ES97D/ES3H5 Biomedical Imaging and Medical Devices

Lecture 12 X-rays and Computed Tomography Part 2

Module leader Prof Joanna Collingwood, School of Engineering
J.F.Collingwood@warwick.ac.uk

Slides marked CK-UHCW are from/adapted from slides by Chris Koller, Consultant Clinical
Scientist, Head of Radiology Physics, UHCW NHS Trust, Chris.Koller@uhcw.nhs.uk
Learning Outcomes for this pair of lectures

PART 1
1. DEFINE AND DESCRIBE the physics of how x-rays interact with matter to produce
image contrast in an x-ray of the human body
PART 2
2. UNDERSTAND AND USE THE CONCEPTS of radiation units and dose
3. DESCRIBE how x-rays are generated and detected, including impact of filtration
4. COMPARE AND CONTRAST 2D plain film imaging with 3D CT
5. DESCRIBE how a CT scanner works, including the reason for the use of slip rings
within the gantry


You will also have read Physics for Diagnostic Radiology – Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
Radiation Physics and Radioactivity in Week 1, but in case you want to refresh your
knowledge on this topic, the chapter (where Chapter 1 Sections 1.1 and 1.10-1.16
are important background for this part of the module) is available as a PDF in the
Week 1 downloads folder, it’s also hard-copy in the library and available online at
http://encore.lib.warwick.ac.uk/iii/encore/record/C__Rb3155843
CK-UHCW

Measuring Radiation

• It is useful to be able to quantify

radiation – i.e. measure it
• In order to do this we make use of the
ionizing properties of radiation - use a
Geiger Muller tube to measure the
ionization caused by radiation
CK-UHCW

Radiation Units
• Exposure - ionization charge per unit mass
• Absorbed dose - energy deposited per unit mass (ie
Joules per kilogram)
– Unit is the Gray (1Gy = 1J / Kg)

• Kerma - kinetic energy released in the material.

Defined because the electrons produced from an
interaction may travel some distance before depositing
their energy
– Unit is also the gray
– For diagnostic purposes it is the same as absorbed dose, it only becomes
important in radiotherapy applications
CK-UHCW

Measurement of radiation
Effective Dose (Sievert, Sv):

• Energy deposited (absorbed dose = J/kg or Gray)

• Type of Radiation (γ,x = 1, α = 10)
• Absorbed dose adjusted to account for sensitivity of organ to
radiation, for biological effect (issue weighting factor):
– typically work in microSieverts (mSv)

This value can be directly related to the risk of having a fatal cancer
associated with an exposure of ionising radiation:
1mSv ~ 1 in 20000
CK-UHCW
What is Radiation?

Average annual
radiation dose from
background radiation
is 2.7mSv
CK-UHCW
Associated Risks?
Procedure Effective Background Risk of Developing
Dose (mSv) Equivalent a Fatal Cancer
Extremity X-ray <0.01 <1.5 days Less than
1 in 1 800 000
Chest X-ray (PA) 0.02 3 days 1 in 1 000 000

Skull X-ray 0.07 11 days 1 in 260 000

L-Spine X-ray 1.3 7 months 1 in 14 000

Barium Enema 7 3.2 years 1 in 2500

CT Head 2.3 1 year 1 in 7800

CT Abdo 10 4.5 years 1 in 1800

CK-UHCW
Associated Risks?
Procedure Effective Background Risk of Developing
Dose (mSv) Equivalent a Fatal Cancer
Extremity X-ray <0.01 <1.5 days Less than
1 in 1 800 000
Chest X-ray (PA) 0.02 3 days 1 in 1 000 000

Skull X-ray 0.07 11 days 1 in 260 000

L-Spine X-ray 1.3 7 months 1 in 14 000

Barium Enema 7 3.2 years 1 in 2500

CT Head 2.3 1 year 1 in 7800

CT Abdo 10 4.5 years 1 in 1800

CK-UHCW

X-ray Tube
Potential Difference
across tube (kV)

Tungsten Target

+ve (cathode) -ve (anode)

Heated current through Electron Flow
filament (I) Tube Current Evacuated Enclosure
(mA)

Thick walled glass chamber X-ray Window

(maintain vacuum)

Filtration (Al or Cu)

Outer housing lined with Lead
Useful beam of X-rays
CK-UHCW

Bremsstrahlung
• Electron deflected by
electrostatic attraction of
nucleus

Accelerated • Change in velocity ➔ loss

electron in kinetic energy is released
K in the form of a single X-ray
L
• On rare occasions the
electron is fully stopped
releasing all its energy
• A spectrum of X-ray
energies are produced
CK-UHCW

X-ray Tube
Potential Difference
across tube (kV)

Tungsten Target

+ve (cathode) -ve (anode)

Heated current through Electron Flow
filament (I) Tube Current Evacuated Enclosure
(mA)

Thick walled glass chamber X-ray Window

(maintain vacuum)

Filtration (Al or Cu)

Outer housing lined with Lead
Useful beam of X-rays
CK-UHCW

Characteristic X-rays
• Electron causes ionisation
in atom
• Electronic re-arrangements
leads to emissions of
characteristic X-ray
• EK-EL (Kα)=59.3keV
• EK-EM (Kβ)=69.1keV
CK-UHCW

X-rays Spectra • Kα=59.3keV

• Kβ=69.1keV
CK-UHCW

X-rays Spectra • Kα=59.3keV

• Kβ=69.1keV
CK-UHCW

Technical Considerations
Heat Loading

Filament:
Tungsten is the material of choice for diagnostic X-ray equipment as it is a
good thermionic emitter, has a low vapour pressure and can be made into
a thin filament. Working temperature of a tube filament is about 2000’c

Anode:
Tungsten again as it has a high Z, high melting point, high heat
conductivity, low vapour pressure and suitable mechanical properties

Rotating for high power tubes

CK-UHCW
The Effect Tube Filtration on 100kV X-ray Beam

Unfiltered Bremsstrahlung Spectrum

(in Vacuum)

Unfiltered Bremsstrahlung Spectrum

X-ray Intensity

(in air)

Filtered Bremsstrahlung Spectrum

(in air) with 3mm Al

X-ray Energy 100kV

CK-UHCW

Effect of filtration on the spectrum

CK-UHCW

Image Quality
• There are a number of
things that determine
the quality of an
image:
– Image sharpness
– Image contrast
– Image noise
CK-UHCW
CT and the Hounsfield unit
– supporting video 1

If you have not already

watched Supporting Video 1
(Week 8), please now pause
Lecture 13 so that you can
do so. You can also view it
directly from this link if you
are using the Powerpoint
version of the slides.
CK-UHCW

Plain X-ray vs Computed Tomography

CK-UHCW

Computed Tomography
CK-UHCW
CK-UHCW
WHAT NEXT?

Having looked at the principles of x-ray interactions with matter, we will

continue in the next lecture to look at the process of making images, and of
the role of computed tomography in x-ray imaging.

In advance of this, please read Essentials of in vivo biomedical imaging

Chapter 2, Section 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5. E-book available via Library website
http://webcat.warwick.ac.uk/record=b2851815~S1

END OF LECTURE