10.1201 9781003077848 Previewpdf

PROCEEDINGS OF AN INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIDM
NURNBERG/GERMANY I 14-15 APRll..1994
GEOSYNTHETIC
CLAY LINERS
Edited by
R. M. KOERNER
Geosynthetic Research Institute, Drexel University, Philadelphia, USA
E. GARTUNG & H. ZANZINGER

LGA-Grundbauinstitut, Niimberg, Germany
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Published by
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A.A. Balkema Publishers, Old Post Road, Brookfield, VT 05036, USA (Fax: 802.276.3837)
ISBN 905410 519 4
© 1995 A.A.Balkema, Rotterdam
Contents
Preface Vll
R. M. Koerner, E. Gartung & H. Zanzinger
Foreword IX
R. Floss
I Regulatory perspectives
On the equivalency of landfill liner systems - The state of discussions

in Germany 3
K. Stief
US EPA experiences with geosynthetic clay liners 17

D. A. Carson
2 Fundamentals
Characteristics and sealing effect of bentonites 31

F. Madsen & R. Niiesch
Properties and test methods to assess bentonite used in geosynthetic clay

liners 51
T. Egloffstein
A suggested methodology for assessing the technical equivalency of

GCLs to CCLs 73
R. M. Koerner & D. E. Daniel
3 Testing and design
Basic examination on the efficiency of GCLs 101

D. Heyer
v
VI Geosynthetic clay Liners
Guidelines on the use of liners in highway construction 113

H. Rathmayer
Landfill cap designs using geosynthetic clay liners 129

1. M. Fuller
On the long-term shear behaviour of geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs)

in capping sealing systems 141
G. Heerten, F. Saathoff, C. Scheu & K. P. von Maubeuge
On the slope stability of landfill capping seals using GCLs 151

D. Alexiew, H. Berkhout & R. Kirschner
4 Applications
Groundwater protection using a GCL at the Franz-Josef-Strauss airport

Munich, Germany I6I
G. Heerten
Design and installation of a state-of-the-art landfill liner system 175

R. Trauger & K. Tewes
Test field for the capping system of the rnichelshohe landfill 183
V. Kreit
Capping landfill surfaces and contaminated areas with geomembrane

supported clay liners 189
1. T. Pape & R. B. Erickson
GCL installation in a water protection area for the A96 motorway near
Leutkirch, Germany 199
R. Schmidt
Measurement and control system for the upper basin of the

Reisach-Rabenleite pumped storage power station 207
M. Rau & 1. Dressler
5 Closure
Quality assurance in the manufacture and installation of GCLs 219

H. Zanzinger
GCL summary and conclusions 229

E. Gartung
Authors' addresses 235

Advertisements 239
Preface
R. M. Koerner. E. Gartung & H. Zanzinger
A new type of geosynthetic material which is an excellent blend of natural soil and
geosynthetics in the form of a composite barrier material is currently available as
wide width, factory manufactured products. Called Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCL)
or Geokunststoff-Ton-Dichtungen (GTD), the current variations of these products
are as follows:
• an adhesive bonded layer of bentonite between two geotextiles,
• a powdered or granulated layer of bentonite between two geotextiles and then
stitch bonded together,
• a powdered or granulated layer of bentonite between two geotextiles and then
needle punched together,
• an adhesive bonded layer of bentonite directly on a geomembrane.
Since the book is in English the products will be called geosynthetic clay liners,
usually by reference to the acronym of 'GCLs'.
The various products are typically 7 to 10 mm thick, 3 to 5 m wide with a unit
weight of approximately 5.0 kg/m2 • The purpose of the bentonite is to hydrate and
swell as moisture is encountered forming the barrier component. The geosynthetics
(either geotextiles or a geomembrane) initially act as carrier materials. Subsequently,
the geosynthetics also act independently to reinforce, further decrease permeability,
provide structural integrity, etc., depending on the particular product. There are
currently six manufacturers of GCLs, each with unique variations of their basic style.
However, it should be recognized that manufacturers regulary modify their materials
and new products are regularly appearing.
In the environmental area, GCLs are used most frequently to construct waste
containment liners or covers, e.g., GCLs are used,
• by themselves as a barrier layer
• as the lower component of a composite geomembrane/geosynthetic clay liner
• sandwiched beneath a geomembrane and above a compacted clay liner as a
triple component composite liner
• placed beneath a geomembrane/compacted clay liner as a triple component
composite liner
• placed above a geomembrane for puncture protection.
GCLs have also been used within vertical cutoff walls, as secondary containment
for underground storage tanks and beneath a wide variety of reservoirs and surface
impoundments. Numerous application papers in this book will describe some of
VII
vm Geosynthetic clay liners
the above applications. Clearly the use of GCLs in environmental applications is

the major use at this point in time.
Transportation applications of GeLs, however, are also important and rapidly
growing. The various products have been used beneath airfield pavements for the
containment of deicing liquids, to protect against accidentally spilled chemicals from
highway accidents (also roadway deicing salts) and for groundwater protection at
fueling stations and related depots. Several papers in this book relate to, and describe,
describe, these applications.
While geotechnical applications of GeLs have not been widespread, their use
should be considered by engineering designers and facility owners. Cutoffs beneath
hydraulic structures and impervious barriers within them are clearly potential areas
for utilization. Surface dressing above walls and slope coverings to avoid hydrostatic
pressure are candidate uses as well.
Thus it is seen that the entire spectrum of environmental, transportation and
geotechnical engineering applications can utilize GCLs as hydraulic barriers. Indeed,
this book will show that such activities are ongoing. Necessary before describing
these applications, however, is the presentation of the technical background of the
materials used (i.e., the bentonite and the various geotextiles and geomembranes)
and their identification via test procedures and standards. Thus the structure of the
book is in discrete parts dealing with preliminary details, followed by regulatory
perspectives, then testing and design, followed by applications and finally issues
of quality controUquality assurance and the closing summary.
Foreword
R. Floss
ChaimiGTI of the 'Synthetics in Geotec/mics' section of the German Geotechnical Society and President
of the German Chapter of the International Geotextile Society.
The 'Synthetics in Geotechnics' section of the German Geotechnical Society and

the German Chapter of the International Geotextile Society welcome the initiative
shown in arranging a symposium on geosynthetic clay liners (bentonite liners). The
symposium has been jointly organized by the Geotechnical Institute of the LGA
and the Geosynthetic Research Institute (GRI) of Drexel University, Philadelphia,
USA. The purpose of the symposium is to pool the experience gained in Germany
and America. The subjects discussed cover current know-how on fundamentals and
experimental investigations, as well as the state of the art in designing and installing
bentonite liners. This book is a direct outgrowth of the symposium which was held
in Nuremberg, Germany on April 14-15, 1994.
These pre-fabricated products are composite liners, with the bentonite, either in
powder or granular form, contained between two textile layers, generally geotextiles,
which are bonded by needle-punching or other methods. The composite can take
a certain amount of tension and stretching.
In recent years in Germany, comprehensive scientific and practice-oriented
investigations have shown these products' basic suitability for various applications
in earthwork engineering and landscaping, in landfill construction, in traffic systems
and hydraulic engineering. Accordingly, these liners have grown significantly in
importance, in particular for the soil and ground water protection of constructions
in water protection zones, for protection from erosion and in covering systems near
the surface.
The first basic investigations were published on the occasion of the first 'Synthetics
in Geotechnics' congress in Hamburg, in 1988. Since then, a number of institutions
have been involved in the development and testing of GCLs, within their range of
research activities. These scientific investigations have mainly been concerned with
saturation and permeability behaviour, and have included a number of influences,
such as freeze-thaw and wet-dry cycles, the effect of overlying coverings and hydraulic
gradients, as well as the effect of saline defrosting solutions and hydrocarbons. One
further important area of investigation was permeability behaviour when subjected
to bi-axial stretching.
Since 1988, the Testing Institute for Foundation Engineering, Soil and Rock
Mechanics at the Technical University of Munich has been engaged on practical
trials to put scientific findings on these liners to the test.
These practical investigations looked at the effectiveness of the products under
working conditions, with particular attention paid to installation and seams, as well
IX
X Geosynthetic clay liners
as the effect of the supporting and covering material under static and dynamic stress.
It was possible to study these fmdings further within the framework of special tenders
and large-scale tests carried out at a number of major construction projects.
Some such examples were:
• Ground water protection at the Franz-Josef Strauss airport, Munich-Erding.
• Double lining system for the Lech canal, Lechwerke AG, Augsburg.
• Ground water protection for the A 96 motorway between Munich and Lindau,
in the area of the 'Leutkircher Heide' water protection area.
• Reconstruction work on the lining system for the Raben Ieite elevated storage
basin, operated by the East Bavarian Energy Authority.
By now, we have a number of years' experience in the construction and behaviour
of these lining systems, which in principle are to be assessed positively. However,
they have also led to the conclusion that GCLs must be differentiated in accordance
with certain general quality requirements. Working group 14A of the 'Synthetics
in Geotechnics' section is currently engaged in working out reconunendations on
use, examination and quality control. The technical contractual terms will be included
in the new draft for the 'Additional Technical Contractual Terms for Earth Works
in Road Constructions' (ZTVE-StB).
The products currently on the market are widely different in their manufacture
and joining methods. Accordingly, those responsible for planning and quality control
are obliged to pay great attention to the suitability of the candidate products for
each individual case, and, if necessary, to decide on their use on the basis of special
evaluation. Moreover, one must assume that the development of GCLs and their
related construction measures is not yet at an end, but will lead to even further
improvements.
Regulatory perspectives
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http://taylorandfrancis.com
On the equivalency of landfill liner systems
The state of discussions in Germany
K. Stief
German Federal Environmental Agency, Berlin, Germany
ABSTRACT: According to Federal regulations in Germany, landfills must be

constructed with composite Liners of well specified characteristics. Alternative lining
systems are accepted provided that they are equivalent to the standard systems. The
criteria for the assessment of equivalency have to take many different aspects into
account. The fundamentals of the assessment criteria are discussed in the present
paper.
I INTRODUCTION
A range of landfill liner systems are currently available, some that are constructed
significantly different from others. It may be assumed that liner systems which are
constructed differently will also vary in efficiency. But even if the construction of
landfill liner systems is not different, their effectiveness may vary considerably if
different liner materials are used.
Information is needed on the effectiveness of any landfill liner system to be used,
in particular if these differ from the 'usual', the 'proven', or those liner systems
specified in administrative regulations.
T A Abfall (fechnical Instructions on the Storage, Chemical, Physical and Biological
Treatment, Incineration and LandfLJling of Waste) and TA Siedlungsabfall (Technical
Instructions on the Recycling, Treatment and other Management of Municipal Waste)
outline and describe landfiiJ liner systems for class I and I1 landfills. Class I landfills
are those, that contain material from construction demolition and other well defined
predominantly mineral solid waste which contains the lowest potential for
contamination, while, in the future, class II landfills will contain the residues of
thermally treated domestic waste. Landfills, operated at the time theTA Siedhmgsabfall
has come into force, have the status of 'old landfills (Aitdeponien)', which have
also to fuJfill particular requirements. Landfills of class m are regulated in TA Abfall,
since they are hazardous waste landfill facilities.
T A Abfall states the following in item 9.4.1:
• The performance effectiveness of landfill liner systems may not be affected
by any deformation of the liner layer due to overlying weight. Accordingly, settlement
and deformation are to be calculated.
• Any pipe penetrations of the liner system in the slope area are to be carried
out in such a way that they may be monitored and repaired.
3
4 Geosynthetic clay liners
• The requirements made of these landfill liner systems in accordance with

paragraphs I to 3 may be waived, if it can be proved that an alternative system
is equivalent. The requirements given in paragraph 4 shall also apply accordingly.
T A Siedlungsabfall states the following items:
• Landfill liner systems are to be planned and constructed in accordance with
items 13.4.1.3 and 13.4.1.4, or with equivalent systems.
• A landfill liner system is to be constructed on the Landfill subgrade, in accordance
with item 13.3.2, and on the slope surfaces. The type of landfill liner system for
the slope surface shall depend on the gradient.
• Vertical penetrations of the liner system are not permissible.
• The landfill bottom liner system is to consist of the system components shown
in Figure I, or an equivalent liner system.
• The landfill bottom liner system is to be installed in accordance with Figure
I, or to consist of an equivalent system, whose material and test requirements are
given in Appendix E ofTA Abfall.
• After a landfill section has been filled with waste, a cap lining is to be installed
on top of the landfill body.
• If required by the intended, permissible subsequent utjlization, the cover soil
layer may be replaced by a covering, suitable for the appropriate use, which gives
the cap system equivalent protection.
• The following requirements shall apply for the individual cap elements:
For class I landfills, the lining shall be a mjneralliner or with an equivalent liner
system.
For class II landfills, the linings shall be composite liner as in with Figure 2,
or with an equivalent liner system.
These extracts from T A Abfall and T A Siedlungsabfall clearly show that great
emphasis is placed on the determination of equivalency of landfill liner systems.
An aim, to be achieved with the Technical Instructions in accordance with the Waste
Management Act, is federally standardized requirements for landfills. Accordingly,
there must also be standardized federal procedures and criteria to determine the
equivalency of landfill liner systems. Although T A Abfall has been in force since
I April, 1991, the administrative practice of the federal states has not achjeved a
standardized procedure, or, at least, such a procedure is not known. This may be
due to the fact that, since T A Abfall came into force, no landfills for waste requiring
special supervision ('Hazardous waste landfills', 'Class ill landfills') have been
planned or approved, for which 'alternative' landfill liner systems were to be used.
As T A Siedlungsabfall bas only been in force since I June, 1993, there has, as yet,
been no reason to officially assess as equivalent any landfill liner system for municipal
solid waste (MSW) landfills other than composite liner systems. Inrurectly, however,
there has been such an assessment, indeed such a comparison, as, in practice, the
composite liner is considered the best sealing system using state-of-the-art technology.
In November 199I, a working group for the 'Assessment of Landfill Liner Systems'
(AK BEDAS) was set up at the German Federal Environmental Agency (UBA),
with the aim of working out some basic criteria for the assessment of equivalency.
This initiative has not been expressly supported by the Working Group on Waste
of the Federal States (LAGA). The LAGA's technical commjttee on waste merely
decided, in January 1992, 'to observe' the further work of AK BEDAS. The work
of AK BEDAS has not resulted in any conclusions ready for publication.
In the opinion of the Federal Ministry of Building and Construction, and of the
On the equivalency oflandfillliner systems 5
Ministries of Construction for the Federal States, the German Institute for Building
Technology (Deutsches Institut fur Bautechnik, DIDt) is responsible for the approval
of building materials and components which also comprises landfill liner systems.
This claim to responsibility is based on the Constructional Guidelines (Musterbau
ordnung, MBO) and the Building Products Act (Bauproduktengesetz, BPG). The
Federal Minister for Environment, Nature Protection and Reactor Safety shares this
opinion.
Therefore, the AK BEDAS working group at the Federal Environmental Agency
has concluded its activities. lhis work is now being continued by the German Institute
for Building Technology and its advisory committee GDSA (Grundsatze des
Deponiebaus und der Sicherung von Altlasten (Basics of landfill construction and
remediation of abandoned hazardous waste problem sites)).
This paper attempts to portray and discuss some opinions on the equivalency
of landfill liner systems, in order to re-state the discussion to a wider circle of
interested parties. Here, reference is made particularly to a publication by Engelmann
(1993). The composite liner, in accordance with T A Siedlungsabfall, is the reference
point for any considerations concerning equivalency.
2 AN OVERVIEW OF LINER SYSTEMS
In practice, a range of landfill liner systems are used, or are considered to be used,
which differ from the composite liner.
• Composite liner in accordance with T A Abfall
• Composite liner in accordance with T A Siedlungsabfall (Figures I and 2)
• Double composite liner (without leak detection layer), (August 1986)
• Double composite liner (with leak detection layer)
• Composite liner, with a bentonite geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) as mineral
layer (Daniels & Koerner 1992)
• Inverse composite liner (with the synthetic geomembrane below the mineral
lining layer), (Collins 1991)
• Composite liner, with asphalt concrete liner and mineral liner
• Asphalt concrete liner (Ryser 1993 and Schonian 1991)
• Multi-layer mineral liner with leak control layer
• Compacted clay mineral liner (Dtillmann 1992)
• Mixed grain liner (Hom 1989)
• Special mineral liner (DYWIDAG liner), (Jessberger et al. 1993)
• Composite liner, with geomembranes and capillary block (Melchior 1993)
• Capillary block (Melchior 1993 and Mock 1991)
• Composite liner, of asphalt concrete liner and capillary block
These liners are being offered, or used, for both bottom liners and caps. What
is not yet clear is how the various liner systems are to be assessed for effectiveness,
when comparing them with composite liners in accordance with T A Abfal l and T A
Siedlungsabfall. Decisions are currently being made on an irregular basis.
In Switzerland, it is not necessary to carry out assessment procedures for the various
landfill liners. In Appendix 2 of the Swiss Technical Regulations for Waste (TV A),
'Requirements made of the site, construction and completion of landfills' three different
liners are permissible under item '22, Lining' (TV A 1990):
The liner must give long-term assurance that leachate cannot seep away; subsoil
conditions, the slope of the landfill bottom and sides, and the condition of the drainage
layer are to be taken into consideration. One of the following liners will generally
be sufficient:
• Mineral liner. This must have a minimum thickness of 80 em and a coefficient
of hydraulic conductivity k of 1 x 10·9 m/s or less, and must be installed in at least
three layers, with each layer individually sealed and protected from drying out.
• Asphalt coating seal. This must have a minimum thickness of7 em, be instalJed
above a suitable foundation and binder layer, and be sealed in such a way that the
porosity determined from a sample is not greater than 3 per cent.
• Synthetic foil seal, i.e., a geomembrane. This must have a minimum thickness
of 2.5 mm and be installed above a mineral liner with a minimum thickness of 50
em.
• Other liners. Laboratory and field tests are to prove that these are at least
equivalent to the liners described in the above three items.
The effectiveness of the liners must be tested and documented during installation
and before covering.
3 WHAT DOES 'EQUIVALENCY' MEAN?
Strictly speaking, it is clear that equivalent means equally good when subjected
to the same stresses and demands.
In the context of assessing landfill liner systems different from the composite
liner specified in T A Siedlungsabfall, the question arises (from planning and licensing
practice) if another alternative liner system may not also be accepted under certain
circumstances if it is sufficiently good. At issue is if equivalent in the sense ofTA
Siedlungsabfall also (only) means sufficiently good.
The need to have sufficiently good landfill liner systems accepted as equivalent
becomes particularly great if the installation of composite liners is made difficult
or impossible, or if the durability of the sealing layers is affected, due to the following:
• Construction features (for example steep slopes), or problems in meeting a
deadline, combined with unfavourable weather conditions. The inclusion of weather
conditions in any standardized Federal assessment procedure is likely to present
problems.
• Demands from the commissioning body, often a high temperature difference
between top and bottom edge of the mineral liner layers, which may be caused by
high temperatures in the leachate.
These difficulties lead to the search for landfill liner systems which withstand
the requirements specified in each case, while also being capable of fast, simple
and economical instaJlation. It is acknowledged that, under the pressure of conditions,
some liner systems have also been taken into consideration which almost certainly
were known to be not equally good, but under the existing conditions could be rated
as sufficiently good. 'Cost effectiveness' is said to be even better, because the
sufficiently good liners could be produced less expensively, were less liable to
malfunction, etc.
T A SiedlungsabfaJI, in comparison toTA AbfaJI, has opened a few possibilities
for the use of other liner systems. The greatest of these is to be found in Item 13.4.1.3:
• A landfill liner system is to be installed on the subgrade, in accordance with
item 13.3.2 and on the slope surfaces. The type of landfill liner system to be used
on the slope surface is to be determined depending on the gradient.
This reference to the special feature of liners on slope surfaces may be understood
On the equivalency oflandfill liner systems 7
as a reference to the fact that not all liner systems can be used on all slope gradients,
as well as to the fact that the use of other landfill liners is to be exa.rrllned, if the
installation of a composite liner is considered too difficult or simply too expensive.
It is worthy of note that equivalent liner systems are not expressly stipulated here.
Is this supposed to mean that only sufficiently good liners are considered necessary?
It would have been stricter to require that steep slopes, on which composite liners
could not be installed, were to be avoided.
Assessments of the equivalency of landfill seals are constantly made in the course
of licencing procedure. If, for example, a double mineral liner with two mineral
liner layers, each 75 em thick (with a leak control layer in the middle), is authorized
instead of a composite liner consisting of a 2 .5 mm thick synthetic geomembrane
and a 75 em thick mineral liner layer, this liner system will be indirectly assessed
as equivalent or of higher quality, but at least as sufficiently good. An assessment
of the clay mineral liner or a mixed-grain sealing layer is also carried out if a single
mineral liner is authorized instead of a composite liner. However, in such special
cases, it can hardly be assumed that equivalency means equally good. It is much
more likely that the responsible authorities assessed the effectiveness of the mineral
liner as sufficiently good under the site specific water management conditions.
The assessment criteria for sufficiently good are at least as important as for the
assessment of equally good, indeed they may be more important. Generally speaking,
the demands concerning the water management requirements made on the landfill
liner system were merely that the best liner system technically available had to be
selected. That developed to the point where, with reference to Section 34, Paragraph
2 of the Water Conservation Act (Wasserhaushaltsgesetz), the so-called 'High-safety
landfills' or 'Containment structures' were stipulated (IWS 1987). Rating criteria
are lacking, such as permissible levels for pollutants which may penetrate the liner
under certain landfill operating conditions, while taking the existing geological barriers
into account. For this reason, and only for this reason , certain liner systems are
specified in T A Abfall and T A Siedlungsabfall. It is to be hoped that the option
that TA Siedlungsabfall permits by stating'... or equivalent liner systems' will really
lead to a further development of the technological state-of-the-art. However, it is
to be feared that what will really happen is that better, but more expensive systems,
will be avoided.
In the attempt to have landfill liner systems recognized as equivalent, the quality
of the geological barrier is often drawn into the discussion. When that is the case,
it becomes particularly clear that what is concerned is the choice of a sufficiently
good and not an equally good liner system. It is argued, for example, that the bottom
liner system needs no special adsorption capacity if the geological barrier is very
homogeneous, and has an adsorption capacity many times that of the clay mineral
liner. On the other hand, the requirement for a composite liner is more readily accepted
if the properties of the geological barrier (homogeneity, pollutant retention capacity)
can be rated as evidently not particularly good in the near vicinity of the landfill.
Moreover, it is then often the case that one, two or three additional clay mineral
layers are offered as 'replacement for the missing geological barrier' .
As long as there is no express withdrawal from the multi-barrier concept for
landfills, the geological barrier may of course not be replaced by just any type of
liner. But administrative regulations such as T A Siedlungsabfall are not intended
to stand in the way of reasonable interpretation. It is indeed worthy of consideration
whether an excellent geological barrier (great homogeneity, great thickness, great
pollution retention potential) really needs to be covered with another 1.50 m thick
clay mineral sealing layer with high pollution retention capacity. A sealing layer
might also be used which has no great pollution retention capacity, but which possesses
very good properties relating to sealing effectiveness, plasticity and sensitivity to
shrinkage fissuring and cracking.
4 PROPERTIES OF LANDFILL LINER SYSTEMS TO BE TAKEN INTO

CONSIDERATION IN ASSESSING EQUIVALENCY
The characteristics and properties of landfill liner systems may be classified under
four main groups (Engelmann 1993):
• theoretical effectiveness
• durability
• ease of construction at the particular site
• system characteristics
The theoretical effectiveness is characterized by the transport of pollutants through
the liner system considering both quantity and time. The transport of pollutants is
determined by convection, diffusion and adsorption behaviour. For this purpose,
the results of laboratory tests are to be taken into consideration, as are the charac
teristics under real load conditions. However, the establishment of maximum loads
under real landfill conditions is based on assumptions for pressure gradients and
for chemical exposure (types and concentrations of pollutants). Theoretical effectiveness
may be achieved under ideal laboratory conditions, but not, however, in practice.
As for durability, the variability of the sealing characteristics under long-term
external conditions (mechanical, biological, chemical, physical) are to be considered.
External stress may result from freeze/thaw, wet/dry, erosion, suffusion and colrnation,
dissolution etc.
Under constructability, such criteria are considered as the sensitivity of materials
and construction to weather, the feasibility and reliability of connections and
penetrations, the permissible tolerances of certain parameters, quality management,
the need for and possibility of carrying out rapid checks on sealing characteristics
at the construction site. In particular, the possibilities and limits of constructability
on steep slopes must be taken into consideration, as must the question of stability
if the landfill base is sloped.
System characteristics which may influence the result of a comparative assessment
are, for example, the ability to check individual liner components (for example by
leak detection systems), the installation of multi-layer liner where any errors made
in the individual layers may be compensated for, the reliability of the parameters
which must be used for proof of stability, as well as the redundancy of the system,
i.e., the stability of one component under the same condition of stress, where another
component fails.
In a broader context, system characteristics may also include financial and ecological
aspects. These may, for example, include: energy consumption during construction,
during extraction and transport of the liner material, during installation of the materials,
as well as the dependency of installation on the weather, with its effect on the time
needed for installation, or the use of recycled liner materials.
On the equivalency of landfill liner systems 9
5 THE COMPOSITE LINER
A frame of reference is needed if the equivalency of landfill sealing systems is to

be assessed. The frame of reference which should be referred to is given by the
composite liner systems specified in TA Abfall and TA Siedlungsabfall (Figures
1 and 2).
The characteristics of composite liner systems were specially examined in a research
program (BAM 1992). There are no reliable test results available from practice for
composite liners or for clay mineral or mixed grain liners.
A verbal description of the characteristics of composite liners might be as follows
(Engelmann 1993):
• The HDPE geomembrane is resistant to chemical and biological attack.
• The HDPE geomembrane is an absolute convection block for liquid materials.
No flow takes place.
• As a result of their good affinity for organic pollutants, these are concentrated
in the geomembrane and between the geomembrane and the mineral liner, because
they are diffused through the geomembrane, so that levels of concentration and
therefore also diffusion are reduced.
• If there is no intimate contact, a lateral flow may result beneath possible punctures
in the geomembrane.
• It is quite possible for pollutants to be transported through the mineral layer
by convection flow. Nevertheless, the mineral layer may be regarded as a convection
Waste
e::: Drainage layer
w
c:J Leachate pipe
M
Protective layer
1>/ 2.5
~
MM Geomembrane
Cl
en c:::
e:::
w
..... c:::
-Q)
1.1'1
en> Mineral layer
(Octl Q)
r- Q)
-Q) ·u;
-
-Q) 0
~ C(,_ a.
s::. E
0
(..)
Landfill subgrade
Geological barrier
Figure l. Landfill bonom liner system for class II landfills, in accordance with TA Siedlungsabfall (1993).
I0 Geosynthetic clay liners
............ .. .. -.. ..............

..-.... .. ... -....... .. .. .. .. .. .. - .. .. .
.. ...................
.. . .. . . . . . ...... . .. . .. .....
.. . .. ..
.......... --- ...... - ....
~ • • • • • • • • • • • • a • •
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: Recultivation layer

:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~: ---(cover soil)
·-·-·.-.-.. ·.·-·.·.· .. --·.. ·-·.-.- ..
:1---- Waste
Figure 2. Landfill cap liner system for class II landfills, in accordance with TA Siedlungsabfall (1993).
block if the pressure gradients are very small and if the effective pore volume is
very small.
• If there are no leaks in the geomembrane, the mineral layer will not be made
use of as a convection block. The mineral layer, however, functions as an element
of the composite liner. It acts as a diffusion block against the organic materials which
are diffused through the geomembrane, if the mineral layers have an appropriate
adsorption capacity.
• Diffusion times, the pollutant break-through times through the mineral liner
layers, are intended to be very long. The diffusion times are related to the square
of the thickness of the mineral liner layers.
One argument against the composite liner is the aging of the geomembrane.
Available examination figures on the course of aging over several decades are
interpreted as proof of the decomposition of the geomembrane in a few decades.
If these assumptions for the loss of effectiveness of geomembranes in composite
liners were correct, similar assumptions on the reduced effectiveness of other
geosynthetics would have to be made, for example for geogrids of the type used
to improve the load-bearing capacity of the subsoil in the extension to the Hausham
landfill in Bavaria.
The possibility cannot be ruled out that in the long term, liner materials will suffer
a loss of effectiveness; this will be very difficult to take into account when assessing
the equivalency of liner systems.
On the equivalency oflandfill Liner systems 11
6 COMPOSITE LINER OF GEOMEMBRANES AND GEOSYNTHETIC CLAY

LINERS
In the USA, the Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) requires double liners
for landfLIIs with hazardous waste. Double liners consist of the following components
(from top to bottom):
• upper drainage layer
• geomembrane
• lower drainage layer (leak detection layer)
• composite geomembrane/compacted clay liner
Only small quantities of water are permitted to leak from the lower drainage layer.
If these levels are exceeded as defined by the site specific action leakage rate, ALR,
investigatians must be carried out to determine the reason for the increased leakage.
If the leakage increases further to a so-called rapid and large leakage rate, RRL,
the landfill must be closed until the damage has been stopped (US EPA 1989).
Leakages well above the ALR and, indeed, greater than the RRL are said to have
occurred often at many landfills. It was possible to stop these problems by installing
geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) below the upper geomembrane. The function of
these installations is to ensure that leaks in the lower drainage layer (leak detection
layer) are kept close to zero.
Table 1 shows the advantages and disadvantages of compacted clay liners (CCLs)
and geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs).
These results are increasingly being used to claim that the composite liner, consisting
of geomembrane and CCL, is equivalent to the composite liner consisting of
geomembrane and GCL (Daniel & Koerner 1992).
There are considerable reservations about GCLs, because of their small thickness
(it is suspected that it is easily penetrated in spite of all tests) and because of
misgivings about the long-term durability of the geosynthetic fibres (the discussion
of the long-term durability of polymer fibres is developing along similar lines to
that concerning the long-term durability of synthetic geomembranes).
7 PROBLEMS OF COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT
Every landfill sealing system has advantages and disadvantages.

Comparative assessment becomes particularly difficult if the advantages and
disadvantages arise from different characteristics and properties of the sealing systems,
for example a system could be devised as follows:
Criterion System I System II

A ++ 0
B 0
c ++
If points are given instead of the +/0/- system, the assessment does not become
any easier. For example, can a liner system whose theoretical effectiveness is poor,
but whose construction is very simple and whose costs are very low, be awarded
more points than a liner system with high theoretical effectiveness, but whose
construction may only be carried out by trained specialists and under favourable
weather conditions, if necessary under a roof? Is the former liner system of higher
Table I. Advantages and disadvantages of CCLs and GCLs
Compacted clay liners (CCLs) Geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs)
Large volume required Smail volume required

Large weight Light weight
Heavy installation equipment Light installation equipment
Lengthy installation Rapid installation
Correct installation difficult Correct installation easy
Penetration impossible Penetration possible
Large constructional thickness necessary Can be fabricated in small thicknesses
Field trial areas may be required No field trial areas required
Specia.l data on sealing material required Data for GCLs available
May develop dry fissures Cannot develop fissures if moisture available
Difficult to repair Easy to repair'
Sensitive to frost Less sensitive to frost
High, variable costs Low, better predictable, costs
Sensitive to senling Less sensitive to settling
• Applies only to landfill caps
quality because of its greater nwnber of points? Or is the system of assessment wrong?
Is it at all possible for a simple (one layer) liner system to be equivalent to a
multi-layer liner system (for example a composite liner), if one component of the
multi-layer liner system is identical with the simple liner system?
Must not a two-layer composite liner system in which one layer functions as a
convection block (for example a HOPE geomembrane) and the other as a diffusion
block (for example a mineral liner layer) be assessed as of higher quality than a
composite liner system which contains no convection block? .
Of what significance to the assessment is the proven working life of liner layers
in landfLilliner layers, for example of geomembranes, asphalt concrete sealing layers,
or geotextiles? How can new liner materials be put to use if proof of long-term
durability is always going to be required?
What working life of landfill liners is to be required? In the case of landfill bottom
liner systems the answer is 'forever', as they are practically impossible to repair.
(With the so-called 'repairable liner systems', where it is possible to inject sealing
medium into the leak detection layer, the mentioned problem arises after the leak
has been closed by injection. What this produces is quite simply a composite liner
system which is no longer controllable and repairable, with the disadvantage that
the injected liner layer cannot have the same quality as the Liner layers constructed
in open installation.) But how can it be demonstrated that their characteristics will
remain unchanged 'forever'?
Can we count on a medium-term effectiveness of, say, 100 or 200 years when
assessing the equivalency of a landfill bottom liner in a composite liner, for example
a synthetic geomembrane or an asphalt sealing layer, without taking into account
the significance of the increased safety in the operating period and the effectiveness
of the landfill cap seal (in principle, always easily repairable)?
8 POSSIBLE ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES
It will take many years to work out strictly scientific and generally acceptable
assessment procedures. By that time, the widest range of landfill liner systems will
have gained acceptance in practice, because of decisions based on individual cases.
An assessment that is only based on the feelings of a specialist, or, more likely,
a department manager, cannot be the right strategy either.
Results are most likely to be achieved if a group of recognized experts discuss
the pros and cons of the liner systems available for assessment and present the
arguments in print, so that they can be understood in public, or at least acknowledged.
Engelmann (1993) suggests 'listing the characteristics and criteria to be examined
only as points of reference, and following up this list to the best of one's knowledge
and conscience, while evaluating laboratory results, field trials, the results of calculatory
models and practical experience. The interim results. if available, should be listed
quantitatively, together with a verbal appraisal; if they are not available, then only
a verbal appraisal should be given. A group of experts in the field of landfill liners
should then make the decision on the permissibility of a certain liner for the specific
conditions at one specific site. The group of experts should be chaired by the authority
responsible for the construction of the landfill.'
A further possibility for evaluation, which he considers the simplest to apply and
the most practicable, given the present level of knowledge on how to describe the
matter or the feasibility of manufacture is quoted by Engelmann (1993): 'the standard
liner system of TA Abfall or TA Siedlungsabfall is thus taken as the given and
approvable system, and any liner system to be assessed differently is questioned
on the nature of its difference in a scientific 'quiz' .
In other words, the only problems considered will be those which lead to
divergencies from the standard liner system, both negative and positive. Any doubts
as to the equivalency (this must mean the sufficient effectiveness) in individual aspects
are to be removed or confirmed by quantitative and qualitative arguments, and to
be placed in perspective alongside the confirmed advantages. The overall view of
individual aspects concerning their short-term and long-term effects on the pollution
retention of the whole system eventually leads to confirmation of equivalency or
to its rejection.'
9 FINAL REMARKS
There is an urgent need for statements as to what is to be understood by landfill

liner systems, which are equivalent to the composite liners in accordance with TA
Abfall (1991) or TA Siedlungsabfall (1993).
Strictly speaking, equivalent means equally good. In the broader sense, equivalent
means sufficiently good .
The assessment of sufficiently good landfill liner systems makes it necessary
for hydrology assessment criteria (permissible pollutant transport) to be specified,
in which, of course, the characteristics of the geological barrier of a landfill may
also be taken into account.
If it is possible to take into account local or regional hydrology conditions, including
the characteristics of the geological barrier of a landfi!J, in deciding on sufficiently
good landfill liner systems, then it will not be possible to establish, on a Federally
standardized basis, which liner systems are sufficiently good, as these conditions
vary considerably throughout the country.
However, it is quite possible, and indeed urgently necessary, to establish Federally
standardized criteria for the assessment of equally good liner systems.
The call for the specification of hydrological criteria to establish whether landfill
liner systems are sufficiently good, is based not only on the requirements made in
the Water Conservation Act (Wasserhaushaltsgesetz), but also, in particular, on the
requirements of EC (European Community) directives. Here, above all, the EC directive
on the protection of groundwater (EWG 80/68 1979) should be mentioned, which,
together with the first general administrative regulation (on the Waste Management
Act) concerning requirements for the protection of groundwater when storing and
depositing waste (VwV AnSchGw 1990), has been adopted in Gennan law. The
technical interpretation of the EC Directive on Ground Water Protection and the
VwVAnSchGw (1990) frequently leads to very high demands being made on landfill
liners in Gennany.
REFERENCES
August., H. 1986. Untersuchungen zur Wirksamkeit von Kombinat.ionsdichtungen. Fehlau, Stief (eds)
Abfa/lwirtschaft in Forschung und Praxis Bd. 16 'Fortschrille der Deponietechnik 1986'. Stuttgart: Erich
Schmidt Verlag.
August, H. 1990. Neuere Forschungsergebnisse zur Sperrwirlrung von Kombinationsdichtungen filr Deponien.
Fehlau. Stief (eds) Abfa/lwirtsclwft in Forschung und Praxis. Bd. 16 'Fortschrine der Deponietechnik
1990'. Stuttgart: Erich Schmidt Verlag.
Collins. 1988. 1st eine Folie auf einer mineralischen Deponieabdichtung vertretbar? Mii/1 und Abfa/1. 20.
Jg.• Heft 8, p. 362.
Daniel, D. E. & Koerner, R. M. 1992. Landfill Liners from Top to Bottom. Civil Engineering. Dec. 1991,
pp. 46-49.
DGEG. 1990. Empfehlungen des Arbeitskreises 'Geotechnik der Deponien und Altlasten' · GDA. Deutsche
Gesellschaft filr Erd- und Grundbau e. V. (ed). Berlin: Ernst & Sohn.
Diillmann, H. 1993. Qualitiitssicherung bei Planung und Bau von Kombinationsdichtungen fiir Deponien.
Abfa/lwirtsclwft in Forschung und Praxis. Bd. 54 'Fortschritte der Deponietechnik 1992'. Fehlau. Stief
(eds), Stuttgart: Erich Schmidt Verlag.
Engelmann, B. 1993. Zur Bewertung der Gleichwertigkeit alt.emativer Deponieabdichtungssyst.eme. Ablagerung
von Siedlungsabflillen - Geologische Barriere Deponieabdichrungen Deponiebetrieb, Tagungsunterlagen
z:ur UTECH BERLIN '93, Seminar 08. FGU Berlin 30.
EWG 80/68. 1979. Richtlinie des Rates vom 17. Dezember 1979 tiber den Schutz des Grundwassers gegen
Verschmutzung durch bestirnmt.e gefahrliche Stoffe (80/68/EWG). Miil/handbuch. Kennzi.ffer 0274,65.
Lfg. V/82.
Finste!Walder, K. & Mann, U. 1990. Stofftransport durch mineralische Abdichtungen. Jessberger (ed) Berichte
vom 2. Deponie-Seminar, Bochum, 10. -JJ. Okt. /990: 209-221. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Hom, A. 1989. Mineralische Deponie-Aachendichtungen aus gemischt-komigen BOden. Bautechnik 66.
Heft 9 ( 1989). Berlin: Ernst & Sohn.
IWS. 1987. Symposium 'Die Deponie - ein Bauwerk'. lnstitut filr wassergefahrdende Stoffe an der Technischen
Universit.iit Berlin. IWS-Schriftenreihe 111987.
Jessberger, H. L., Omnich, K .. Finste!Walder, K. & Mann, U. 1993. Versuche und Berechnungen zum
Schadstofftransport durch rnineralische Abdichtungen und daraus resultierende Mat.erialentwicklungen.
BMFT-Verbundvorhaben 'Weiterentwicklung von Deponieabdichtungssystemen, BAM, Berlin, 2. Arbeiwagung
17.03-/9.03.1993.
Melchior, S., Berger, K., Vielhaber, B. & Miehlich, G. 1993. Ergebnisse der Langzeitlibe!Wachung von
Oberfliichenabd.ichtungssyst.emen auf der Deponie Georgswerder (Hamburg). Altlastensanierung 93, Beitriige
zum Vierten intemationalen TNO!Kfl< Kongress, Berlin, 3. -7. Mai 1993. London: Kluwer Academic
Publishers and BMFT· Verbundvorhaben 'Weiterentwicklung von Deponieabdichtungssystemen ·. BAM.
Berlin, 2. Arbeitstagung 17.-19. Miirz 1993.
Mock. J., von der Hude, N. & Jelinek, D. 1991. KapiUardichtungen filr Deponieoberflachenabdichtungssyst.eme.
Fehlau, Stief (eds), Abfallwirtsclwft in Forschung und Praxis. Bd. 47 'Fortschritte der Deponietechnik
1991'. Stuttgart: Erich Schmidt Verlag.
Ryser 1993. Erfahrungen mit der Planung und Herstellung von bitumi.isen Deponiebasisabdichtungen
(Asphaltbeton) in der Schweiz. Ablagerung von Siedlungsabfiil/en · Geologische Barriere. Deponieab
dichlungen, Deponiebetrieb. Tagungsunterlngen zur UTECH BERUN 93, Seminar 08. FGU Berlin 30
Schon ian, E. 1991. Aspha.ltbeton-Dichtungen im Deponiebau. Miill und Abfall 23. Heft I ( 1991 ): p. 12 and
Heft 3: p. 173.
TA Abfall. 1991. Gesamtfassung der zweiten aUgemeinen Verwaltungsvorschrift zum Abfallgesetz (TA
Abfall), Teil I: Technische Anlo:itung zur Lagerung, chemisch/pysikalischen, biologischen Behandluog,
Verbrennung und Ablagerung von besonders iibewachungsbediirftigen Abfallen vom 12. Man 1991,
GMBI, 42 Jg. (1991), Heft 8: p. 139. Ktiln : Carl Heymanns.
TA Siedlungsabfall. 1993. Dritte allgemeine Verwaltungsvorschrift zum Abfallgesetz, (T A Siedlungsabfall),
Technische Anleitung zur Verrneidung, Verwertung, Behandlung und sonstigen Entsorgung von
Siedlungsabfallen; Kabinettsbeschlull vom 27.08.1992, Buodesratsdrucksache 594/92 und Anderung des
Bundesrates vom 12.02.1993, Bundesratsdrucksache 594/1/92.
TV A. 1990. Technische Verordnung iiber Abfalle (TV A) vom I 0. Dez. 1990.
US EPA. 1989. Requirements for Hazardous Waste Landfill- Design, Construction. and Closure. Seminar
Publication . EPN625/4-89/022, August 1989, chapter 10, pp. 121-125.
VwV AnSchGw 1990. Erste Allgemeine Verwaltungsvorschrift liber Anforderungen zm Schutz des Grundwassers
bei der Lagerung und Ablagerung von Abfallen vom 31. Januar 1990. GMBJ: p. 74.
4 RECENT EVENTS
The popularity of GCLs continues to grow. Manufacturers continue to refine GCL

products with varying geosynthetic materials, GCL design, and attaching techniques.
The attempts to characterize the material in a comparative manner with CCLs will
continue. Many engineers are eager to apply GCLs in a setting where the GCL would
serve as a substitute to all or part of the CCL. Without performance data, these
substitutions have proven an uncomfortable situation for regulatory bodies within
the USA. In the critical application area of landfills, selection of an inappropriate
material is unacceptable, and pieces of the engineering puzzle remain to be fully
understood. It is clear that GCLs are a new material that cannot and will not possess
all of the engineering properties of traditional CCLs.Perhaps it is best to resist direct
comparison, an opt for a better definition for the role of GCL materials, fully taking
stock of the strengths and weaknesses of this exciting new product, and carefully
applying it in a way that enhances the performance of linings and covers.
5 CONCLUSION
GCL materials offer substantial potential benefits, yet as with any new engineering
material, some technical data gaps exist. US EPA is interested in the appropriate
application of these materials, and is assisting in the study of these materials for
use in landfills in the USA and around the world. When testing procedures mature,
accompanied with performance and technical data, the materials stand to gain more
acceptance in the engineering and regulatory community through better landfill
performance.
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research efforts of the manufacturers of GCLs, landfill owner/operators, Drexel

University, the Geosynthetic Research Institute, The University of Texas at Austin,
LandesgewerbeanstaJt Bayem and Umweltbundesamt are sincerely appreciated.
REFERENCES
Federal Register, Part D, Volume 56, Number 196, October 9, 1991, (codified as 40 CFR Parts 257 & 258)
United States EnvironmentaJ Protection Agency. 199Ia. Compilation of Information on Alternative Barriers
for Liner and Cover Systems. EPA 60012-911002. (NTIS P89/-14/846). Risk Reduction Engineering
Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio.
United States EnvironmentaJ Protection Agency. 199lb. Seminar Publication- Design and Construction
ofRCRA/CERCLA Final Covers, EPA/530/SW-9/1025. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory, Office
of Research and Development, Washington, DC.
United States EnvironmentaJ Protection Agency. 1993. Repon of Workshop on Geosynlhetic Clay Liners.
EPA/600/R-931171. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio.
RELATED PUBLICATIONS
United States EnvironmentaJ Protection Agency. 1985. Draft Minimum Technology Guidance on Double-Liner
US EPA experiences with geosyntheric clay liners 27
Systems for Landfills and Surface lmpoundments-Design, Consauction, and Operation. EPA/530-SW-85-014.
Office of Solid Waste, Washington, DC.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. 1989. Technical Gujdance Document: Final Covers on
Hazardous Waste Land !iUs and Surface Impoundments, EPA/530-SW-86-031. Office ofSolid Waste and
Emergency Response, Washington, DC.
mats) of 0.6 em thickness show hydraulic conductivity in the range of 10- 11 to

5 X 10- 12 m/s.
10 SUMMARY
Bentonite is a naturally occurring material with a high content of montmorillonite,

a clay mineral capable of swelling. Because of its high content of montmorillonite
and such associated qualities as a high capacity for swelling, ability to adsorb cations,
very low coefficient of permeability and diffusion coefficient, bentonite is particularly
suitable as a barrier material for landfills. Because of its greater swelling capacity
(superior gel formation), Na-bentonite generally has better rheological qualities than
Ca-bentonite. Bentonite's material characteristics are, in particular, dependent on
the quantitative amount and type of montmorillonite, on the structure which the
clay minerals form, on the density or porosity, and on the water content or degree
of saturation of the bentonite.
REFERENCES
Brindley, G. W. & Brown, G. 1984. Crystal Structures of Clay Minerals and their X-ray Identification,
Mineralogical Society Monograph No. 5, Mineralogical Society, Lnrulon, pp. 495 .
Bucher, F. & Spiegel U. 1984. QueUdruck von hochverdichteten Bentoniten, Nagra Technischer Bericht
NTB 84-18, Nationale Genossenschaft ftir die Lngerung radioaktiver Abfolle, 5401 Baden, Schweiz,
pp. 53.
Demberg, W. 1991 . Ober die Ermittlung des Wasseraufnahmevermogens feinkomiger BOden mit dem Geriit
nach Enslin/Neff, Geotechnik I 4, pp. 125-131.
Derian, L., Gharias, K. M., Kavazanjian, E. & Snow, M.S. 1993. Geosynthetics Conquer the Landfill Law,
Civil Engineering, Dec. 1993. pp. 50-53.
International Society of Rock Mechanics, Commission on Swelling Rock and Work.ing Group on Swelling
Rock of the Commission on Testing Methods. Suggested Methods for Laboratory Testing of Argillaceous
Swelling Rocks. 1989. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., Vol 26. No. 5, pp. 415-425.
Jasmund, K. & Lagaly, G. (eds.). 1993. Tonminerale and Tone, Steinkopff Verlag Darmstadt, pp. 490.
Kruse, K. 1993. Die Adsorption von Schwermetallen an verschieden Tonen, lnstitut ftir Geotechnik, ETH
Ziirich, Band 203, 2/93 pp. 102.
Lambe, T. W. & Whitman. R. 1969. Soil Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, pp. 553.
Madsen F. T. & Kahr, G. 1993a. Wasserdampfadsorption und spezifische OberfUiche von Tonen. Bei-lriige
zur Jahrestagung Hannover 1992. Bericht der Deutschen Ton- und Tonmineralgruppe e. V., DTTG 1993.
pp. 165-179.
Madsen F. T. & Kahr. G. 1993b. Diffusion of Ions in Compacted Bentonite, Proceedings ofthe lntemationl
Conference on Nuclear Wast Management and Environmental RemedilJtion, Prag, Sept 1993. pp. 229-246.
Madsen, F. T.& Miiller-Vonmoos, M. 1985. Swelling Pressure Calculated from Mineralogical Properties
of a Jurassic Opalinum Shal, Switzerland, Clays and Clay Minerals, Vol. 33. No. 6, pp. 501-509.
Madsen F. T. & MiiUer-Vonmoss, M. 1989. The Swelling Behaviour of Clay, Applied Clay Science, 4,
pp. 143-156.
Madsen, F. T. & Niiesch R. 1990. Langzeitquellverhalten von Tongesteinen und tonigen Sulfatgesteinen,
Beitriige wr Geologie der Schweiz. Geotechnische Serie, /990, pp. 72.
Mitchell, J. K. 1993. Fundamentals of Soil Behaviour, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons. New Y ork, pp.
437.
Miiller-Vonmoos. M. & Uiken, T. 1989. The Shearing Behaviour of Clays, Applied Clay Science. 4, pp.
125-141.
PIUss. A. 1993. Charakterisierung von Rauchgasreinigungsriickstlinden aus Miillverbrennungsanlagen und
deren lmmobilisierung von Tonmineralien, lnstitut ftir Geotechnik, ETH ZUrich, Band 205, 4/93, pp.
166.
Characteristics and sealing effect ofbentonites 49
Schuster, P. 1986. Experirnentelle Untersuchungen tiber das Verhalten von Silt-Sand-Fraktionen, die mit
quellfahigem Ton vergiitet werden, Mirteilungen des lnslilutes ftJr Grundhau und Bodenmechanik. ETH
ZUrich, No. I 31, pp. 227.
Stock.meyer, M. R. 1993. Organophile Bentonite als Komponente in Deponiebarriere-Systemen, lnstitutfur
Geotechnik, ETH ZUrich, Band 202, 1/93, pp. I 14.
Properties and test methods to assess bentonite used in geosynthetic clay liners 71
(conductivity 2000 J.IS/cm), it is recommended that GCLs are allowed to preswell

with soft water until they have achieved their full swelling volume.
If sealing elements are required for concentrated electrolytic (salt) solutions and
leaching solutions, diluted and concentrated acids, pure (concentrated) organic materials,
or for high concentrations of individual, selectively adsorbable inorganic and organic
cations, other methods than the use of GCLs should be selected. However, such
high concentrations of chemicals and chemical mixtures are rare in practice. In the
writer's opinion. the essential aspect for the later, long-term permeability is the optimal
development of a dense, disperse structure of bentonite with the first swelling of
the bentonite liner after its installation.
REFERENCES
DIN 18121. 1976. Wassergehalt, Berlin, Beuth Verlag.

DIN 18128. 1990. Kalkgehaltsbestimmung, Berlin, Beuth Verlag.
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Berlin, Beuth Verlag.
AGK. 1988189. Quellverhalten von Bentoniten im Yergleich, Laboruntersuchungen (unpublished).
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nach Enslin/Neff, Geotechnik 14, pp. 131-138.
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und Altlasten" - GOA, 2. Aujlage. Berlin, Ernst & Sohn.
Egloffstein, Th. 1993. Yerhalten von Tonen, insbesondere von Bentoniten, im Kontakt m.it Schadstoffiti ungen
und Sickerwiissem, Literaturstudie im Auftrag der Fa. Naue Fasenechnik, Liibbecke (unpublished).
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(Laborversuche), Diplomarbeit Univ. Karlsruhe (unpublished).
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technologische Eigenschaften von Bentoniten im schweizerischen Molassebecken, Beitrage z.ur Geologie
der Schweiz:. Geotechnische Serie, Lieferung 54.
Jasmund, K. & Lagaly, G. [Editors] 1993. Tonminerale und Tone, Struktur, Eigenschaften, Anwendung
und Einsatz in lndustrie und Umwelt, Darmstadt. Steinkopff-Verlag.
Koch, D. 1994. Bentonitvergiitete Abdichnmgen, VOl Seminar 'Alternative Abdichtungssysteme irn Deponiebau
und in der Altlastensicherung' am 17.118.02.1994 in Karlsruhe. Schriftenreihe Angewandte Geologie
Karlsruhe, Band 30.
Kohler E. & Martiani, G. 1984. Bewertung des Tonbarrierekonzepts unter besonderer Berticksichligung
der PenneabiliUit und der chernischen Reaktionen zwischen Tonmineralen, - Literaturstudie -
Forschungsberichl 102 03 409101. Umweltbundesamt.
Lagaly, G. 1988. Grundziige des rheologischen Verhaltens wlissrigerTonmineraldispersionen, Mill. des Inst.
for Grundbau und Bodenmechanik /33. ETH Ziirich.
Madsen, F. T. & Mitchell, J. I(_ 1989. Chemical Effects on Clay Hydraulic Conductivity and their Determination,
Mill. des Ins/. fiir Giundbau und Bodenmechanik 135, ETH Ziirich.
Mitchell, J. K. 1976. Fundamentals of Soil Behaviour, John Wiley & Sons Inc., Nt!W York.
Miiller-Vonmoos & Kahr, G. 1982. Bereitstellung von Betoniten fur Laboruntersuchungen,/nstitu/for Grundbau
und Bodenmechanik, ETH Zurich, April 1982, NAGRA, Technischer Bericht 82-04.
Outhwait, 1. G. & Morgan A. D. 1972. Methylen-blue test for detennination of active clay content in a green
moulding sand, Fondry Tr. 1. 13312907. pp. 203-209.
Reuter, E. 1988. Durchlassigkeitsverhalten von Tonen gegeniiber anorganischen und organischen Sauren,
Mill. des Ins/. fiir Grundbau und Bodenmechanik, Technische Universitiil Braunschweig, Heft No.26.
Scheffer & Schachtschabel. 1992. Lehrbuch der Bodenkunde, 13. Auflage. Stuttgan, Enke Verlag.
Schlaginweit, F. 1992. Die Wechselwirkung kationischer Tenside mit Tonmineralien und ihre Relevanz ftir
die Langzeitstabilitat von Deponieabdichtungen, Beilriige zur Abdichtung von Deponien, Schriftreihe
des Ba_verischen Landesamtes for Umweltschutz. Heft 120.
Stockmeyer, M. R. 1990. Adsorption organischer Substanzen an organophilen Bentoniten, Z dt. geol. Ges.
141, 1990, pp. 445-451.
Ustrich, E. 1991. Geochemische Untersuchungen zur Bewertung der DauerbesUindigkeit mineralischer
Abdichtungen in Altlasten und Deponien, Geo/ogisches Jahrbuch, Reihe C, Heft 57. E. Schweizerbart,
Stutlgart.
Wagner, J. F. & Egloffstein, Th. 1990. Advective and/or Diffusive Transport of Heavy Metals in Clay Liners, -
Proc. 6th Int. Congr. Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol., Amsterdam, 2, 1483-1490, Rotterdam (Balkema).
Walzenbach, J. 1991. Mineralole in Locker- und Festgesteinen, Schriftenreihe Angewandte Geologie Karlsruhe,
Band 12.
Weiss, A. 1988. Ober die Abdichtung von Miilldeponien mit Tonen und besonderer Berticksichtigung des
Einflusses organischer Bestandteile im Sickerwasser, Mill. des lnst. fur Grundbau und Bodenmechanik
133, ETH Ziirich.
Zeiger, F. G . 1993. Bestandigkeit von tonigen Deponieabdichtungen im Kontakt mit Deponiesickerwasser
und organischen Deponieabdichtungen, Schriftenreihe Angt!Wandte Geologie Karlsruhe, Band 24.
REFERENCES
Boardman. B. T. 1993. The Potential Use of Geosynthetic Clay Liners as Final Covers in Arid Regions,
MS Thesis. Universiry of Texas, Austin, Texas.
Byrne, R. J .•Kendall, J. & Brown. S. 1992. Cause and Mechanism of Failure of Landfill B-19, Phase Ia,
Kettleman Hills Facility, Kettleman City, Proc. ASCE Conf. on Stabiliry and Performance of Slopes
and Embankmems II, Beruley, CA. pp. 1-23.
Daniel, D. E. 1987. Earthen Liners for Land Disposal Facilities, Proceedings. Geotechnical Practice for
Waste Disposal, Univ. of Michigan, ASCE, June. pp. 21-39.
Daniel, D. E. 1993. Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCLs) in Landfill Covers, Proceedings SWANA Conference,
San Jose, CA.
Daniel, D. E. & Boardman, B. T. 1993. Report on Workshop on Geosynlhetic Clay Liners, US Environmental
Protection Agency, EPA/600/R-93/171, August 1993.
Daniel, D. E. & Koerner, R_ M. 1993. Quality Assurance and Quality Control for Waste Containment Facilities,
US Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/600/R-931182, September 1993.
Daniel, D. E .• Shan. H.-Y. & Anderson, J. D. 1993. Effects of Partial Wetting on the Performance of the
Bentonite Component of a Geosynthetic Clay Liner, Proceedings, Geosynthetics '93, Vancouver, B.C.,
/FA/ Publ., pp. 1483-1496.
Estomell, P. & Daniel D. E. 1992. Hydraulic Conductivity of Three Geosynthetic Clay Liners, JounuJi. of
Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 1/8, No. 10, pp. 1592-1606.
Fahim. A & Koerner. R_ M. 1993. A Survey of Stal.e Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Linec and Cover Systems,
GRI Report#//, August 10, 1993.
Goldman, L. J.. Greenfield, L. 1., Damle, A. S., Kingsburg, G. L .. Northein, C.M. & Truesdale, R. S. 1988.
Design. Corulnletion and Evaluation of Clay Liners for Waste Management Facilities, EPA/530-SW..f36.aJ7-F,
Cincinnati, OH, November.
Hatpur. W. A., Wilson-Fahmy, R. F. & Koerner, R. M. 1993. Evaluation of the Contact Between Geosynlhetic
Clay Liners and Geomembranes in Terms of Transmissivity, Proceedings 7th GRJ Conference on
Geosynthetic Liners Systems: Innovations, Concerns and Design, !FA/, St. Paul, MN, pp. 138-149.
Kim. W. H. & Daniel. D. E. 1992. Effects of Freezing on the Hydraulic Conductivity of a Compacted Clay,
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. /J8, No. 7, pp. 1083-1097.
Koerner, R. M. & Narejo, D. 1995. On the Bearing Capacity of Hydrated GCLs, Tech. Note, ASCE, Journal
of Geotechnical Engineering Division, January, Vol. 121, No. I
LaGatta, M . D. 1992. Hydraulic Conductivity Tests on Geosynthetic Clay Liners Subjected to Differential
Settlement, M.S. Thesis, Universily of Texas, Austin, Texas, 1992, [also see l...andjill and Swface Jmpoundmenl
Performance Evaluation Manual, U.S. EPA SW-869, Technical Resource Document, Cincinnati, OH.
April).
Madsen, F. & Ntiesch, R. 1995. Characteristics and Sealing Effect of Bentonites. (these Proceedings).
Rogowski., A. S. 1990. Relalionship of Labora10ry and Field Determined Hydraulic Conductivity in Compacted
Clay liners. EPA/60012-90/025, Cincinnati, OH, June.
US EPA. 1986. Saru.rated Hydraulic Conductivity. Saturated Leachate Conductivity and Intrinsic Permeability.
EPA Method 9/00, Cincinnati, OH.
Basic examination on the effteiency ofGCL.s 111
results are not yet available, some important conclusions for practical use may be
drawn from the examinations and observations at the test site.
GCLs are not only to be installed in a dry state; it should also be ensured that
the fill material is compressed, even if the liner has not yet hydrated. At the present
state of knowledge, with further, purely static load, the above-mentioned grain criteria
for the fill material may be used. With the installation of a protective geotextile,
an additional buffer effect may be achieved.
Should there also be dynamic load from construction site traffic, in particular
in the case of intensive earthwork engineering, an extra protective geotextile will
be disadvantageous, as its open-pore structure considerably reinforces the bentonite's
loss of mass. The minimum covering depth of the GCL, of 70 to 80 em under such
load conditions, is to be observed.
10 SUMMARY
Examinations carried out in recent years confirm the basic suitability of GCLs for
various applications in earthwork. road construction, hydraulic engineering and landfiiJ
construction. This does not, however, exempt authorizing bodies from their
responsibility to test the suitability of this new sealing element for individual cases,
and, if necessary, to have additional examinations carried out.
REFERENCES
Bartels. K ..Scheu, C.& JohannBen, K. 1988. Ein neues Dichtungssystem in Sandwichbauwe ise aus Bentorut
und mechanisch verfestiglen Vliesstoffen. / . Kongreft Kunststoffe in der Geotechnik. Hamburg /988.
S. 193-202, Eigenverlag Deutsche Gese/lschaft for Erd- und Grundbau e. V., Essen.
Daniel. D. E., Sban, H.- Y. & Anderson, J. D. 1993. Effects of Partial Wetting on lhe Performance of the
Bentonite Component of a Geosynlhetic Clay Liner. Geosynthetics '93. Van couver, Canada /993. pp.
1483-1496.
Floss, R. & Heyer, D. 1989-1994. Priijberichte des Priifamts for Grurulbau, Bode~chanik und Felsmechanik
der TU Miinchen und Gutachten mit der Projekt-Nr. 9926 im Auftrag der NAUE-Fasen echnik GmbH
& Co. KG, mit der Proj.-Nr. 7200 im Auftrag der Flughafen Miinchen GmbH, mit der Proj.-Nr. /0373
imAuftrag der Bauleitung Wangen des Aurobahnbetriebsamtes Heidenheim und mit der Proj.-Nr. 10429
im Auftrag der OBAG. (unpublished).
Heyer, D. 1991. Die Prtifung der Durchlassigk.eit mineralischer Dichrungsstoffe. 7. Nurnberger Deponieseminar,
Geotechnische Probltme beim Bau von Abfalldeponien. Niimberg 1991. Heft 59, pp. 147-164, Eigenverlag
Landesgewerbeanslall Bayem.
Heyer, D. & Ross. R. 1993. Suitability Tests for a Composite Sealing Mat made of Geotextil.e s and Bentonite.
Proceedings Sardinia 93. Founh International Lnndfill Symposium, S. Margherita di Pula. Cagliari. Italy.
11.-15. Oct. /993. pp. 389-396
Schmidt, R. & Heyer, D. 1993. Grundwasserschutz mil Bentonitdichtungsmanen bei SrraBen in
Wassergewinnungsgebieten am Beispiel der A % in Baden-Wi.irttemberg. 3. Jnfonnarions- und
Vomagsveranstaltung iiber 'Kunststoffe in der Gtotechnik', Miinchen. 15.-16.03.93. Geo!echnik. Sonderheft
1993, pp. 35-39
Guidelines on the use ofliners in highway construction 127
• The slope incline is flattened by raising the road ditch.

• In the case of steeper slopes, the naturally available soil is replaced by seaJing
materiaJ (silt moraine) that is naturaJly more stable. A protective layer is placed
on top. The grass topsoil is fixed using geotextiles or a geogrid.
• Where possible, a liner seal is at top of inner slope, and geomembrane is below
the GCL. Terraces are used, where required, to prevent the shoulder seaJ slipping
on the thin geomemebrane.
• By extending the excavation, it is possible to flatten the upper area of the inner
shoulder and the lower area of the outer (opposite) shoulder.
• The naturaJly a vailable soil is replaced by soil liner material. A protective
layer is placed on top.
• Where possible, a liner seaJ is at the top of inner slope, and a geomembrane
is below the mineraJ grain sealing layer.
• A 0.3 m excavation is removed from the slope. A bitumenised geotextile is
installed on the stone-free subgrade, with 0.25 m of broken stones and a 0 .0 5 m
thick bitumen or bitumen emulsion covering layer above it.
• Cracks in the rock are filled with shotcrete or similar.
• Installation of a liner on an existing slope.
• Drainage ditch for surface water, with reserve for sludge settling.
• Drainage to collect surface water. The ditch is sealed at sides and base with
geomembrane. The drainage pipe is bedded in drainage gravel. A coarse sand layer
is placed on top.
6 SUMMARY
This paper illustrates the extreme care taken in Finland against accidentaJ spills of
chemicaJs and deicing salts entering the groundwater adjacent to roadways. Various
schemes of protection are required. Clearly, GCLs are used in many of these schemes
and they are actuaJly required by regulations. In this regard Finland is a leader in
the use of innovative methods for groundwater protection in transportation applications.
REFERENCES
Ehrola, F. 1981 . Running off the road. A study ofcar encroachment accidents and road conditions in Finland
in 1971-1975, University ofOulu, Series C: 19. 144 pp. (Finnish+ english Abstract and Figure texts).
Oulu.
Ralhmayer H. & Juvankoski, M. 1993. Validity of geosynlhetic clay liners and geomembranes for groundwater
at roads. Investigations and recommendations. Helsinki. Finnish National Road Administration.. Research
report 26/1993. 83 pp. (Finnish + english Abstract).
Pohjaveden soujaus lien kohdalla (Protection of groundwater at roads . 1991. Helsinki. Finnish National
Road Administration.. Guidelines. 32 pp. (in Finnish).
Rathmayer H. & Juvankoski, M. 1993. Geomembranes- function and selection criteria. Helsinki. Publications
of the Water and Environment Administration - series A 153, 82 pp. (Finnish +english Abstract).
of the century. Originally, the waste was covered with site soils which comprised
small to medium sized river cobbles.
Because the site had no hazardous waste, the closure requirements according to
the California state regulations were simply a l m thick compacted clay liner with
permeability of l x lo-s m/s. However, because there was no clay of this quality
available for over 200 km, the owner decided to submit an alternative final cover
system comprising a GCL as the barrier layer.
After evaluating the permeability data of the GCL as well as a HELP model analysis
that indicated the flow through the alternative capping system would be one-tenth
the flow through the traditional cap, the California regulators approved the use of
the GCL. The shear strength of the GCL was also evaluated because side slopes
on parts of the landfill were 3H : IV.
The GCL was installed on a 150 mm thick operating cover of reprocessed roofmg
shingles. This material met all the specifications regarding the operational cover
soil and had the added advantage of being easily compacted. A 0.3 m thick layer
of the same material was used as cover soil immediately over the liner. The final
cover layer consisted of cobbles 100 mm or less in diameter.
The installation of the liner was an especially smooth operation. The contractor
was able to install up to 8,700 m 2 of GCL per day. This rapid installation rate signifi
cantly reduced the construction time and expense as compared to the construction
of a traditional CCL.
5 SUMMARY
This paper has presented an overview of GCL use in landfill capping systems.
Furthermore, it focused on and described many aspects of the midplane shear strength
which is of vital concern when GCLs are placed on steeply sloping landfill covers.
Two successful installations of this particular GCL for landfill capping systems are
described in the paper. It is felt by the writer that GCLs provide an excellent choice
as a liquid barrier material in the capping and closure of landfills.
REFERENCES
Boardman, B. T. 1993. The Potential Use of Geosynthetic Clay Liners as Final Covers in Arid Regions,
M. S. Thesis, University of Te,.as: Austin.
Daniel, D. E. & Koerner, R. M. 1992. Geotechnical Aspects of Waste Disposal, Chapman & Hall, London,
England: Chapter 18.
Fuller, J. M. 1994. Comparison of Internal Shear Strength of Stitch Bonded and Needlepunched GC1s, James
Clem Corporation Testing Report T-940/, Fairmount, GA.
GeoServices Inc. 1988. Clayma"' Liner Freeze-Thaw Hydraulic Conductivity Tests, Atlanta, GA.
GeoSyntec Consultants. 1992. Final Report Interfaced Direct Shear Testing Select Oaymax SbearPro Bentonite
Composite Interfaces, Atlanta, GA.
Koerner, R. M. 1990. Designing with Geosynthetics, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp. 425-427.
Koerner, R. M. & Daniel, D. E. 1993. Technical Equivalency Assessment of GCLs to
CCLs, Proceedings of the 7th Geosynthetics Research Institute Conference, pp. 255-275.
LaGatta, M.D. 1992. Hydraulic Conductivity Tests on Geosynthetic Clay Liners Subjected to Differential
Settlement, M. S. Thesis, University of Te"'as at Austin.
Schroeder, P. R. 1989. Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance (HELP) Computer Program, US
Army Corps of Engineers' Waterways E"'periment Station, Environmental Laboratory, Vicksburg, MS.
Shan, H.-Y. 1990. Laboratory Tests on Bentonitic Blanket, M.S. Thesis, University of Texas at Austin.
On the long-term shear behaviour ofgeosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) 149
of the soil covering and slope inclination. A peel strength of Fv.""' ~ 16.7 N/10 em
is for example required for a soil covering of h = 1.25 m (a= h x y = 1.25 m x
20 kN/m 3 = 25 kPa), which is common for capping sealing systems, and a slope
inclination of 2 : l. As mentioned above the minimum peel strength laid down for
a needle-punched GCL in the quality assurance programme is Fv 2 60 N/10 em
(approx. 3.5-fold safety factor). To estimate the long-term performance of this common
case a long-term tilt-table test with slope inclination 2 : 1, cr = 25 kPa and Fv =
60 N/10 em should be carried out. ln order to accelerate the end of the test, the
peel strength was reduced to Fv = 30 N/10 em by maintaining the other test conditions,
although a higher value is guaranteed due to the production technique. This test
results in a safety factor of 1.8. Nearly no sliding had occurred in the tilt-table test
at the time this paper was printed (7500 hours = 0.85 years had elapsed). The above
mentioned evaluations are thus confirmed.
At low normal stresses, as for instance in case of a landfill capping seal, a safe
transmission of the shear stress on a long-term basis can be proven for needle-punched
GCLs without difficulties, even in undrained condition of the bentonite layer. The
undrained condition should be taken into consideration since the mentioned loadings
can quickly occur during the earthworks.
In case of high loads, as for instance for a landfill base seal, the loads which
have to be considered for project-related reasons (loads resulting from the waste)
will increase, however, step-by-step over a longer period; the shear coefficients in
drained and/or undrained condition have specifically to be determined and considered
for the stability of the structure. ln the drained condition, considerable shear stresses
can also be transmitted by the bentonite layer together with the fibre reinforcement.
5 SUMMARY
GCLs used in landfill capping applications are often placed on steep slopes. Under
such conditions the long-term shear strength of the mid-plane is an important design
consideration. Under worst case assumptions, the GCL will be in a hydrated state
under low normal stress.
This paper has investigated the condition described above from an analytic
perspective using the concept of partial factors of safety. Stitch bonded GCLs were
compared to needle punched GCLs. Thus a design methodology has been presented
for a long-term assessment.
REFERENCES
Heenen, G. 1994. Geotextile Dichtungselemente als mineralische Kompom:nte in OberfUichenahdichtungen.

10. Fachragung 'Die sichere Deponie ·, SKZ Wiir:;burg: pp. 141-170 (in Gennan).
Heenen, G., Saathoff, F., Scheu, C. & von Maubeuge, K. 1994. Ober das Langzeitscherverhalten von
geosynthetischen Tondichtungsbahnen in OberfHichendjchtungssystemen. Veroffenrlichungtm des LGA
Grundbauinsrirurs. Heft 71: pp. 177-183 (in Gennan).
Saathoff, F. 1991. Geolrunststoffe in Dichtungssystemen. Miueilungen des FRANZIUS-Jnsritutsfiir Wasserba.u
und Kiisreningenieurwesen der Universittit Hannover. Heft 72: pp. 1-3 16 (in Gennan).
Saathoff, F. & Ehrenberg, H. 1992. Dichtung von der Rolle. Baumaschinendienst. Heft 9: pp. 848-856 (in
Gennan).
Saathoff, F. & Heenen, G. 1994. Geosynthetic Clay Liners in Capping Sealing Systems. Geosynthe tic World.
April 1994: pp. 18-19 & 23.
Scheu, C., JohannSen, K. & Saathoff. F. 1990. Non-Woven Bentonite Fabrics- A new Fibre Reinforced
Mineral Liner System. Proc. of the 4"' International Conference on Geotextiles, Geomembranes and
Related Products, The Hague. Vol. 2: pp. 467-472.
5.3 System lll
The situation for System m

may be interpreted in a sirrular way to that of System
IT. Neglecting adhesion, the critical shear plane would be between the bottom of
the geocomposite and the top of the stitch-bonded GCL.
The safety factor of 0.97 would not be sufficient. However, as with System II,
the safety factor with adhesion (TJ = 2.00) is sufficient. Here again, this results in
the critical shear plane being between the GCL and the geomembrane (TJ = 1.32
< 2.00). The safety in this 'new' critical shear plane is, however, sufficient (TJ =
1.32 > 1.30). A tensile stress of the geomembrane is not to be expected (TJt/TJ, =
=
1.77/1.32 1.3).
6 MEASURES FOR STEEPER SLOPES
If System [ has to be installed on slopes steeper than 1 (v) : 2.5 (h), stability may
be achieved by the use of a geogrid reinforcement of the layers above the critical
shear plane. This also applies to Systems II and ill in the case of slopes steeper
than I (v) : 3 (h).
Considerations and design approaches for such reinforcements are to be found
in Kirschner (1993) and Alexiew (1994).
7 SUMMARY
This paper has been focused on the mid-plane shear strength of hydrated GCLs.
Even further a complete system of different geosynthetic interfaces has been evaluated.
It is felt by the writers that investigations such as presented herein are necessary
for most landfill capping systems and are espcially important as the slope angle
increases. Insight into this situation was also presented.
REFERENCES
Alexiew, D. I994. Bemessung geotextiler Bewehrungselemente fiir Dichtungssysteme auf geneigtcn Flachen.
10. Fachtagang Die sichere Deponie. Wiirzburg: SKZ.
DIN 4084. 19!11. Geliinde· and Boschungsbruchberechnangen. Berlin: Beulh Verlag.
EAU. 1990. Empfehlungen des Arbeitsausschusses 'Ufereinfassangen, Hafen and Wasserstraflen'.Berlin:
Ernst & Sohn.
GLR. 1993. Geotechnics ofLandfill Design and Remedial Works· Technical Recommendations- Gil?. Berlin:
Ernst & Sohn.
IGrschner, R. 1993. Zur Bemessung von Geoginern fur die Bewehrung von Deponieabdicntungssystemen
auf Biisctmngen. Lehrgang Nr. 17469 Geokanststoffe im Deponiebaa, Esslingen: TA.
Kreit, V. 1995. Test Field for Lhe Capping System of the Michelshiihe Landfill. In Koerner, R. M., Gartung,
E. & Zanzinger, H. (eds), Geosynthetic Clay Liners. Rotterdam: Balkema.
TA Siedlungsabfall. 1993. Drilte Allgemeine Vem•altangsvorschrift vmr Abfallgesetz. Cologne: Bundesanzeiger.
Weiss, W. & Siegmund, M. 1993. Einsatz von NaBcnto-Dichtungsmanen zur Oberfliichenabdichtung von
Altdeponien. Versachsbericht Nr. 7193. Hochschale for Archirekrur and Baawesen Weimar and MFPA -
Thiiringen, Weimar. (unpublished).
Weiss, W., Siegmund, M. & Alexiew, D. 1995. Field Performance of a GCL Landfill Capping System under
Simulated Waste Subsidence. 5th Nonh American Regional Conference on Geosynthetics - Geosynrhetics
'95. Nashville. Tennessee (to be published in February '95).
seepage through this system which is sealed towards the groundwater. The sealing
of the IDS is carried out with a needle-punched geosynthetic clay liner (GCL).
This paper described the installation of approx. 700,000 m 2 of GCL, including
the technique carried out with regard to overlaps and connections. Comparative tests
performed in the lab and in the field have shown the effectiveness of the sealing
bentonite layer. The detailed work, carefully carried out by the 'Institut fur Grundbau,
Bodenmechanik und Felsmechanik der Technischen Universitat Mi.inchen', was
necessary for meaningful field measurements. The documentation of water level
measurements in the operating decomposition system confirmed the effectiveness
of the solution.
REFERENCES
Gruber. N., Aoss. R. & Schmidt. H. 1992. Bau des neuen Aughafens Miinchen - Hydrogeologische und
griindungstechnische Besonderheiten. Sonderdruck aus Vortriige der Baugrundtagung /992, Dresden.
Heerten, G. 1994. Geotextile Dichtungselemente als mineralische Komponente in OberfUichenabdichtungen.
/0. Fachlagung 'Die sichere Deponie'. Wiin.burg, 24.125. Februar 1994. S. 141 - 170.
Heerten, G . 1992. Oberfllichenabdichtung von Deponien mit Drlinschichten aus Kunststoffwirrgelegen und
Bentonitmatten als Dichtungselemente. 2. Kongre.P Kunststoffe in der Geotechnik, Lull!m. Schweill!rischer
Verband der Geotextilfach/eute, St. Gallen, /992.
Heyer, D. 1992. Eignungsuntersuchungen fur ein Verbunddichtungssystem aus Geotextilien und Bentonit.
2. Kongre.P Kunststoffe in der Geotechnik, Luzem, Schweill!rischer Verband der Geotextilfachleute, St.
Gallen, /992.
Saathoff, F. & Ehrenberg, H. 1992. Dichtung von der Rolle. Baumaschinendienst. Heft 9. 1992.
Saathoff. F. & Scheu, C. 1992. Zum Einsatz von Geotexlilien im Deponiebau. Abfallwirtschaftsjoumal.
Heft 4, 1992.
Schababerle, R., Wagner, J.-F. & Czurda, K.A. 1988. Der EinfluB von Frost-Tau-Zyklen auf das Gefiige
von Ton. Tone in der Umwelttechnilc. Jahrestagung der DeuJschen Ton- und Tonmineralgruppe in Karlsruhe.
Lehrstuhl Angewandte Geologie, Universitlil Karlsruhe, 1988.
Design and insrallation ofa State-of-the-art landfill liner system 181
geomembrane. The slip sheet is temporaly placed over the GCL, such that the
geomembrane can be unrolled and repositioned far more easily than if it were in
direct contact with the GCL. After the textured membrane has been positioned and
welded, the slip sheet is pulled out of the interface and placed over the adjacent
GCL, where the process is repeated.
When a GCL is placed over a geomembrane, the primary concern is to do so
in a manner that does not threaten the integrity of the geomembrane. Succesful
installation experience with this type of liner system has been demonstrated in the
U.S., where a needlepunched GCL was placed over a 2 nun HOPE membrane using
a front-end loader that employed the 'Moving Roll Pull' technique but moved forward
instead of backward as the roll was deployed. In this manner, the front end loader
contacted the GCL rather than the geomembrane. Although this technique is not
recommended for other types of applications, this project did demonstrate that the
needlepunched GCL was sufficiently rugged to withstand direct equipment contact.
4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
GCLs have many desirable attributes, but they must be carefully evaluated for their
interactions with other liner system components, both during design and during
installation. All of these factors are important when evaluating the potential substitution
of a GCL for a CCL in a given liner system design. When properly designed and
installed, GeLs have proven to be extremely effective. There is new field performance
data available from two solid waste landfills in the U.S. where GCLs are the primary
clay components of double composite liner systems (one of the systems is depicted
in Figure 1). The data indicates that the GCUgeomembrane composite is essentially
not leaking, as flow rates in the LOS of each facility are too low to measure at this
time. These encouraging results clearly indicate that GCLs are viable options for
modern landfill liners and can function as well or better than CCLs when the proper
design and installation issues are evaluated.
REFERENCES
Harpur, et al. 1993. Evaluation of the Contact Between Geosynthetic Clay Liners and Geomembranes in
Tenns of Transmissivity. Proceedings of the 7th GRJ Seminar, PhiUuielphia. 138-159 pp.
Heerten. G. 1993. Geotexlile and/or GCL Protection Systems for Geomembranes. Proceedings of the 7th
GRI Seminar, Philadelphia. 150-162 pp.
Koerner, R. M. & Najero, D. 1995. On lhe Bearing Capacity of Hydrated Geosynlhetic Clay Liners, Tech.
Notes, ASCE, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Dw., Vol. 121, No. I. January
National Seal Research Center. 1992. Hydraulic TraJJSmissivity Testing. NSC Research Project No. 91163
REFERENCES
TA Siedlungsabfall 1993. Drine Allgemeine Verwai/Ungn•orschrift zum Abfallgeserz. Cologne: Bundesanzeiger.

Weiss, W. & Siegmund, M. 1993. Einsatz von NaBento-Dichtungsmatten zur OberfHichenabdichtung von
Altdeponien. Versuchsbericht Nr. 7193. Hochschule fiir Architelaur und Bauwesen Weimar und MFPA -
Thiiringen, Weimar. (unpublished).
Capping landfill surfaces and contaminated areas with geomembrane 197
Supported GCL to ensure proper deployment and transfer of tensile stresses to the
textured HDPE backing.
5.2 Installation bentonite side up (HDPE side facing down) with an overlying
geomembrane
An additional installation application of the Geomembrane Supported GCL which

maximizes slope stability is deployment with the textured geomembrane downward,
against the subgrade, with a separate overlying geomembrane. This triple barrier
lining system sandwiches the bentonite between two geoembranes thus minimizing
the possibility of bentonite wetting from both above and below the bentonite layer.
By providing a mechanism for the bentonite to remain dry, this design offers maximum
long term slope stability and performance of a cap or liner system.
As with the Geomembrane Supported GCL deployed bentonite side down, slope
stability analysis should be performed for the triple barrier design at each interface.
With the added geomembrane to prevent bentonite hydration, the friction resistance
at the interface between the overlying textured geomembrane and dry bentonite is
approximately 30°. The separate geomembrane is installed directly over the bentonite
layer and subsequently welded to eliminate leakage at seams and to prevent migration
of water into the GCL layer and minimizing bentonite hydration (Daniel l992b).
Although the GCL and overlying geomembrane design is more complex than
deploying only the Geomembrane Supported GCL, this cap system offers a technical
solution and the greatest guarantee for long term performance on slopes.
6 CONCLUSIONS
With increasing environmental regulation and focus on improved and economical

solutions, the Geomembrane Supported GCL offers an innovative alternative to
conventional cap systems and compacted soil covers. The product combines high
grade sodium bentonite with a geomembrane backing, functioning as a composite
self sealing liner. In 1993, the product was effectively utilized to cap a contaminated
site near Witten-Herbede, the ftrst Geomembrane Clay Liner installation in Germany.
By providing two barriers in one product, the Geomembrane Supported GCL
can be utilized as a one product cap liner or installed in conjunction with an overlying
geomembrane to form a three barrier composite cap system.
REFERENCES
Advanced Soil Testing and Engineering NV (ASTE). 1992. Report Concerning the Results of Permeability
Tests on Gundseai-Ciaymats. Zwijnaarde, September 29, 1992.
Bredei-Schiinnann, S. 1993. AbschluBbericht tiber Durchlassigkeitsuntersuchungen an der Kombina
tionsdichtungsbahn Gundseal. TU Berlin, 16. Juli 1993 mit Erganzung vom 29. Oktober 1993.
Daniel. D. E. 1992a Summarized Test Report on Shear Tests with Gundseal. The University of Texas at
Austin, November 13, 1992.
Daniel. D. E. 1992b. Prediction of Rate of Wetting of Bentonite Component of Gundseal. The University
of Texas at Austin, September 2, 1992.
Daniel, D. E. & Koerner, R. M. 1993. Quality Assurance and Quality Control for Waste Containment Facilities.
Proc.: Uniled S1a1es Environmenlal Pro/eclion Agency (EPA). Cincinnati, Ohio 1993. pp 174-190.
Melchior, S. 1993. Wasserhaushalt und Wirksarnkeit mehm:hichtiger Abdecksysteme fur Deponien und
A1t1asten. Dissertation. Universitiit Hamburg 1993.
Melchior, S., Berger, K., Vie1haber, B. & Miehlich, G. 1993. Ergebnisse der Langzeit-Oberwachung von
OberfHichendichtsystemen auf der Deponie Georgswerder (Hamburg). Tagungshandbuch: BMFT
Verbundvorhaben Deponieabdichtungssysteme. BAM, Berlin 1993. pp. 155-164.
Unter1agen der Gundle Lining Systems, Houston, Texas, USA und der Gundle GmbH, Borin.
GCL installation in a water protection area for the A96 motorway 205
C over la yor
Bentonite
Carrier layer
Delee! b ec au se of )
mlsalng bonlonlle >1'-----
""Whne discotouratkm·
-------,f-
) >
Cross - Section A - A
In th e c ove r ro.,er,
on ly w h e n tho predestined lor
g rain 11 la ko n •way ·soli - he ahng ·
Figure 5. Stopper Effect.
This will be reported on separately, however, Figure 5 illustrates the concern ove
coarse gravel backfill materials.
It proved possible to install the GCL with great accuracy, because of the optimized
boundary formation, the geometrically even installation surface and the short sheet
lengths. The overlapping was therefore reduced from 40 em to 30 em in standard
cross-section in water protection zone lll.
Even in the very rainy autumn of 1992, installing the GCL proved exceptionally
trouble-free. The insta.lled sections were covered daily with gravel, so moistening
never reached the point where the uncovered GCL had hydrated so much that the
section had to be replaced.
Examinations carried out by the test office for Geotechnics, Soil and Rock
Mechanics of the Technical University, Munich showed, as did experience during
construction work, that GCL installation is also possible during conditions of frost,
down to approximately -10°C. This is, however, dependent on having a dry frost.
5 CONCLUSION
In the roadway cross-section designed for the use of specific materials to meet the
requirements of the water authority, both the novel drainage system and the use
of GCL have shown themselves to be effective, economical and, in practical
construction terms, an exceptionally advantageous system for ground water protection.
It is to be expected that this 'Leutkirch System' will be used at other locations.
REFERENCES
Abwassertechnische Yereinigung (ATV). Arbeitsblan A 142. 1992. Abwasserkanale und -leitungen in

Wassergewinnungsgebieten. St. Augustin, Oktober 1992.
Floss, R. & Heyer, D. 1992-1994. Prlijberichte des Prlifamtsfiir Grundbau, Bodenmechanik wui Felsmechanik
der TV Miinchen u.nd GuJachten mit der Pro). Nr. 10373 im Auftrag der Bau/eitung Wangen des Landesamts
fiir StrajJenwesen Baden-Wiintemberg. (unpublished).
Forschungsgesellschaft fiir Stra.Ben- und Verkehrswesen. 1982. Richtlinienfiir bautechnische MajJnah.m en
an StrajJen in Wassergewinnungsgebieten (RiStWag). Ausgabe 1982.
Heyer. D. 1992. Eignungsuntersuchungen fiir eine Verbunddichtungsmatte aus Geotextilien und Bentonit.
2. KongrejJ Kunststoffe in der Geotechnik K-G£0 92, Luzem. 20-22 Mai 1992, Schwei;;erischer Verband
der Geotexti/fach/eute.
Measurement and control system for the upper basin ofthe power station 215
of liners was trouble-free, the size of the area installed daily being dete!llllned only
by the slower, preparatory earthworks.
Further important factors, which were ftrst recognized during the installation work,
were the proper transport and storage of the rolls of GCL. The packaging of the
rolls delivered to the elevated storage basin was partly damaged during unloading,
and subsequently covered insufficiently. The result was that a number of rolls were
moistened by precipitation and made unusable. The cause of this was insufficient
experience in handling bentonite liners.
The drainage material used to cover the GCL must meet three basic requirements:
• The drainage material has to contain as large of a proportion of fine grains
as possible, in order to prevent damage when installing the drainage layer and the
GCL.
• The drainage material has to contain as small an amount of fine grains as possible,
in order to have a large permeability.
• The drainage material has to be suitable for compaction in order to gain sufficient
stability for the asphalt concrete seal.
However, these requirements cannot all be equally met. To optimize the liner
protection and the permeability of the drainage material, the composition of the
drainage material was repeatedly changed and checked by laboratory and field tests.
The permeability of the material can thus be determined relatively accurately. However,
protection of the liner cannot (currently) be adequately determined by laboratory
tests, since a number of limiting quantities, which arise in construction work connected
with bentonite liners, have not yet been sufficiently investigated. The trials carried
out on site also have the great disadvantage that more time is necessary, making
it very difficult to give a prompt reaction to meet all requirements under changed
parameters.
6 SUMMARY
The measurement and control system developed for the Rabenleite upper storage
basin enables a comprehensive evaluation of safety and performance during operation.
A major part of this system is the base seal using a GCL. It was possible to install
the GCL very quickly in the very short period available for the rehabilitation of
the upper storage basin. Compared with alternative construction material, the GCL
was also considerably cheaper.
However, the experience gained in the installation ofGCLs also shows that there
is still a need for more research and development work, if GCLs are to be used
as a standard material in this area of application.
REFERENCES
Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Erd- und Grundbau . 1993. Empfehlungen flir die Ausfilhrung von Asphaltarl>eiten
im Wasserbau- EAAW 83. Energieversorgung Ostbayern AG 1957. Das Pumpspeicherwerk Reisach
Rabenleire.
Heyer, D. 1992. Eignungsuntersuchungen fiir eine Verbundmane aus Geotextilien und BentoniL 2. KongrejJ
Kunsrstoffe in der Geotechnik K-GEO 92, LlJum 1992.
List F., Floss R. & Hofstetter 1992. Schutz des Grundwassers durch geotextile Dichtungsmanen am Flughafen
Miinchen. 2. KongrejJ K!UIS/Stoffe in der Georechnik K-GEO 92. l...w.em 1992. Strabag. Srrabag·Schrifienreihe
Asphaltwasserbau.
Wittmann, L. 1980. Filtrations- und Transporrphiinomene in poriisen Medien. Karlsruhe 1980.
Quality assurance in the manufacture and installation ofGCLs 227
Table 4. Test intervals for control tests on GeLs
Characteristic tested Frequency
Mass per unit area 2,500 m 2
Water content 2,500 m2
Methylene blue value 5,000 m2
Swelling test 5,000 m2
Tensile test 10,000 m2
Splitting (peel) test 5,000 m2
Permittivity 10,000 m2
• splitting test or peeling test

• tensile test
• water permeability or permittivity.
Permeability trials as field tests are also desirable, as they contain all factors of
influence. However, they are extremely difficult to carry out.
The extent of the control checks may be carried out in accordance with the details
given in the 'Memorandum for the Use of Geotextiles and Geogrids in Earthwork
Engineering for Road Construction', of the Research Society for Roads and Traffic,
1994 edition, and must be set out, together with all measures for quality assurance,
in a QAP. However, the test intervals given in Table 4 may also be used as a standard
value.
7 SUMMARY
This paper has focused on the quality control and quality assurance aspects of GCLs.
Since GCLs are used in critical and permanent applications it is important that a
complete quality assurance system is in place.
Every aspect of the GCL must be subjected to the same rigor. This includes the
bentonite and associated geotextiles or geomembranes. In this latter regard concern
is focused on the resins, fibers and fabrics used in the manufacturing process.
Obviously,the completed GCL must be tested as a composite material as well.
Test frequency is also suggested in the paper along with the proper designation
of the various test methods that are utilized.
REFERENCES
Bentomat TR-409. 1993. Manufacturing Quality Assurance and Quality Control Manual. Cetco Arlington
Heights, Illinois, pp. 19.
Bentomat TR-410. 1993. Construction Qual.ity Assurance (CQA) Manual. Cetco Arlington Heights, Illinois,
pp. 22.
Geosynlhetic Clay Liner Product Data. 1993. Geotechnical Fabrics Repon, pp. 155- 159.
GLR. 1993. Geotechnics of Landftll Design and Remedial Works-Technical Recommendations-G Lit Berlin,
Ernst & Sohn.
Heerten, G. 1993. Qualitiitssicherung bei der Herstellung und beim Einbau von Geotextilien im Deponiebau,
9. Fachtagung 'Die sichLre Deponie', SKZ, Wiinburg, pp. 129- 146.
Hunen, A. & Olischlliger V. 1993. Qualitli.tssicherung bei der Rohstoff- und Bahnenherstellung, 9. Fachtagung
'Die sichere Deponie', SKZ, Wii.rzburg, pp 67-87.
Kisskalt. J. 1992. Kunststoffe in der Geotechnik, Deponiebau und Geotextilien, Veroffentlichungen des LGA
Grundbauinstituts, Heft 68, pp. 405.
Merkblatt fur die Anwendung von Geotext.ilien und Geogittem im Erdbau des StraBenbaus. 1994,
Forschungsgesellschaft fiir StraBen- und Verkehrswesen, pp. 70.
Report of Workshop on Geosynthetic Oay Liners. 1993. US EnviromenlaJ Protection Agency, EPA/600/R
931171, pp. 106.
Saathoff, F. & Ehrenberg, H. 1993. Erfahrungen mit bentonitgefullten Dichtungsmatten ftir den
Grundwasserscbutz, Enrsorgungspraxis. I 0/92, pp. 706-711.
Technische Information von NaBento. 1992. Huesker Synthetic GmbH & Co, Gescher, pp. 10.
Verlegeanleitung fiir Bentofix Typ B. 1993. Naue Fasertechnik GmbH & Co KG, Liibbecke. pp. 9.

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PROCEEDINGS OF AN INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIDM

NURNBERG/GERMANY I 14-15 APRll..1994

E. GARTUNG & H. ZANZINGER

On the equivalency of landfill liner systems - The state of discussions

US EPA experiences with geosynthetic clay liners 17

Characteristics and sealing effect of bentonites 31

Properties and test methods to assess bentonite used in geosynthetic clay

A suggested methodology for assessing the technical equivalency of

3 Testing and design

Basic examination on the efficiency of GCLs 101

Guidelines on the use of liners in highway construction 113

Landfill cap designs using geosynthetic clay liners 129

On the long-term shear behaviour of geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs)

On the slope stability of landfill capping seals using GCLs 151

Groundwater protection using a GCL at the Franz-Josef-Strauss airport

Design and installation of a state-of-the-art landfill liner system 175

Capping landfill surfaces and contaminated areas with geomembrane

Measurement and control system for the upper basin of the

Quality assurance in the manufacture and installation of GCLs 219

GCL summary and conclusions 229

Authors' addresses 235

R. M. Koerner. E. Gartung & H. Zanzinger

the above applications. Clearly the use of GCLs in environmental applications is

The 'Synthetics in Geotechnics' section of the German Geotechnical Society and

ABSTRACT: According to Federal regulations in Germany, landfills must be

• The requirements made of these landfill liner systems in accordance with

2 AN OVERVIEW OF LINER SYSTEMS

3 WHAT DOES 'EQUIVALENCY' MEAN?

4 PROPERTIES OF LANDFILL LINER SYSTEMS TO BE TAKEN INTO

5 THE COMPOSITE LINER

A frame of reference is needed if the equivalency of landfill sealing systems is to

............ .. .. -.. ..............

::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: Recultivation layer

6 COMPOSITE LINER OF GEOMEMBRANES AND GEOSYNTHETIC CLAY

7 PROBLEMS OF COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT

Every landfill sealing system has advantages and disadvantages.

Criterion System I System II

Table I. Advantages and disadvantages of CCLs and GCLs

Compacted clay liners (CCLs) Geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs)

Large volume required Smail volume required

8 POSSIBLE ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES

There is an urgent need for statements as to what is to be understood by landfill

The popularity of GCLs continues to grow. Manufacturers continue to refine GCL

The research efforts of the manufacturers of GCLs, landfill owner/operators, Drexel

mats) of 0.6 em thickness show hydraulic conductivity in the range of 10- 11 to

Bentonite is a naturally occurring material with a high content of montmorillonite,

(conductivity 2000 J.IS/cm), it is recommended that GCLs are allowed to preswell

DIN 18121. 1976. Wassergehalt, Berlin, Beuth Verlag.

• The slope incline is flattened by raising the road ditch.

Heenen, G. 1994. Geotextile Dichtungselemente als mineralische Kompom:nte in OberfUichenahdichtungen.

5.3 System lll

The situation for System m

6 MEASURES FOR STEEPER SLOPES

4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

TA Siedlungsabfall 1993. Drine Allgemeine Verwai/Ungn•orschrift zum Abfallgeserz. Cologne: Bundesanzeiger.

An additional installation application of the Geomembrane Supported GCL which

With increasing environmental regulation and focus on improved and economical

Figure 5. Stopper Effect.

Abwassertechnische Yereinigung (ATV). Arbeitsblan A 142. 1992. Abwasserkanale und -leitungen in

• splitting test or peeling test

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