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Radiography
Interpretation
Chapter 4, 5 & 6
1. MOHD KHAIRUL AMINUL RASHID B. ISMAIL
2. MUHAMMAD HARSY B. MUHAMMAD RAZALI
3. ABDUL HAKIM B. SAZALI
4. MOHD ASRULL AFENDI B. WAHAB
5. MOHAMAD IDHAM B. ABDUL KARIM
6. MOHAMAD GHAZALI B. AMAN
7. MUHAMMAD AZIM B. SUKIMAN.
 4.0 What is ionizing Radiation?

 The removal of electrons from an atom in a

electrically positively charged state (+ ion).
 Alpha and Beta particle emission is caused by
radioactive fission.
5.0 Industrial Radiography

Radiographic Testing

X – Rays or Gamma Rays

Bremsstrahlung (Discrete)
(Continuous)
 X- Ray or Bremsstrahlung

 X-rays produce when a beam of high velocity electron

collides the atoms.
 There are 2 factors photon energy can produce X-
radiation :
 Kinetic energy of the electron at the point of collision
 Relative efficiency of the process of stopping the
incident electron.
 Characteristic peaks caused by the electron jumping to a
higher energy level.
 Occurs at relative low energy, long wavelength it can cause a
problem known as diffraction mottling.
 Diffraction Mottling the condition is a diffraction effect that
occurs on relatively vague, thin-section radiographs, most
often with austenitic stainless steel
 X-ray Equipment
 In order to produce X-ray three things are required:
 Source of electrons
 Target, constructed from a suitable high melting point
material
 Means of accelerating electrons toward the target
 The Cathode (Filament)

 Heating the filament produce a cloud of loosely

bound, low kinetic energy electrons in close proximity
to the filament
 This process is know as thermionic emission
The anode (Target)
 X-ray Tubes

The cathode and anode are mounted in an evacuated glass (or in

modern tubes metal-ceramic). The tube may provided with shielding to
absorb any unwanted radiation.
 X-ray production

Self rectified Costant potential

Ac current Dc current
Simple system Produce harder radiation
Yahooo…… Most CP units use a greinarcher
circuit
Tube voltage/kA
Tube current/mA
 High energy x-ray sources
 Linear
accelerates:
accelerate electrons to very high velocities by
means an electromagnetic waveform

 Betatrons:
to produce ultra-hard extremely penetrating
radiation with photon energies in the range 1-30
Mev
6.0 Gamma Rays
 Sealed sourced
Sources that not sealed then danger : - alpha (α)
- beta (β)
(if not sealed can extremely damaging human tissue)

Gamma sources today all are man-made which means manufactured

by neutron bombardment.

Sources use are all beta emitters which mean the gamma rays being
produced as a by-product of beta emission.

To prevent beta emission/contamination hazard they use source shield.

The fissile material is encapsulated in high integrity titanium/s. steel.
 Penetrating power of gamma
radiation
 The power is fixed for each isotope
 Its
because gamma spectrum emitted
was fixed
 Quantity of gamma radiation
 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
 Have 2 units which are: - curies (Ci)
- becquerels (Bq)
10 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 1 𝐶𝑖 = 3.7 × 10
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 1𝐵𝑞 =1
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
 Becquerel - SI unit of radioactivity.
- very small unit
 If Becquerel was used, it usually in form of gigabecquerel (GBq)
 1𝐺𝐵𝑞 = 1𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 (109 ) 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑙
 1𝐶𝑖 = 37𝐺𝐵𝑞
 Radiographic isotope container
for industrial radiographic
Shielding materials:
-Gamma radiation absorber such as lead, tungsten , depleted uranium.

Container should fulfill two important functions:

-Reduce the emitted intensity of radiation to a level which allows for safe
transportation and storage.
- Allow the radioactive isotope to be safely exposed in order that it may be
used for radiography.
 Comparison of X-rays
and gamma rays

X-ray gamma
Photon energy Continuous Discrete

Penetrating Tube voltage Depend on

power setting Isotope
50kev-30Mev
Useful thickness range for various source of radiation
Source of Useful thickness range /mm of steel ,mm
radiationt
100kv (peak) Maximum
X-ray
150kv (peak) Maximum 20
self-
rectifier 200kv (peak) Maximum 30
300kv (peak) Maximum 60
X-ray 100kv Maximum 10
constant-
150kv Maximum 32
potential
200kv Maximum 45
300kv Maximum 100
Gamma ray Thulium 170 Maximum 4
Selenium 75 4-30
Ytterbium 169 2-8
Iridium 192 10-75
Cobalt 60 40-200
 Radiographic contrast

1)Low energy is more easy to be absorbed than high

energy radiation.

2)The contrast of X-ray radiographs generally better than

gamma radiograph.
Focal spot size vs source size

Radiation
Source
 X-ray gamma
1 mm to 4 mm Limited by its physical
size
more smaller size, more
sharp
 Geometric unsharpness is better for x-ray
than for gamma techniques, even though
the focus is similar
Exposure time (film radiography)
X-ray gamma
1 to 5 minutes 30 seconds to 1 hour
continuously
(rest 1 to 2 minutes)

 X-ray exposure time more faster than

gamma
 Physical size and weight
X-ray gamma
300 kv, could weight 100 curies, could weight
55kg 15-20 kg
Less portable portable

 Gamma can used in limited access area

 power supply

X-ray gamma
Required power supply / No need power supply
mobile generator
 Equipment cost
X-ray gamma
Equipment cost 2-5 Become cost is not used
times than gamma regularly
High maintenance and
repair cost

 X-ray provide cheapest option when in

mass production environment
 Thank you for