Tugas Ilmu Hayat

Presentasi
Prosedur
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Kelompok 1. Muscles

Red and white axial muscle organization is evident in cross-

sections of (a) mackerel and (b) tuna (two scombrid fish). In most
fish, such as the mackerel, the red muscle represents a limited
portion of the myotomal muscle and is located just beneath the
skin lateral to the white muscle. In tuna and other fish which
warm their red muscle, the red muscle is more extensive and lies
medially to much of the white muscle. Counter-current heat
exchange keeps the red muscle warmer than the water and the
rest of the fish (some fish also maintain elevated brain and
eye temperatures). Reproduced from Westneat and Wainwright
(2001) with permission from Elsevier.
• Muscle pinnation, fiber length and recruitment of fibers
influence force generation and energetic costs. In this
drawing of a wallaby leg, the hamstrings are parallel-
fibered with long fiber lengths (lf) and the gastrocnemius
and plantaris (calf muscles) are pinnate with short
fiberlengths. Long-fibered muscles (Muscle A; from a
parallel-fibered muscle) require a greater activated
volume (Vactive) than short-fibered muscles (Muscle B;
from a pinnate muscle), given the same cross-sectional
area of recruited fibers (Af). In the example shown,
because Muscle A has fiber lengths (lf) that are three
times longer than Muscle B, Muscle A requires a three-
fold greater active volume and cost for the same cross-
sectional area of fiber activation as in Muscle B. Thus,
muscles with shorter fibers can achieve greater force
economy
Kelompok 2. Skeleton

The stress-strain curve of vertebrate tendon illustrates the

hysteresis that occurs between loading and unloading. The area
within
the hysteresis loop (white) reflects the energy that is lost as
heat due to the viscous properties of the tendon. For
vertebrate tendons, hysteresis is
as low as 7%. The remaining area (shaded) represents the
energy that is recovered elastically (93% of energy used to
stretch the tendon) and that
can be used to offset muscle work. Although tendon is less stiff
at lower stresses, its overall properties are well-suited to
function as an effective
spring for energy recovery. Most tendons operate at strains up
to about 5–6%.
Mineralization and stress-strain curves vary across skeletal
materials. (a) Bone properties (S, strength, or maximum stress;
E, elastic
modulus, or stiffness; and Wf, work of fracture) vary as a
function of bone mineralization (modified from Currey, 1984).
(b) The stress-strain
behavior of various skeletal tissues varies dramatically and
matches the mechanical function of the skeletal tissue in
support and energy flow.
Kelompok 3 Energetics of Locomotion
The energetic demand in muscle cells (gray dashed line) is
supplied by different compounds, depending on the duration
of the activity. When an animal begins to exercise, ATP and
phosphocreatine (PCr) provide energy. Subsequently, increased
anaerobic ATP synthesis is generated by glycolysis. Increased
aerobic ATP synthesis then occurs via oxidative phosphorylation
until a steady state of aerobic metabolism is
reached as exercise continues
The capacity for aerobic versus anaerobic energy supply during exercise
varies with exercise intensity and thermoregulatory strategy. (a) The
delay in aerobic energy supply relative to energy demand at the start of
exercise results in an “O2-deficit” at the onset of exercise (denoted by
gray shading), which ends once the animal reaches a steady state level of
˙
aerobic metabolism (V o2). This is “paid back” as the “O2-debt” at the end
of exercise. This elevated post-exercise oxygen consumption reflects the
need to re-metabolize the lactate produced by
early glycolysis to meet the more immediate demand for energy, as well
as to re-establish resting levels of other metabolites, including
phosphocreatine (see Fig. 3.1). (b) By sustaining higher levels of aerobic
metabolism, endothermic animals are capable of endurance exercise
over longer periods of time, compared with (c) ectothermic species that
generally have limited aerobic capacity for sustainable exercise. Gray
lines in each graph denote the energy demand for exercise versus time.
Whereas the oxygen deficit incurred by more aerobic (and typically
endothermic) species is small, ectothermic animals that rely heavily on
anaerobic ATP supply incur a large oxygen deficit, limiting their
endurance. Consequently, ectotherms are typified by brief bursts of
activity interposed with longer periods of recovery metabolism.
An animal’s capacity for aerobic energy supply relative to energy demand determines
how much of an anaerobic oxygen deficit it
incurs and how prolonged is its recovery metabolism. These patterns differ considerably
for ectotherms and endotherms.
(a) When exercise intensity (energy demand) exceeds an animal’s maximum aerobic
˙
capacity, or V o2max, a large O2 deficit is incurred over the course of exercise that

requires a long period of recovery metabolism after exercise has ended. The ratio of V ˙
o2max to resting metabolic rate (rest) defines an animal’s
“factorial aerobic scope”.

(b) The time-course of aerobic energy supply during exercise in an endotherm (“endo”;
black line) versus a similarlysized
ectotherm (“ecto”; gray line) parallels the difference in their resting metabolic rate
(rest; when adjusted for body temperature). Although
ectotherms have a much lower maximal aerobic capacity than endotherms, both
groups of animals can have similar factorial aerobic scopes,
indicating a similar capacity for elevating aerobic metabolism relative to resting rates.
However, considerable variation in aerobic scope exists
within both kinds of animals.
 Kelompok 4. Movement on Land

A running quadruped experiences ground reaction forces on each foot during a stride.
(a) Vertical (GV), horizontal fore-aft (GH), and
mediolateral (GML) components of the ground reaction force are exerted on a limb
during the support phase of the stride (represented schematically).
(b) At T1 of hind limb support in (a), the vectors (GV and GH) visible in lateral view sum to
the net vector (G) in that plane. (c) The vectors GV and
GML acting on the hind limb are idealized on a photo of a running cheetah, summing to
the resultant of the ground force vector G in the frontal
plane.
Vertical and horizontal fore-aft ground reaction forces (shown
for a quadruped) vary in magnitude and duration as a function
of speed
and gait: (a–c) For any gait, 0.5 BW is the level of force required
by a limb to support the body weight (BW) of a quadruped
through time (for a biped
it would be 1.0 BW). The ground force must rise above this
level for a period of time (hatched regions) to offset the time
during whichGv < 0.5BW
(shaded regions) for a quadruped (or <1.0 BW for a biped).
Duty factor (β) is the ratio of limb contact time (tc) divided by
the stride period (Ts), shown
in (c) for a gallop (F, forelimb, H, hind limb). (d) The duration of
limb support and duty factor both decrease with increasing
speed, requiring greater
ground reaction forces to support the body and more quickly
moving limbs. When duty factor decreases below 0.5, animals
typically switch to a
running or trotting gait.
Kelompok 5. Manueverbility
Limb configuration and ground reaction force can be used for
calculating external joint torques. (a) At times T1, T2, and T3 and
their corresponding limb configurations, (b) the ground
reaction forces are illustrated as well as the (c) changes in
ground reaction torques acting at the
hip and knee. G exerts a flexor torque at the knee throughout
most of limb support (requiring knee muscle extensor force to
counter this). G also
exerts a flexor torque at the hip (requiring hip extensor force)
during the first 60% of limb support but, as G passes behind
the hip joint, it exerts
an extensor torque during the latter 40% of limb support
(which must be balanced by hip flexor activity).
Turning animals must resist slipping and toppling over. (a) The
threshold for toppling and slipping can be measured by
tracking the
location of the animal’s CM (gray circle), the forces on the inner
limb that touches the ground on the inside of the curve, and
the coefficient of
friction, η, that the foot (or hoof) achieves interacting with the
ground. Toppling torque is defined as GML L sinθ (where L, white
dashed line, is
the distance from the CM to the point of ground force
application). (b) The magnitude of mediolateral ground force,
GML, which critically affects
toppling and slipping, varies in relation to turning radius (r) and
speed (v).
Kelompok 6. Movement in Water
Depending on the Reynolds number, fluid moving across a
cylinder oriented perpendicularly to flow yields distinct
patterns. (
a) In low Reynolds numbers (Re), streamlines pass over the
cylinder without the formation of vortices when modeled with
an idealized fluid with zero viscosity.
(b) However, for real fluids with viscosity, low Re causes the
formation of a velocity gradient such that at decreasing
distances from the cylinder,
the velocity decreases (velocity graph overlaid on streamlines).
This parabolic gradient is a consequence of the shear imposed
by fluid drag.
(c) Flow at low to moderate Re shows stationary and shed
vortices and
(d) flow at high Re generates a turbulent wake. Adapted from
Vogel (1994).
In an undulatory swimmer, thrust (T) is produced by exerting a rearward component of the reaction
force (R) on the fluid adjacent to
the body surface. This results from the angled orientation of the body that is achieved by the
sinusoidal waves of bending that travel down the
animal’s body. This produces a Flat as well as a component of thrust. The lateral forces are cancelled
out over time as the animal’s body bends back
and forth. These forces are summed across a portion of the animal’s body. Undulatory swimmers
typically generate most of their useful thrust with
the posterior half of their body.
Kelompok 7. Caudal fin or Fluke Swimming
Swimming animals, such as tuna and whales, can
achieve lift-based thrust. This is similar to the lift that flying
animals achieve with their wings. (a) Tuna oscillate their caudal
fin laterally to generate thrust. Because the fins and flukes are
inclined in the direction of swimming, they have an anterior
component of thrust (T). This fin orientation balances the total
drag force (D) on the fish. (b) When viewed dorsally, and a
cross-section of the caudal fin is analyzed (dashed line in (a),
corresponding to black hydrofoil shape of the fin shown in (b).
The angle of the fin generates local lift (L) and drag (d) such
that the fish experiences a net forward thrust. Lateral and
dorso-ventral forces are cancelled out by repeated beating of
the tail or fluke.
A flow tank and flow visualization are used to study swimming
in many fish including leopard sharks (shown here). (a) By using
two video cameras and a mirror behind the animal, both lateral
and posterior views of the tail’s motion can be analyzed (b). (c)
The heterocercal tails of sharks produce a net upward force, lift
(L), that must be balanced by lift produced by the pectoral fins
(Lpect) to prevent the shark from pitching about its CM (open
circle). Freact is the reaction force acting on the water; R is the
resultant propulsive force. (d) Dye streams reveal the pattern of
flow produced by the heterocercal tail of the shark and confirm
the downward direction of momentum transfer to the fluid
that generates both lift and thrust. Adapted from Ferry and
Lauder (1996) with permission from the Company of Biologists,
Ltd.
Kelompok 8. Movement in Air
Key variables and vectors for flight are visible from cross-
sectional (profile) or top (plan) views
(a) Asymmetry of airflow past an airfoil (faster above and
slower below) can be decomposed into translational and
circulation components. Flow is described by streamlines.
(b) Airfoil shape in cross-section and
(c) planform, with definitions of important shape and
aerodynamic variables.
(d) Lift, drag and resulting
aerodynamic forces acting on an airfoil cross-section.
(e) Cambered airfoil based on overall chordwise curvature,
showing camber (h).
(Adapted from Vogel (1994), Figs 11.2 and 11.1; with
permission from Princeton University Press).
Aircraft (a) and birds (b) shed vortices from their wing tips.
Bound circulation about each wing is shed at the wing-tip as a
“trailing vortex” into the wake. During faster forward flight,
vortices shed from bird (and bat) wing-tips form undulating
vortical tubes that trail behind the
animal due to the flapping motion of the wings.
Kelompok 9. Soaring & Flapping Flight
Birds can extract energy from moving air to soar without
flapping by (a) thermal soaring when hot air rises relative to
cool air above
and by (b) dynamic soaring using wind-shear gradients over
open water (as shown) or air updrafts against cliff faces.
(Reproduced from Vogel
(1994), Figs 10.10 and 11.15; with permission from Princeton
University Press.)
Body angle and wing stroke patterns shift with flight speed.
(a) The kinematics of wing motion and angle of attack (silhouettes of a wing
cross-section) vary with flight speed to adjust the magnitude and
direction of aerodynamic lift during the downstroke and upstroke.
(b) The global motion of a wing’s path during forward flight is a combination
of the bird’s forward velocity and the wing’s motion relative to the bird’s
body. Path asymmetries result from the relative upstroke and
downstroke motions during forward flight. The net orientation of
incident air flow relative to the wing during the downstroke ensures that
lift (L) generation includes a component of thrust (T) to overcome drag
(D) on the bird’s body and wings. For birds with pointed wings, such as
swallows (depicted), upstroke is aerodynamically active, generating lift as
well as negative thrust.
(c) Definitions of stroke plane angle (lateral view) and stroke angle (frontal
view of animal).
(d) Stroke plane angle changes with speed. When hovering, stroke angle is
nearly horizontal (net thrust = 0). Bees, hummingbirds and other
forward-flying animals typically reduce body pitch, increase their stroke
plane angle, and adjust the wingtip stroke path to produce thrust as a
component of lift.
Kelompok 10. Jumping
In order to maximize the horizontal distance of a frog’s jump,
take-off angle and angle of ground reaction force vary
depending on the magnitude of the ground reaction force. The
angles converge to approximately 45° at higher ground reaction
forces. These data were collected with a 30 g frog, but the
angles persist regardless of body mass. Adapted from Marsh
(1994).
Given a nearly constant total energy (Etot), the relative
proportion of potential energy (PE) and kinetic energy (KE) shift
as a function of take-off angle for the jump of a 30 g frog. The
minimum excursion of the work/jump distance curve indicates
the optimal combination of PE, KE and take-off angle to yield a
maximum jump. Adapted from Marsh (1994).
Kelompok 11. Climbing
Frictional force (Ffrict) associated with an animal’s weight (W) on
an inclined slope depends on the angle of the slope (α) in
relation to its static coefficient of friction (η). For the animal to
stay attached, Ffrict must be greater than the tangential force to
the substrate (Ftan).
Clawed grips enhance frictional gripping capability. (a) A
frictional grip of a circular support depends on the angle
subtended by the
two points of grip and the coefficient of friction between the
animal’s grip and the substrate. In the extreme case (not
shown), when =180° ,
Fadd is normal to the support surface, thereby giving maximal
grip. (b) The angle subtended by a frictional grip is increased by
using claws to grab a
surface at a greater angle (θ), demonstrating the added benefit
of claws for climbing. Reproduced from Cartmill (1985) with
copyright permission
from Harvard University Press.
Aturan Presentasi (SOP)
1. Kelompok sesuai dengan yang sudah dibagi, JIKA ternyata anggota
kelompok berkurang dikarenakan sebab tertentu, anggota tersisa tetap
wajib mempresentasikan semaksimalnya (meskipun tersisa 1, atau 2
mahasiswa)
2. Materi presentasi sesuai dengan yang sudah dibagikan, tiap kelompok,
buku acuan materi animal locomotion ada di MyKlass
3. Buatlan dari materi gambar yang sudah dibagikan menjadi minimal 4
slide presentasi dan maksimal 6 slide presentasi
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gambar atau topik yang dibagikan
5. Silahkan menambahkan dari referensi lain, foto, video, dsb
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