human action and behavior are
products of choice
● In rational choice theory, cost-benefit
analysis is always performed in every
given situation.
● Cost is something disadvantageous or
what is lost by an individual while
benefit is advantageous to the
individual after making the choice. (Ito
pinili mo at hndi mo pagsisisihan yung
pinili mo)
● Think before we act
Key Concepts in Rational Choice Theory
● Humanity’s unlimited wants and
perpetual desires drove civilizations to
either prominence or destruction.
● The tragedy of the commons is a
scenario wherein a common piece of
land is hared for grazing by community.
● Plato discussed in his The Republic the
notion of exploitation by unchecked
freedom of people.
Important Theorists
● applied the principles of rational choice
theory in political economy.
● Theory of marginal utility states that the
utility decreases as more it is consumed
● expanded the study of economics to the
realm of sociology and other social
sciences.
● individuals act to maximize their own
welfare.
Criticisms and Limitations
● It is heavily criticized for its neglect of
ethical and moral standards
● The tragedy of the commons and others
reflect today’s society-the widening gap
between the rich and the poor.
Institutionalism
● Patterns, routines, norms, rules and
schemes that govern and direct social
thoughts and action
● Institutions are organized set of
elements such as belief, rules, practices,
and relationships that exist to attain
social order.
Key Concepts in Institutionalism
 ● Formal institutions are codified rules,
policies and norms that are considered
official.
● Informal institutions are equally known
rules and norms but are not the
commonly written down.
● Institutional actors refer to people who
make up society.

Important Theorists

David Mitrany

● father of functionalism in internal

relations.
● He explains that a state’s authority lies
in functions and needs and the ability to
Provide for those needs.

Jean Monnet

● Power is not in the people but in the

government.
● Saw how the needs of the state are to
be achieved through the principle of
supranationalism.
● He argued against territory being the
source of authority.

Criticisms and limitations

● It can describe and analyze differences

between institutions, but it lacks the
ability to analyze changes happening in
a certain institution.
● Since there are many approaches to
institutionalism, there are also a variety
of ways by which institutions can be
identified.