Low-Cycle Fatigue Behavior of INCONEL 718 Superalloy

with Different Concentrations of Boron at Room Temperature

L. XIAO, D.L. CHEN, and M.C. CHATURVEDI

Symmetrical push-pull low-cycle fatigue (LCF) tests were performed on INCONEL 718 superalloy
containing 12, 29, 60, and 100 ppm boron (B) at room temperature (RT). The results showed that
all four of these alloys experienced a relatively short period of initial cyclic hardening, followed
by a regime of softening to fracture at higher cyclic strain amplitudes (
t /2  0.8 pct). As the
cyclic strain amplitude decreased to
t /2  0.6 pct, a continuous cyclic softening occurred with-
out the initial cyclic hardening, and a nearly stable cyclic stress amplitude was observed at
t /2
 0.4 pct. At the same total cyclic strain amplitude, the cyclic saturation stress amplitude among
the four alloys was highest in the alloy with 60 ppm B and lowest in the alloy with 29 ppm B.
The fatigue lifetime of the alloy at RT was found to be enhanced by an increase in B concentra-
tion from 12 to 29 ppm. However, the improvement in fatigue lifetime was moderate when the B
concentration exceeded 29 ppm B. A linear relationship between the fatigue life and cyclic total
strain amplitude was observed, while a “two-slope” relationship between the fatigue life and
cyclic plastic strain amplitude was observed with an inflection point at about
p /2  0.40 pct.
The fractographic analyses suggested that fatigue cracks initiated from specimen surfaces, and trans-
granular fracture, with well-developed fatigue striations, was the predominant fracture mode. The
number of secondary cracks was higher in the alloys with 12 and 100 ppm B than in the alloys
with 29 and 60 ppm B. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) examination revealed that typi-
cal deformation microstructures consisted of a regularly spaced array of planar deformation bands
on {111} slip planes in all four alloys. Plastic deformation was observed to be concentrated in
localized regions in the fatigued alloy with 12 ppm B. In all of the alloys,   precipitate particles
were observed to be sheared, and continued cyclic deformation reduced their size. The observed
cyclic deformation softening was associated with the reduction in the size of   precipitate parti-
cles. The effect of B concentration on the cyclic deformation mechanism and fatigue lifetime of
IN 718 was discussed.

I. INTRODUCTION Cao and Kennedy[4] studied the effect of P and B on

IN the late 1950s, it was realized that small additions of
boron (B) and zirconium (Zr) were extremely beneficial to
the creep-rupture properties of nickel-base superalloys. Since
then, the addition of B in superalloys is generally considered
to be beneficial, especially for the grain boundary sensitive
mechanical properties, such as creep resistance. Work by
Pennington[1] showed that B (up to 0.01 pct) and Zr (up to
0.1 pct) improved high-temperature strength, ductility, and
notch sensitivity of several alloys, and Darmara[2] observed
that as little as 15 ppm B was sufficient to double the rup-
ture life and ductility of WASPALOY* Much of the earlier
*WASPALOY is a trademark of Special Metals Corporation, Huntington,
WV.
work on the effect of minor elements in superalloys has been
summarized in a review by Holt and Wallace.[3]
L. XIAO, Research Associate, and M.C. CHATURVEDI, Distinguished
Professor and Canada Research Chair, are with the Department of Mechan-
ical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg,
MB, Canada, R3T 2N2. Contact e-mail: mchat@cc.umanitoba.ca D.L.
CHEN, Associate Professor, is with the Department of Mechanical,
Aerospace and Industrial Engineering, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON,
Canada, M5B 2K3.
Manuscript submitted December 20, 2004.
the creep deformation of INCONEL** 718 (IN 718).* They
**INCONEL is a trademark of INCO Alloys International, Huntington,
WV.
concluded that both P and B increased the resistance to
creep deformation, but the effect of a combined addition of
B and P on creep strength of IN 718 was much greater than
the sum of the individual effects of P and B. Garosshen
et al.[5] studied the effect of B, C, and Zr on the mechani-
cal properties of nickel-base superalloy. They reported that
both C and B had a strong influence on the formation of
grain boundary precipitates, and B resulted in the forma-
tion of an intergranular M3B2 boride. Both B and Zr were
observed to be critical for improvement in the mechanical
properties of the alloys, although B levels above the solu-
bility limit resulted in no further improvement or reduc-
tion in strength. Floreen and Davidson[6] studied the effect
of B and Zr on the creep and fatigue crack growth behav-
ior of Ni-base superalloy. They reported that additions of
B and Zr markedly improved the smooth specimen creep
properties and the threshold stress intensity values for creep
crack growth. However, they had no effect on the crack
growth rates during creep or fatigue deformation. No
changes in microstructure, fracture appearance, or grain
boundary sliding behavior due to B and Zr additions were
observed.

METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS A VOLUME 36A, OCTOBER 2005—2671

 The improvement in mechanical properties of superalloys
due to the addition of B has been attributed to a variety of
mechanisms.[1–7] They include (1) decreased grain bound-
ary diffusivity, (2) increased grain boundary interfacial
strength, (3) lowering of grain boundary surface energy,
(4) removal of tramp elements by precipitating them as sta-
ble compounds, (5) formation of denuded zones on either
side of the grain boundaries in which the precipitation of
 was absent or was of a lower volume fraction than that
present in the grains, (6) slower agglomeration of grain
boundary M23C6 carbide concurrently with depletion of 
from the adjacent matrix, and (7) modification in fine  or
M23C6 carbide morphologies.
A large amount of work has been done to understand the
effect of B on the grain boundary behavior of IN 718.[3,5,7,8–14]
It is generally agreed that B segregates to grain boundaries
due to its small atomic size and its low solubilities in  and
. Systematic research work has been conducted by
Chaturvedi and co-workers[9–14] to characterize the grain
boundary segregation and precipitation in alloy 718. By sec-
ondary-ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), Chaturvedi and co-
workers obtained direct evidence of atomic segregation of
B at high-angle grain boundaries, and also observed B to
form borides.[9–12] Most of Chaturvedi and co-workers’ inves-
tigations were concerned with the role of B addition and its
effect on the grain boundary behavior during welding and
not on the mechanical properties of superalloys; however,
due to the strength requirements of aircraft engine and power
generation turbine disk alloys at high temperatures, where
the grain boundaries play an important role in the defor-
mation behavior, many significant investigations have been
conducted by other researchers. However, despite the obvi-
ous importance of minor element additions, the actual mech-
anism by which these elements improve mechanical
properties remains unclear. To date, only a few studies have
reported the influence of B on either the microscopic defor-
mation mechanism or the low-cycle fatigue (LCF) properties
of nickel-base superalloys.[15] It was, therefore, considered
necessary to further study the effect of B on the plastic defor-
mation mechanism, especially at room temperature (RT),
at which the grain boundaries may not play a significant role
in plastic deformation of IN 718 and especially during LCF,
which was the primary goal of this work.
II. MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL
PROCEDURES
A. Materials and Heat Treatment
Four wrought IN 718 based alloys, which had the same
base chemical composition of (wt pct) 18.45Cr, 53.43Ni,
18.83Fe, 2.91Mo, 4.86Nb, but contained 12, 29, 60, and
100 ppm B, respectively, were produced via vacuum induc-
tion melting vacuum arc remelting for this research
by Special Metal Corporation (Huntington, WV) (12 and
29 ppm B) and by ALLVAC (Monroe, NC) (60 and
100 ppm B). A split 140-kg heat was made. The first half
of the heat was poured into a 108-mm electrode with a B
level of 60 ppm. Additional B was added into the remain-
ing heat to increase the B level to 100 ppm and poured into
a 108-mm electrode. Both electrodes were vacuum arc
remelted into 140-mm ingots. Ingots were homogenized at
1163 °C for 16 hours and then press forged to 76 76 mm
billet at 1093 °C. The billets were further rolled to 12.7
79 mm plates at 1066 °C. A similar processing procedure
was used to produce alloys with 12 and 29 ppm B. The
actual chemical composition of these alloys is given in
Table I. Cylindrical specimens, 6.25 mm in diameter and 10 mm
in gage length, were machined for the LCF tests. The speci-
mens were given a commercial heat treatment. This treatment
consisted of a solution treatment at 1227 K for 1 hour and
then air cooling to RT, followed by aging at 990 K for 8 hours,
cooling to 895 K at a rate of 50 K/h, and holding at 895 K
for a total aging time of 8 hours before air cooling to RT.

Table I. Composition of the Selected IN 718 (Weight Percent Unless Designated ppm)

Alloy Mn Si Cr Ni Co Fe Mo
12 0.01 0.02 18.45 53.43 0.01 18.83 2.91
29 0.07 0.08 17.97 53.92 0.71 17.61 2.96
60 0.01 0.01 17.85 53.50 0.01 18.46 2.88
100 0.01 0.01 17.87 53.55 0.01 18.46 2.88
P W V Nb Ti Al B (ppm) C (ppm)
0.002 0.001 0.03 4.86 0.97 0.46 12 120
0.007 0.07 0.02 5.12 0.94 0.47 29 225
0.003 0.01 0.02 5.33 0.99 0.54 60 40
0.003 0.01 0.02 5.33 0.99 0.54 100 40
Alloy Cu Ta Hf Ag (ppm) Pb (ppm) Bi (ppm) Ca (ppm) Mg (ppm)
12 0.001 0.004 0.004 5 3 0.3 50 36
29 0.02 0.005 0.004 5 3 0.3 50 10
60 0.02 0.01 — 2 1 0.1 — 100
100 0.02 0.01 — 1 1 0.1 — 57
S (ppm) Sn (ppm) Cd (ppm) Sb (ppm) O (ppm) N (ppm) Zr
10 20 50 20 3 2 0.001
3 20 50 20 1 65 0.001
4 5 — — 5 22 0.01
3 5 — — 8 22 0.01

2672—VOLUME 36A, OCTOBER 2005 METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS A

B. Fatigue Tests and Microstructural Examination
The LCF tests were carried out on a computerized Instron
(Canton, MA) 8502 servohydraulic testing system, which was
interfaced with FastTrack II software. Uniaxial pull-push
LCF tests were performed under total strain control mode
in air, employing a symmetrical triangular strain-wave cycle.
A nominal total axial strain rate of 3 10 3 s 1 was used
for all the tests. Axial strain was measured and controlled by
an extensometer of axial gage length of 10 mm. The stress-
strain values were processed to determine the cyclic stress
responses and the plastic strain amplitudes as a function of
number of cycles.
Fractographic analysis was carried out using a JSM-
5200LV scanning electron microscope (SEM). Thin foils
for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were prepared
from 3-mm discs cut from regions adjacent to the fracture
surface and perpendicular to the loading axis, and twin-jet
electropolished to perforation in a 10 pct solution of per-
chloric acid in methanol, at 243 K temperature and at 12 V.
Fatigue deformation substructures were observed using a
JEOL*-2000FX transmission electron microscope operated
*JEOL is a trademark of Japan Electron Optics Ltd., Tokyo.

at 180 kV.

III. RESULTS
A. Microstructure of the Heat-Treated Material
The microstructure of the heat-treated alloys, containing
different amounts of B, was characterized. It was found that
the grain boundaries in all four of the alloys were exten-
sively decorated with particles of various morphologies,
ranging from globular to needle, and a typical SEM micro-
graph of the heat-treated material containing 29 ppm B is
shown in Figure 1(a). Energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS)
revealed that these particles were (Ni3Nb) phase, as indi-
cated by the arrows in Figure 1(a). Some B containing pre-
cipitate particles were observed at grain boundaries, as
suggested by the presence of B peaks in the corresponding
EDS spectrum shown in Figure 1(b). Strong evidence of
segregation of B at grain boundaries in B containing IN 718
superalloy was observed by SIMS analysis in the earlier
studies on weldability of IN 718 superalloy.[9–12] The grain
size of all four alloys was about 6 m; however, its distri-
bution was observed to be inhomogeneous in some local
regions.
IN 718 is a precipitation-hardened superalloy in which
the strengthening is mainly due to the presence of 13 to
14 vol pct fraction of coherent   precipitates with an
ordered DO22 type bct crystal structure. It also contains 3
to 4 vol pct of  with L12 type ordered crystal structure.
A representative thin-film TEM microstructure is shown
in Figure 2(a), which is in [001] orientation, as suggested
by its selected area diffraction pattern (SADP) shown in
Figure 2(b) and its interpretation in Figure 2(c). The sec-
ondary spots in the SADP were identified to be due to  
and  precipitates. The (100), (010), and (110) reflections
in the SADP are both due to the   and  precipitates,
whereas, (1/2 10) and (1 1/2 0) type reflections are only due
to   phase.[16,17] The dark-field TEM micrograph, taken
Fig. 1—SEM image of the heat-treated IN 718 with 29 ppm B: (a) SEM
micrograph and (b) EDS.
with (010) reflection and presented in Figure 2(d), shows
the disc-shaped   particles with an average diameter of
30 nm and an average thickness of 5 nm. In addition, some
coherent spherical  precipitates of approximately 5 nm in
diameter were also observed in the dark-field images with
(010) reflection.
B. Cyclic Deformation Behavior
The LCF test results on materials with different concen-
trations of B are given in Table II. The cyclic stress response
curves as a function of number of cycles for specimens with
different concentrations of B are given in Figures 3(a) and
(b). It is seen that the material exhibited a relatively short
period of cyclic hardening in the early stages, extending to
a few cycles, at the higher cyclic strain amplitudes (
t /2 
0.8 pct) followed by a continuous cyclic softening to frac-
ture. However, the cyclic hardening was absent and contin-
uous cyclic softening was observed as the cyclic strain
amplitude decreased to
t /2  0.6 pct. A nearly stable peak
stress amplitude was observed at
t /2  0.4 pct in all the
alloys. This indicated that the cyclic saturation stage was
reached (Figures 3(a) and (b)). Toward the end of the tests,
the stress amplitude decreased rapidly, indicating the for-
mation of macrocracks and their subsequent fast growth. A
closer examination of the plots revealed that the initial cyclic

METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS A VOLUME 36A, OCTOBER 2005—2673

Fig. 2—TEM micrographs of the heat-treated IN 718 with 29 ppm B showing the presence of   and   precipitates: (a) bright-field image, (b) SAD
pattern with [001] zone axis, (c) corresponding key, and (d) dark-field image with 010 reflection showing   and  precipitates.

Table II. Results of Low-Cycle Fatigue Tests at RT for IN 718 Superalloy with Different Concentrations of B

Specimen
Alloy Parameter 1 2 3 4 5 6
12 (12 ppm B)
t /2, pct 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

p /2, pct 0.0115 0.104 0.276 0.447 0.711 0.886

a, MPa 765.5 964.3 1019 1087.7 1125.9 1174.4
Nf, cycle 13,151 4287 2665 1558 464 247
29 (29 ppm B)
t /2, pct 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

p /2, pct 0.0045 0.115 0.279 0.449 0.6195 0.812

a, MPa 755.6 938.9 995.1 1046 1134.6 1142.2
Nf, cycle 29,068 6988 4273 2186 860 650
60 (60 ppm B)
t /2, pct 0.398 0.596 0.794 1.0 1.197 1.4

p /2, pct 0.0035 0.0815 0.2245 0.406 0.584 0.75

a, MPa 761 1003 1064 1122 1158 1190
Nf, cycle 32,195 9360 5732 2682 1187 773
100 (100 ppm B)
t /2, pct 0.398 0.596 0.8 1.0 1.197 1.397

p /2, pct 0.0035 0.085 0.253 0.424 0.608 0.776

a, MPa 742 971 1042 1088 1124 1151
Nf, cycle 48,517 10,949 4406 1930 1236 775

2674—VOLUME 36A, OCTOBER 2005 METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS A

Fig. 3—Cyclic stress response curves as a function of number of cycles:
(a) alloy with 12 ppm B fatigued at different cyclic total strain amplitudes;
and (b) a comparison of the cyclic stress response of alloys with different
concentrations of B fatigued at selected total strain amplitudes.

stress response value increased as the cyclic strain ampli-

tude increased, and the difference in cyclic stress amplitudes
at different cyclic strain amplitudes was reduced as the cyclic
deformation progressed (Figure 3(a)). Figure 3(b) shows the
effect of B on the cyclic stress response of the material
fatigued at
t /2  1.4, 0.6, and 0.4 pct, respectively. It is
observed that at the same cyclic strain amplitude, such as

t /2  1.4 pct, the initial cyclic hardening weakened as B
concentration increased (Figure 3(b)). The cyclic stress ampli-
tude value of the alloy with 60 ppm B was the highest among Fig. 4—Effect of B concentration on the cyclic saturation stress amplitude
the four alloys fatigued at the same cyclic strain amplitude. and the cyclic plastic strain amplitude at the midlife (Nf /2) in IN 718 fatigued
The stress amplitude value of alloys with 12 and 29 ppm B at various cyclic total strain amplitudes: (a) cyclic saturation stress ampli-
was lower than that of the other two alloys. tude vs B concentration; (b) cyclic plastic strain amplitude vs B concen-
tration; and (c) cyclic hysteresis loops at the midlife in the alloys with
Figures 4(a) and (b) show the effect of B on the cyclic different concentrations of B at
t /2  1.4 pct.
saturation stress amplitude defined as the cyclic stress ampli-
tude corresponding to the midlife, Nf /2, and plastic strain
amplitude at the midlife of the specimens fatigued at vari-
ous total cyclic strain amplitudes. The plastic strain ampli- stress). It was observed that among the four alloys, for a
tude is equal to the difference between the total cyclic strain given constant total strain amplitude, the cyclic stress ampli-
amplitude and the elastic strain amplitude, i.e.,
p  tude at the midlife was highest in the 60 ppm B alloy and

t-/E (E is the Young’s modulus, and  is the elastic lowest in the alloy with 29 ppm B (Figure 4(a)). The cyclic

METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS A VOLUME 36A, OCTOBER 2005—2675

plastic strain amplitude corresponding to the midlife first
decreased as the B concentration increased from 12 to
60 ppm, and then increased when it increased from 60 to
100 ppm, as shown in Figure 4(b). Therefore, within the
range of B concentrations considered in the present inves-
tigation, the variation in cyclic plastic strain amplitude with
B concentration displayed a minimum value in the alloy
containing 60 ppm B. Furthermore, the cyclic stress-strain
hysteresis loop of IN 718 with different concentrations of
B at the midlifetime at
t /2  1.4 pct is shown in Fig-
ure 4(c). As the B concentration increased from 12 to
29 ppm, the slope of the elastic stress-strain curve in the
stage of elastic deformation or the Young’s modulus was
observed to decrease slightly in IN 718. This led to a slight
decrease in both the cyclic saturation stress and the cyclic
plastic strain amplitude at a given total strain amplitude.
When the B concentration increased from 29 to 100 ppm,
no obvious change in the Young’s modulus and related hys-
teresis loops was observed.
C. Effect of B on LCF Lifetime of IN 718
The LCF lifetime (Nf) curves as a function of cyclic total
strain amplitude (
t /2) and the plastic strain amplitude
(
p /2) were determined for all four alloys, and are shown
in Figures 5(a) and (b). The results show that B affects the
fatigue lifetime of IN 718. The LCF life of the alloys
increased with increasing concentration of B, and a rapid
improvement occurred when B concentration increased from
12 to 29 ppm B, but only a moderate improvement could
be observed above 29 ppm B. Furthermore, it is seen in Fig-
ure 5(a) that the experimental fatigue characteristics of these
four alloys could be basically rationalized in terms of the
Coffin–Manson type equation relating the total strain ampli-
tude,
t /2, to the fatigue lifetime, Nf. In comparison, the
familiar Coffin–Manson law cannot be used to describe the
relationship between the cyclic plastic strain amplitude and
lifetime over the whole of the strain range examined, as
shown in Figure 5(b). The
p /2-Nf curves for all four alloys
exhibited two slopes and an inflection point occurred at
about
p /2  0.40 pct. Using the least-squares fitting
method, the coefficient and exponent in the Coffin–Manson
equation were determined and are listed in Table III. Eight
Coffin–Manson type relationships were obtained for the four
alloys.
A comparison of the fatigue lifetime curves of IN 718 as
a function of cyclic plastic strain amplitude at RT and 650 °C
is shown in Figure 6. The results show that B has a stronger
effect on the fatigue lifetime at 650 °C than at RT. Also,
the two slopes in the Coffin–Manson plot disappeared at
650 °C.
D. Fractographic Examination
The fracture surfaces were examined by SEM to gain
insight into the effect of B on the fatigue failure mechanism.
The results showed that fatigue crack basically initiated from
the specimen surface. Figure 7 shows typical fractographs

Fig. 5—Influence of B concentration on the LCF lifetime of IN 718: (a)
t /2 vs Nf and (b)
p /2 vs Nf.

Table III. Coffin–Manson Parameters for IN 718 Superalloy with Different B Concentrations

p /2  0.40 pct
p /2  0.40 pct

Coffin–Manson Correlation Coffin–Manson Correlation
Alloy Relationship Coefficient Relationship Coefficient
12
p Nf0.3730  6.96 0.9995
p Nf 1.774  2.6 105 0.9832
29
p Nf0.4524  14.29 0.9381
p Nf 1.854
 1.0 106
0.9624
60
p Nf0.4871  18.83 0.9950
p Nf 1.978
 4.0 106
0.9505
100
p Nf0.6613  64.55 0.9847
p Nf 1.516
 6.4 104
0.9466

2676—VOLUME 36A, OCTOBER 2005 METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS A


Fig. 6—A comparison of the effect of B concentration on the LCF life-
time of IN 718 at RT and 650 °C.
Fig. 7—Typical fractographs showing the crack initiation sites in IN 718
with 29 ppm B fatigued at different cyclic strain amplitudes: (a)
t /2 
0.4 pct and (b)
t /2  1.0 pct.
in the region of the fatigue crack initiation site in the alloy
with 29 ppm B fatigued at different cyclic strain amplitudes.
The fatigue crack initiation site can be clearly identified in
METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS A
the specimens fatigued at low cyclic strain amplitude
(
t /2  0.4 pct, Figure 7(a)). However, multiple crack ini-
tiation sites could be observed in the specimens fatigued at
the high cyclic strain amplitude (
t/2  1.0 pct, Fig-
ure 7(b)). The typical fractographs in the region of stable
crack propagation are shown in Figures 8(a) through (d).
Fatigue crack propagation in all four alloys was observed
to be characterized primarily by a large number of well-
defined fatigue striations, which was taken as evidence of
transgranular crack growth at RT. A large number of sec-
ondary cracks were observed on the fracture surfaces of
the specimen of the alloy with the lowest (12 ppm) and the
highest (100 ppm) concentrations of B (Figures 8(a) and
(d)). As the B content increased from 12 to 29 ppm, the
number of secondary cracks decreased (Figure 8(b)). Fig-
ure 8(c) depicts a typical fracture surface of the alloy with
60 ppm B. Almost no secondary cracks are observed, but
plastic deformation traces can be discerned on the facets of
the fracture surface. The number of secondary cracks in the
alloy with 100 ppm B (Figure 8(d)) were, however, more
than those observed in the alloy with 29 and 60 ppm B
(Figures 8(b) and (c)).
Figure 9 shows other distinguishing features between the
fracture surfaces of 12 and 29 ppm alloys. It is seen that
characteristic fatigue striations formed on the fracture sur-
face of IN 718 with 29 ppm B (Figure 9(a)), but planar plas-
tic deformation traces were observed on the fracture surface
of IN 718 with 12 ppm B (Figure 9(b)). These traces were
observed to be associated with the intersection of planar slip
bands with the fracture surface or the grain boundaries.
E. Deformation Microstructures
The deformation microstructures produced by LCF in the
specimens with different concentrations of B and fatigued
at similar cyclic plastic strain amplitudes (about 0.45 to
0.60 pct) were examined via TEM. Regularly spaced arrays
of planar deformation bands on {111} slip planes were
observed in the fatigued specimen with 12 ppm B cyclically
deformed at
p /2  0.447 pct (Figure 10). They were char-
acterized by the presence of two groups of planar deforma-
tion bands lying along the traces of intersection of (111 ) and
(11 1) slip planes with the (111) thin foil surface, respec-
tively. Trace analysis showed that (11 1) and (1 1 1) slip sys-
tems were activated simultaneously, giving rise to the
saturated diamond-shaped deformation structure in the
fatigued specimens. In addition, some slip bands were
observed to be concentrated in local band regions in the
LCF specimen with the lower B concentration (12 ppm)
(Figure 11). As a result, concentration of plastic deformation
was expected to occur in these areas.
Planar dislocation bands lying on {111} planes were also
observed in the specimens with 29 ppm B at
p /2 
0.449 pct (Figure 12). The TEM examination showed that
twinning also occurred in this alloy during cyclic deforma-
tion at RT. Interaction between slip bands and twinning was
observed to occur, as indicated by the arrows in Figure 12.
It was observed that the intersection of a twin with planar
slip bands resulted in the formation of a staggered step on
the planar slip bands, as shown in Figure 12.
Figure 13 illustrates the typical deformation microstruc-
ture that formed in the 60 ppm B alloy fatigued at
p /2 
VOLUME 36A, OCTOBER 2005—2677
Fig. 8—Typical fractographs in the region of stable crack propagation in IN 718 with different concentrations of B fatigued at
t /2  0.4 pct: (a) 12 ppm B,
(b) 29 ppm B, (c) 60 ppm B, and (d) 100 ppm B.

Fig. 9—Fracture surfaces in the region of stable crack propagation in IN 718 fatigued at
t /2  0.4 pct: (a) fatigue striations in the alloy with 29 ppm B
and (b) plastic traces in the alloy with 12 ppm B.

0.584 pct. Two groups of planar deformation bands, nearly tion tangles such as cells and walls, which are the typical
perpendicular to each other, were observed in a thin foil with features in fatigued copper single crystals,[18,19] were not
[001] orientation. Trace analysis suggested them to be lying observed. This suggests an absence of traditional persistent
on the (111) and (1 11) planes. Three-dimensional disloca- slip bands in this material with higher B content.

2678—VOLUME 36A, OCTOBER 2005 METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS A

Fig. 10—Typical deformation substructure formed in the alloy with 12 ppm B,

p /2  0.447 pct (

g  220; incident beam || [111]).

Fig. 12—Two groups of planar dislocation bands in the alloy with 29 ppm B,

p /2  0.449 pct (

g  022; incident beam || [122]).

Fig. 11—Plastic deformation concentration in some localized band regions in

the alloy with 12 ppm B,
p /2  0.276 pct (

g  200; incident beam || [012]).

As the B concentration increased from 60 to 100 ppm,

similar planar slip bands were observed in specimens
fatigued at
 p /2  0.6 pct, as shown in Figure 14.
Deformation is seen to be concentrated within the planar
deformation bands in this alloy and the deformation
bands became much more pronounced. The trace analysis
showed that multiple slips on different {111} planes were
activated.
The dark-field TEM examination of   and  precipitates
in the fatigued specimens revealed that they were sheared
in all four alloys during cyclic deformation at RT. An exam-
ple is shown in Figure 15(a), which is the dark-field micro-
graph of a specimen with 100 ppm B cyclically deformed
to
p /2  0.6 pct, at RT, and taken with ( 1 10) superlattice Fig. 13—Two groups of dislocation bands nearly perpendicular to each
reflection in the (111) foil (Figure 15(b)). Plastic deforma- other in the alloy with 60 ppm B,
p /2  0.584 pct (

g  200; incident
tion traces could be discerned in the microstructure of the beam || [001]).

METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS A VOLUME 36A, OCTOBER 2005—2679

fatigued specimen, as indicated by arrows in Figure 15(a).
The trace analysis showed the shearing traces to be paral-
lel to the trace of intersection of the (1 1 1) slip plane with
Fig. 14—Two groups of dislocation bands in the 100 ppm B alloy,
p /2 
0.6 pct (

g  020; incident beam || [100]).
Fig. 15—Dark-field micrograph with
g [110] reflection and the foil in [111] orientation, showing sheared precipitates in the specimen with 100 ppm B
deformed to
p /2  0.6 pct at RT: (a) dark-field image and (b) SAD pattern.
2680—VOLUME 36A, OCTOBER 2005
the (111) foil plane. In comparison with the nonfatigued
specimen (Figure 2(d)), a reduction in the size of  
precipitates from 30 to 20 nm was observed after fatigue
deformation (Figure 15(a)). The reduction in the particle size
could be attributed to the particles being sheared repeatedly,
during cyclic deformation. The TEM examinations also
revealed the presence of precipitate-free bands in the fatigued
specimens, as shown in Figure 16, which is a dark-field
image of a fatigued specimen taken with the ( 110) super-
lattice reflection in the (111) foil. The angle between the
traces of three groups of such bands, which coincide with
the traces of (11 1), (1 11), and (1 1 1) planes, with the (111)
foil plane, is equal to 60 deg, as indicated by the arrows in
Figure 16.
IV. DISCUSSION
A. Shearing of   Precipitates, Formation of Planar Slip
Bands, and Cyclic Deformation Softening
A significant cyclic softening was observed at RT in all
four IN 718 superalloys, except when the material was
deformed at the lowest cyclic strain amplitude,
t /2 
0.4 pct. This may be attributed to the reduction in the size
of   precipitates by repeated shearing during cyclic defor-
mation in the planar slip mode. The shearing mechanism of
  particles has been discussed by several authors.[16,20–25]
Sundararaman et al.[21] reported that when the size of   par-
ticles in IN 718 superalloy exceeded a critical value
(
10 nm),   precipitates were sheared by the deformation
twins, and the smaller precipitates were sheared by the move-
ment of paired dislocations. Clavel and Pineau[23] showed
that the precipitates in IN 718 were sheared in the course
of cyclic straining, and plastic deformation occurred by the
propagation of planar bands, which were identified as twins.
However, Oblak and co-workers[16,24] observed that shear-
ing of   particles appeared to take place by the coupled
METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS A
Fig. 16—Dark-field micrograph with
g  [110] reflection and the foil in
[111] orientation, showing precipitate-free bands on three groups of {111}
slip planes in a specimen with 100 ppm B deformed to
p /2  0.6 pct
at RT.

motion of a/2 110 pairs in IN 718 deformed to 3 pct

strain at RT. Worthem et al.,[25] on the other hand, reported
that shearing of   precipitates occurred by slip only dur-
ing cyclic deformation and no significant shearing of   pre-
cipitates was observed after the monotonic strains, and no
deformation twins were identified.
As an ordered phase, the   precipitates possess an
antiphase domain boundary (APB) energy representing the
extra energy associated with the ordered atomic positions in
the crystal lattice versus the normal disordered or random
atomic positions. An antiphase boundary is created in both
  and   particles in IN 718 superalloy when they are cut
by a dislocation, and order is restored by the passage of a
second dislocation of the same character. The repulsive
energy between the two dislocations traveling on the same
slip plane is balanced by the APB energy of the precipitate
phase, resulting in a coupled or superdislocation. The shear-
ing of   particles during cyclic deformation is shown
schematically in Figure 17(a). Since cross-slip of the cou-
pled dislocations is extremely difficult, slip continues to
occur on the same slip plane during continued deformation,
resulting in the formation of planar slip bands in the fatigued
IN 718 specimens, as shown schematically in Figures 17(b)
and (d). It is a three-dimensional representation of all four
{111} slip planes in a thin foil in [111] orientation in the
[112]-[110]-[111] space, and Figure 17(c) displays projections
of three {111} planes, i.e., ( 111), (1 11), and (11 1) planes
on a (111) thin foil plane. In other words, Figure 17(c) also
represents schematically the projection of planar slip bands
on the (111) plane. Figure 17(d) shows a similar three-dimen-
sional representation of all four {111} slip planes in a thin
foil in [100] orientation in [1 10]-[110]-[001] space, and
Figure 17(e) shows a projection of all four {111} planes, i.e.,
on a (001) thin foil plane.
In this alloy, an additional factor that may promote pla-
nar slip is a reduction in the change in configurational energy
Fig. 17—A schematic illustrating the shearing of  precipitates and the
formation of planar slip bands in IN 718 during cyclic deformation:
(a) schematic representation of the shearing process of  precipitates by
dislocations, where cross-hatching of particles indicates the presence of
antiphase boundary; (b) three-dimensional representation of {111} slip planes
in a thin foil with [111] orientation; (c) projections of {111} planes on (111)
thin foil plane; (d) three-dimensional representation of {111} slip planes
in a thin foil in [001] orientation; and (e) projections of {111} planes on
the (001) thin foil plane.
of short-range order in   precipitates caused by the passage
of subsequent dislocations after the passage of first-slip dis-
location, as was observed by Schwander et al. regarding
Ni-11.2 pct Mo crystals.[26] On the basis of the short-range-
ordering parameter, determined by X-ray diffuse scattering
measurements, and the effective pair potentials, obtained by
applying the inverse Monte Carlo technique, they calculated
the change in configurational energy of Ni-11.2 pct Mo
crystals caused by successive slip by a number of unit dis-
locations on the same {111} plane. They found that a con-
figurational energy change of about 25 mJ/m2 was necessary
for the first slip, and after five slip steps, the configurational
energy remained constant. That is, the passage of subsequent
dislocations after the first five did not cause any further
change in configurational energy, and planar slip was favored.

METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS A VOLUME 36A, OCTOBER 2005—2681

 The continuation of planar slip during cyclic deformation
due to these two factors would make the passage of dislo-
cations repeatedly cut the particles, which would cause a
reduction in their size and may also produce precipitate-free
bands, as was observed in this investigation (Figure 16). The
reduced particle size would decrease the flow stress of the
material, causing a cyclic softening of the material.
B. Dual-Slope Coffin–Manson Plots of IN 718
Superalloys
It has been observed that the log-log plots of the cyclic
plastic strain amplitude vs fatigue life for many materials are
linear; i.e. they exhibit the well-known Coffin–Manson rela-
tionship. However, such log-log plots of the results obtained
in this study exhibited two slopes, as shown in Figure 5(b)
and Table III. A similar “two-slope” relationship between
the fatigue life and the cyclic plastic strain amplitude was
also reported by Clavel and Pineau,[27] Merrick,[28] and Sanders
et al.[29] in IN 718 fatigued at RT. Furthermore, such a two-
slope behavior was also observed by Sanders et al.[30,31] in
7075 and 7050 type aluminum alloys, which, like IN 718, are
also strengthened by fine precipitates. A departure from the
single-slope behavior in these aluminum alloys has been
explained in terms of changes in the substructure induced by
the plastic deformation at higher plastic strain amplitudes, as
compared to that observed at lower plastic strain amplitudes.
The strain localization in these aluminum alloys was observed
to occur during cyclic deformation at lower plastic strain
amplitudes, while the deformation was more homogeneous
at higher plastic strain amplitudes.
In the present study, dense planar slip bands were observed
to be the typical deformation substructure (Figures 10 and
12 through 14) in specimens deformed at higher cyclic plas-
tic strain amplitudes (
p /2  0.4 pct). In contrast, the
typical deformation structure of the alloy with 12 ppm B,
deformed at the lower cyclic strain amplitude of
t /2 
0.4 pct (
p /2  0.01 pct), was characterized by a lower
density of dislocations on the {111} primary slip planes, as
Fig. 18—A typical deformation structure in the alloy with 12 ppm fatigued
at
t /2  0.4 pct (
p /2  0.01 pct) (

g  220; incident beam || [111]).
2682—VOLUME 36A, OCTOBER 2005
shown in Figure 18. In addition, the cyclic softening stage
did not occur in the cyclic stress response curves at the low-
est cyclic strain amplitudes (Figures 3(a) and (b)). This would
imply that the microdeformation character could be different
at the higher cyclic strain amplitudes in comparison with
that at the lower strain amplitudes. The tendency to form
planar slip bands in IN 718 was observed to increase as the
cyclic strain amplitude increased. Fracture surface exami-
nation showed that fatigue crack initiated from a single crack
origin in the alloy fatigued at lower cyclic strain amplitudes
(Figure 7(a)), whereas multiple crack origins could be
observed in the specimens fatigued at higher cyclic strain
amplitudes (Figure 7(b)). Therefore, based upon the obser-
vations in this investigation and the general conclusions of
others,[30,31] a probable cause of deviation from the single-
slope Coffin–Manson behavior in the fatigue life plot of IN
718 may be due to the changes in the deformation microstruc-
tures and fatigue crack initiation mode as a function of the
plastic strain amplitude and B concentration. However, fur-
ther studies are needed to determine the cause of the change
in the slopes of Coffin–Manson plots with certainty.
C. Effect of B on Cyclic Deformation Mechanism and
Fatigue Lifetime of IN 718
Boron is an essential alloying element for inducing good
creep properties in IN 718, and it was also observed that up
to a concentration of 60 ppm, B also significantly enhanced
the fatigue resistance of IN 718 at RT (Figures 5 and 6). The
effect of B on the LCF life may be due to its effect on pro-
moting deformation by planar slip. The TEM examination
revealed that although planar slip bands were observed to form
in all four alloys (Figures 10 and 12 through 14), some slip
concentration was also observed in some localized regions in
IN 718 with the lower B concentration (Figure 11). In the
alloys with higher B concentrations, in addition to being seg-
regated at the grain boundaries, as an interstitial element, B
may also form clusters in the matrix, which, along with the
boride precipitate particles, would act as obstacles to disloca-
tion movement. This would impede dislocation slip, and may
render cross-slip at RT even more difficult owing to the extra
stress that would be required for dislocations to escape from
pinning by the clusters of B atoms, and by boride particle in
alloys with higher B concentrations. This would facilitate the
creation of favorable slip paths that requires a lower critical
stress for dislocations to continue to slip on the same slip plane,
thus promoting planar slip, as observed in this study.
It has been suggested that alloys that deform by the for-
mation of fine narrow slip bands are more resistant to fatigue
than those in which deformation is concentrated in a few
banded regions in which coarse slip bands may lead to early
crack initiation.[32,33] The deformation in the alloy with higher
B concentration, however, would be more dispersed, which
would eliminate the deleterious effect of inhomogeneous
distribution of plastic deformation by preventing an early
nucleation of cracks due to the presence of intense slip bands,
thus improving the fatigue resistance of the alloy.[33,34,35]
Since slip concentration was observed only in the alloy con-
taining 12 ppm B, its LCF fatigue life was the lowest, and
improved as the B concentration increased. This is suggested
to be the reason for the improved fatigue resistance of alloys
with an increase in B concentration of up to 60 ppm.
METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS A
 Fractographic observations shown in Figure 8 also revealed
that the grain boundary strength was enhanced with an increase
in B concentrations of up to 60 ppm, as evidenced by the
decreasing amount of secondary cracks on the fracture sur-
face. This is also reflected in the beneficial effect of increas-
ing the concentration of B on the fatigue lifetime, as seen in
Figures 5(a) and (b). The slightly lower fatigue life of the
alloy containing 100 ppm B, compared to the alloy with
60 ppm B, may be related to the observed reoccurrence of
secondary cracking in this alloy (Figure 8(d)). The relatively
lower amount of B of 60 ppm compared to 100 ppm may
improve LCF resistance by distributing the plastic deforma-
tion uniformly. The excessive B addition, however, may lead
to a reduction in the fracture ductility at RT due to an increase
in the alloys’ dislocation slip resistance. As a result, the amount
of secondary crack would increase and the LCF life would
decrease in the alloy with 100 ppm B, as was observed.
The relationship between the microstructure and cyclic
deformation behavior is known to be complex, especially for
high-strength commercial alloys. It is evident, however, that
any microstructural feature that causes an inhomogeneous
distribution of plastic strain will have a deleterious effect on
the fatigue life.[33,35] Microscopically, strong dislocation pile-
ups and high stress concentration would lead to fatigue crack
nucleation and favor crack propagation, and would thereby
decrease the fatigue life of IN 718 with a lower B content.
However, it is worthy of note that research on the effect of
B on LCF of IN 718 at 650 °C[15] has shown that B has a
stronger influence in improving the fatigue life at 650 °C in
comparison with that observed at RT (Figure 6). Microstruc-
tural examination showed that planar slip bands are the typ-
ical cyclic deformation dislocation configuration at both RT
and 650 °C. Furthermore, the width and spacing of planar
slip bands observed at RT and 650 °C in foils at [100] ori-
entation remained almost constant at different cyclic plastic
strain amplitudes.[20] The spacing was about 0.70 m and the
width 0.06 m at both RT and 650 °C. Some plastic defor-
mation concentration was observed in the alloy with 12 ppm
B at 650 °C as well.[15] This indicates that the plastic defor-
mation mode of IN 718 at RT remained similar to that at 650
°C. However, no substantial improvement in the fatigue life-
time of IN 718 was observed above 29 ppm B at RT, as com-
pared to a continuous increase in fatigue lifetime observed
at 650 °C from 12 ppm B to 60 ppm B. This implies that
the effect of B is enhanced by its effect on the grain bound-
ary behavior at elevated temperatures, i.e., B plays a more
important role in improving the high-temperature mechani-
cal properties of IN 718 as compared to the RT properties.
A significant improvement in the fatigue lifetime of IN 718
at 650 °C due to B microadditions results from improving
grain boundary cohesion and stabilizing grain boundary con-
stituents via B segregation to grain boundaries and the pre-
cipitation of boride particles on grain boundaries.[15]
V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
1. At higher plastic strain amplitudes, all four IN 718 alloys
with different concentrations of B exhibited a relatively
short initial cyclic hardening, with the magnitude increas-
ing with increasing plastic strain amplitude, followed by
a regime of continuous cyclic softening at RT (
t /2 
METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS A
0.8 pct). As the cyclic strain amplitude decreased to

t /2 0.6 pct, the period of cyclic hardening was absent
and the material showed a continuous cyclic softening
until fracture. A nearly stable cyclic stress amplitude was
observed at
t /2  0.4 pct in all the alloys.
2. Among the four alloys fatigued at the same total cyclic
strain amplitude, the cyclic saturation stress amplitude
value was the highest in the alloy with 60 ppm B, and
the lowest in the alloy with 29 ppm B.
3. Boron was observed to improve the LCF lifetime of IN
718 at RT. A noticeable improvement occurred up to
29 ppm B, but the improvement was moderate when con-
centrations of B exceeded 29 ppm B. The positive effect
of B concentration on the fatigue lifetime at RT was less
than that observed at 650 °C. A linear relationship between
the fatigue life and cyclic total strain amplitude was
observed, while a two-slope relationship between the fatigue
life and cyclic plastic strain amplitude was observed to
occur with an inflection point at about
p /2  0.40 pct.
4. A fractographic examination showed that fatigue crack
initiated from specimen surfaces, and the crack propa-
gation mode was predominantly transgranular with a large
number of fatigue striations on the fracture surfaces. The
number of secondary cracks was observed to be higher
in alloys with 12 and 100 ppm B than that present in
alloys containing 29 and 60 ppm B.
5. The deformation microstructures of all four alloys were
characterized by the presence of groups of planar defor-
mation bands lying along the {111} slip plane traces, and
deformation occurred by planar slip. However, some slip
was observed to be concentrated in local band regions
in the alloy with 12 ppm B.
6. The   precipitates in IN 718 were sheared by the slip of
dislocations during cyclic deformation. After the initial shear-
ing, the trailing dislocations on the same slip plane repeat-
edly sheared the   precipitates and reduced their size to
such an extent that they offered very little or no resistance
to the further movement of dislocations. The preferential
paths, which had fewer precipitates and lower critical stress
for dislocation slip, were established. As a result, cyclic
deformation softening occurred and planar slip bands formed.
7. The improvement in the LCF life of IN 718 by B addi-
tion is attributed to its effect on promoting cyclic defor-
mation of IN 718 at RT by planar slip, which caused a
homogeneous distribution of deformation and delayed
the initiation of microcracks, thus enhancing the fatigue
resistance of the material.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors thank the Natural Sciences and Engineering
Research Council of Canada for the financial support.
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METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS A