Chapter 1 - Fundamentals of Cooling Systems

HVAC
Fundamentals and
BMS Controls
- Udemy Edition
www.ecobiru.com
HVAC Fundamentals and BMS Controls
Table Of Contents
About The Book 2

Fundamentals of Cooling Systems 3
Building Cooling Load and Chiller E ciency 13
Building Management System Controls 20
Energy E ciency Improvement 32
Appendix:Charts and Formula 37
Endnotes 46
www.ecobiru.com - Page 1
About The Book

Welcome to "HVAC Fundamentals and BMS Controls - Udemy Edition", a
compact guide designed to enrich your learning journey in HVAC and BMS
controls. This book serves as both a standalone reference and a companion
to our online course.
https://www.udemy.com/course/hvac-fundamentals/
This book is exclusive for those who have enrolled in the course; kindly
refrain from sharing it.
This book covers the four main topics of the course supplemented by a
variety of additional resources, including:
A Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for refrigerant 134a (available in both

Simpli ed, Metric, and Imperial formats)
Samples of Chiller Speci cation sheets
Formula list
Should you need any further materials that could aid your learning, or if you
have any questions related to the course, feel free to send me a message at:
https://www.ecobiru.com/contact
Together, let's embark on this journey of discovery and mastery in HVAC and
BMS controls!
01
F un da ment a ls
of C ooling
S ystems
Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Cooling Systems

Laws of Thermodynamics
The cooling system operates on the principles of the rst and second laws of
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thermodynamics. The Laws of Thermodynamics are fundamental principles
governing energy and heat interactions
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The rst law of thermodynamics is a fundamental principle of physics that
states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or
transformed from one form to another. In other words, the total energy of an
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isolated system remains constant. This law is also known as the principle of
conservation of energy.
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Figure 1.1: 1st Law of Thermodynamics representation
The second law of thermodynamics asserts that heat naturally moves from a
warmer object to a cooler one, but it doesn't ow naturally from a cooler
object to a warmer one. To reverse this heat transfer, external work is
required. In a vapor compression cycle, this is achieved by using a
compressor.
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Figure 1.2: 2nd Law of Thermodynamics representation

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Concepts of Heat Transfer

Heat transfer plays a crucial role in the functioning of air conditioning
systems. It involves the movement of thermal energy from one object to
another, primarily through three mechanisms: conduction, convection, and
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radiation.
The air conditioning system is e ectively removing heat from the indoor air
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and releasing it outdoors, thereby cooling the indoor environment. This cycle
repeats continuously to maintain the desired indoor temperature. Heat
transfer happens at di erent heat exchangers located within various parts of
the air conditioning system.
Vapor Compression Cycle

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The vapor compression cycle or refrigeration cycle is a process that uses
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refrigerant to absorb heat from one place and release it to another. This cycle
is used in air conditioners, refrigerators, and freezers. The vapor compression
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cycle is a closed loop, meaning that the refrigerant is constantly recycled

through the system. The heat that is absorbed in the evaporator is rejected
to the environment in the condenser.
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The refrigeration cycle consists of four main components:
Compressor The compressor is the heart of the refrigeration cycle. It

compresses the refrigerant gas, increasing its pressure
and temperature. This hot, high-pressure refrigerant gas
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is then circulated to the condenser.
Condenser The condenser is a heat exchanger that removes heat
from the refrigerant gas. As the refrigerant gas passes
through the condenser, it cools down and condenses into
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a liquid.
Expansion valve The expansion valve is a device that reduces the
pressure of the refrigerant liquid. This sudden drop in
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pressure causes the refrigerant liquid to evaporate into a
gas.
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Evaporator The evaporator is another heat exchanger that absorbs
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heat from the surrounding air or object. As the refrigerant

gas passes through the evaporator, it absorbs heat and
evaporates into a gas. This gas is then circulated back to
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the compressor to complete the cycle.

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Figure 1.3: Vapor compression cycle
The refrigeration cycle relies on the change of phase of the refrigerant. In the
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evaporator, the refrigerant liquid evaporates into a gas, absorbing heat in the
process. This is because the latent heat of vaporization of the refrigerant is
much higher than its sensible heat. This means that it takes more heat to
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change the refrigerant from a liquid to a gas than it does to raise the
temperature of the refrigerant by the same amount.
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Refrigerant
In the vapor compression cycle, the refrigerant serves as the working uid.
It's a uid that cycles between liquid and vapor states during the process. For
e ective operation in the vapor compression cycle, refrigerants must
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possess certain critical characteristics to function e ectively:
High Latent Heat of Vaporization: A good refrigerant should absorb a
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large amount of heat while evaporating, which helps in e cient cooling.
Low Boiling Point: A lower boiling point allows the refrigerant to
evaporate at lower temperatures, making it e ective in absorbing heat
from the environment.
Pressure Enthalpy Diagram

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The pressure-enthalpy diagram is a chart that you can use to visualize the
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properties of refrigerant in a vapor compression cycle. The y-axis of the

diagram is pressure, and the x-axis is speci c enthalpy. The diagram is divided
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into three regions: the liquid region, the vapor region, and the two-phase
region.
The liquid region is the region where the refrigerant is in a liquid state.
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The vapor region is the region where the refrigerant is in a vapor state.
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The two-phase region is the region where the refrigerant is in a mixture

of liquid and vapor.
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Figure 1.4: Pressure Enthalpy (P-h) Diagram

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Vapor Compression Cycle on Ph Diagram

The four points of the vapour compression cycle on the Ph diagram:
Point 1: The compressor inlet
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Point 2: The compressor outlet
Point 3: The condenser outlet
Point 4: The evaporator inlet
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The four processes of the vapour compression cycle:
Compression: The process from point 1 to point 2.
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Heat rejection: The process from point 2 to point 3.
Expansion: The process from point 3 to point 4
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Heat absorption: The process from point 4 to point 1.
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Figure 1.5a: Vapor compression cycle on P-h Diagram
Calculation and Analysis

The Ph diagram can be used to calculate the following:
Heat absorbed: The amount of heat absorbed per unit mass by a
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refrigerant during an evaporation process can be calculated by nding
the di erence in enthalpy between the evaporator inlet (4) and
compressor inlet (1) on the Ph diagram.
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Heat rejected: The amount of heat rejected by a refrigerant per unit
mass during a condensation process can be calculated by nding the
di erence in enthalpy between the compressor outlet (2) and condenser
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outlet (3) on the Ph diagram.
Work done: The amount of work done per unit mass by a compressor
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can be calculated by nding the di erence in enthalpy between the
compressor inlet (1) and compressor outlet (2) on the Ph diagram.
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Heat transfer: Q =m ×∆h

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Figure 1.5b: Vapor compression cycle

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on P-h Diagram
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02
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B uil d ing
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C ooling L o ad
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a n d C hiller
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E ffi c ien c y
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Chapter 2: Building Cooling Load and Chiller

E ciency
Direct Expansion (DX) System
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DX systems are the most common type of air conditioning system used in
residential buildings. They use refrigerant to cool the air directly and the
condenser is usually air cooled. They typically serve a smaller area compared
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to chilled water system.
DX systems can be classi ed into three types:
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Unitary systems: These are the most common type of DX system. They
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are typically used in homes and small o ces.
Single-split systems: These systems have one indoor unit (FCU) and one
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outdoor unit (condensing unit).

Multi-split systems: These systems have one outdoor unit and multiple
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indoor units.
Advantages of DX Systems
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Simple setup
Easy to install and maintain
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Relatively inexpensive
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Disadvantages of DX Systems
Refrigerant leakage can be a problem

Not as e cient as chilled water systems
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Figure 2.1: Vapor compression cycle on P-h Diagram

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Inverter technology is a type of variable speed drive (VSD) that is used to

control the speed of the compressor in DX system. This can help to improve
the e ciency of the system.
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Chilled Water System

A chilled water system is often used in large buildings, such as o ce
buildings, hospitals, and data center. They use water that has been cooled
down to around 7 °C to cool down the air.
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A chilled water system consists of the following components:
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Chiller The chiller is the heart of the chilled water system. It is
the component that cools down the water. There are two
main types of chillers, water cooled chiller and air cooled
chiller.
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Cooling tower The cooling tower is used to reject heat from condenser
water. This is done by evaporating water into the air.
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Chilled water The chilled water pumps are used to circulate chilled
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pumps water throughout the building.

Condenser water The condenser water pumps are used to circulate
pumps condenser water to the cooling tower.
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Cooling coils Cooling coils are located in the air handling units (AHUs)
and fan coil units (FCUs). They are used to transfer heat
from the air to the chilled water.
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Figure 2.2: Air-cooled (L) and Water-cooled (R) chilled water system schematic
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Calculation inside the chilled water system

Cooling load
The cooling load is the amount of heat that needs to be removed from a
space to maintain a comfortable temperature. There are a number of factors
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that can a ect the cooling load, such as the size of the space, the number of
occupants, the type of equipment, and the outside temperature.
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There are a number of ways to calculate the cooling load. One common
method is to use a rule of thumb. For example, you can estimate that a 100-
square-foot o ce will require about 1 ton of cooling.
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Another way to calculate the cooling load based on sensor readings in the
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Building Management System. The formula to determine building load is:
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Cooling load: Q =m × c × ∆T
Heat Balance
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The heat balance equation is a fundamental concept in thermodynamics and

heat transfer, used to analyze thermal systems. It is based on the principle of
conservation of energy, stating that the total energy in a system remains
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constant unless altered by external factors. In chilled water system, heat

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balance equation can be expressed as:

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Qcond =Qevap + Win
Chiller Plant E ciency

Chiller plant e ciency is a measure of how well a chiller plant is converting
energy into cooling. There are two main ways to calculate chiller plant
e ciency:
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COP (Coe cient of Performance): COP is a measure of how much cooling is
produced for a given amount of energy input. It is calculated by dividing the
cooling output by the power input.
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COP = Cooling Output (kW) / Power Input (kW)
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kW/Ton: kW/Ton is a measure of how much power is required to produce
one ton of cooling. It is calculated by dividing the power input by the cooling
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output.
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kW/Ton = Power Input (kW)/ Cooling Output (RTon)

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Figure 2.3: ASHRAE Chiller Plant E ciency
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03
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B uil d ing
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Ma n a gement
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S ystem
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C ontrols
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Chapter 3: Building Management System

Controls
AHUs and FCUs
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Air Handling Units (AHUs)
An air handling unit (AHU) is a large, packaged device that conditions and
distributes air throughout a building. It is typically located in a mechanical
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room or rooftop and consists of several components, including:
A fan: The fan is responsible for moving air through the AHU.
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A cooling coil: The cooling coil is where the air is cooled by chilled water.
A heating coil (for cold climate area): The heating coil is where the air is
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heated by hot water or steam.
A lter: The lter removes dust and other particulates from the air.
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There are two main types of AHUs:

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Constant air volume (CAV): CAV AHUs supply a constant amount of air to
each space, regardless of the load.
Variable air volume (VAV): VAV AHUs modulate the amount of air
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supplied to each space based on the load.

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Figure 3.1: Typical Air Handling Unit
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Fan Coil Units (FCUs)
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A fan coil unit (FCU) is a smaller, self-contained device that conditions air in a
single space. It typically consists of the following components:
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A fan: The fan is responsible for moving air through the FCU.
A cooling coil: The cooling coil is where the air is cooled by chilled water.
A heating coil: The heating coil is where the air is heated by hot water or
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steam.
A lter: The lter removes dust and other particulates from the air.
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Comparison of AHUs and FCUs

Here is a table that compares AHUs and FCUs:
Feature AHU FCU
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Size Large Small
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Location Mechanical room or rooftop Ceiling or wall
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Components Fan, cooling coil, heating coil, Fan, cooling coil, heating coil,
lter
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Air Centralized Decentralized
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conditioning
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Ductwork Required Not required

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Air-side controls
There are four main types of AHU control loops:
Space temperature control
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Static pressure control
CO2 control
Supply air temperature control
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Every control loop comprises three key components: a set point, a sensor,
and an output mechanism. The set point represents the target value for the
parameter being controlled. The sensor's role is to gauge the current value
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of this parameter. Lastly, the output device acts to modify the system in
order to reach the desired set point.
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Space Temperature Control
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Space temperature control is the most common type of AHU control

loop.
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The set point for space temperature control is typically 24 to 26 degrees

Celsius.
The sensor for space temperature control is a thermostat.
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The output device for space temperature control is a damper that

controls the amount of air ow to the room.
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Static Pressure Control

Static pressure control is used to maintain a constant pressure in the air
ducts.
The set point for static pressure control is typically 150 to 250 Pa.
The sensor for static pressure control is a static pressure sensor.
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The output device for static pressure control is a variable speed drive
(VSD) that controls the speed of the fan.
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CO2 Control
CO2 control is used to reduce the amount of fresh air into the space.
The set point for CO2 control is typically 700 to 1,000 ppm.
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The sensor for CO2 control is a CO2 sensor.
The output device for CO2 control is a damper that controls the amount
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of fresh air into the space.
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Supply Air Temperature Control

Supply air temperature control is used to maintain a constant
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temperature of the air leaving the AHU.

The set point for supply air temperature control is typically 13 to 14
degrees Celsius.
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The sensor for supply air temperature control is a temperature sensor.

The output device for supply air temperature control is a valve that
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controls the amount of chilled water owing to the cooling coil.

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Water-side controls and pump con guration

Chiller Plant Piping Con gurations
There are three basic con gurations of chiller water piping in a chiller plant:
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Constant Primary Flow
Constant Primary, Variable Secondary Flow
Variable Primary Flow
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Constant Primary Flow
In a constant primary ow system, the pump is always running at the
same speed. This means that the ow rate is always the same,
regardless of the load. ru
Constant primary ow systems are simple and inexpensive to operate,
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but they can be ine cient. This is because the pump is always running at
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the same speed, even when the load is low.

Constant primary ow systems are not very common anymore, but they
may still be used in small buildings or in buildings where the load does
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not change very much.

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Figure 3.2: Constant Primary Flow

Schematic
Constant Primary, Variable Secondary Flow

In a constant primary, variable secondary ow system, there are two
pumps: a primary pump and a secondary pump. The primary pump
always runs at the same speed, but the secondary pump can vary its
speed. This means that the ow rate to the individual AHUs can be
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adjusted to meet the load.
Constant primary, variable secondary ow systems are more e cient
than constant primary ow systems, because the secondary pump can
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be slowed down when the load is low.
Constant primary, variable secondary ow systems are common in large
buildings or in buildings where the load changes throughout the day.
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Figure 3.3: Constant Primary, Variable Secondary Flow Schematic
Variable Primary Flow

In a variable primary ow system, the pump can vary its speed to meet
the load. This means that the ow rate is always adjusted to match the
load.
Variable primary ow systems are the most e cient type of chiller water
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piping system, but they can also be the most complex.
Variable primary ow systems are becoming increasingly common in
new buildings.
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Figure 3.4: Variable Primary Flow Schematic

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Controls for Di erent Piping Con gurations

The controls for a chiller plant will vary depending on the piping
con guration.
In a constant primary ow system, the controls are relatively simple. The
pump is always running at the same speed, and the valves are used to
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adjust the ow rate to the individual AHUs.
In a constant primary, variable secondary ow system, the controls are
more complex. The pump speed must be controlled to maintain the
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desired ow rate to the secondary pump. The valves are used to adjust
the ow rate to the individual AHUs.
In a variable primary ow system, the controls are the most complex.
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The pump speed must be controlled to maintain the desired ow rate to
the chillers. The valves are used to adjust the ow rate to the individual
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AHUs.
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Chiller Sequencing
Chiller sequencing is the process of starting and stopping chillers in an
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orderly manner to meet the cooling load of a building. This is important to

ensure that the chillers are operating e ciently and that the building is not
overcooled.
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The general rule of thumb for chiller sequencing is to start the chillers in the
following order:
1. Condenser water pump

2. Cooling tower fans
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3. Chilled water pump
4. Chiller
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If you have more than one chiller, you can use a lead-lag sequence to start
and stop the chillers. The lead chiller is the rst chiller to start, and the lag
chiller is the last chiller to start. The lead-lag sequence is used to evenly
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distribute the wear and tear on the chillers.

Chiller staging is a method of controlling the start and stop of chillers based
on the cooling load of the building. There are three common methods of
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chiller staging:
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1. Building cooling load calculation

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2. Chilled water return temperature

3. Chilled water ow rate
Building Cooling Load Calculation

The building cooling load calculation method is the most accurate method of
chiller staging. However, it is also the most complex method. The BMS will
calculate the building cooling load rst, using the temperature sensor and
ow meter, and start or stop the chiller based on a percentage of the
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capacity.
Chilled Water Return Temperature
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The chilled water return temperature method is a less accurate method of
chiller staging than the building cooling load calculation method. However, it
is also a less complex method. The BMS will monitor the chilled water return
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temperature and start and stop the chillers based on this temperature.
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Chilled Water Flow Rate
The chilled water ow rate method is the least accurate method of chiller
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staging. However, it is also the simplest method. The BMS will monitor the
chilled water ow rate and start and stop the chillers based on this ow rate.
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04
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E nerg y
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E ffi c ien c y
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I mprovement
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Chapter 4: Energy E ciency Improvement

Building Cooling Load Pro le
A load pro le is a graphical representation indicating the cooling demand
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over the course of a day. This pro le plays a crucial role in selecting and
sizing chillers. Without understanding the load pro le, determining the
appropriate size of the chiller to install or the duration for which a speci c
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chiller should operate becomes unclear.
Load Pro les Characteristics
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A typical load pro le for an o ce building would be low during the o -
peak hours (midnight to 7 am) and high during the peak hours (8 am to 5
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pm).
A typical load pro le for a shopping center would be similar to an o ce
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building, but the peak hours would be later (11 am to 10 pm).

The load pro le for a hospital would be di erent from an o ce building
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or shopping center because hospitals operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a

week.
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Figure 4.1: Typical O ce Load Pro le
Calculating Energy Consumption for Chiller

Con gurations
Methodology:
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1. Determine the operating schedule for each con guration.
2. Calculate the power consumption for each chiller during each operating
period, based on the e ciency of the chiller operating at the load.
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3. Calculate the energy consumption for each chiller during each operating
period by multiplying the operating duration.
4. Sum the energy consumption for all chillers during each operating
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period to get the daily consumption.
5. Compare the total energy consumption for each con guration in either
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daily, weekly or annual basis.
Chiller Plant Optimization

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Chilled Water Loop

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Increase chilled water supply temperature: Every 1°C increase in CHWS

temperature, the chiller e ciency will improve by 2%.
Reduce condenser water supply temperature: The lower the
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temperature, the lower the condensing pressure, and the higher the
chiller e ciency.
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Condenser Water Loop

Maintain condenser tubes regularly: Clean the tubes regularly to remove
fouling and scaling.
Use automatic tube cleaning system: This system introduces small balls
or brushes into the condenser water to clean the tubes.
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Pump and Fan System
Reduce losses: Minimize minor losses by using larger pipes, minimizing
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piping length, and reducing sharp bends.
Avoid oversizing pumps and fans: Use a valve to reduce ow rate
instead of oversizing the pump or fan.
Absorption Chiller ru
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Absorption chiller uses a heat source to supply the energy required for the
cooling process. It is versatile, capable of utilizing various heat sources like
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waste heat, solar energy, or burning gases. Owing to the lack of moving
parts, it is more reliable and operates more quietly compared to vapor
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compression chillers. Additionally, if waste heat is available, this system can

achieve free cooling, further enhancing its e ciency.
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Limitations of Absorption Chillers

Larger in size and requires more materials to manufacture compared to
vapor compression chillers.
May require a backup heat source, such as gas or electricity, if waste
heat is not available.
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Lower COP (coe cient of performance) compared to vapor compression
chillers, meaning more heat is required to produce the same amount of
cooling.
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Overall, absorption chillers are a viable option for applications where waste
heat is available and there is no need for a high COP.
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Figure 4.2: Absorption Cycle
05
Appendix:
Charts and Formula
Endnotes
As we reach the end of this journey through 'HVAC Fundamentals and BMS
Controls - Udemy Edition', we hope it has been an enlightening and valuable
experience for you. Your insights and opinions are incredibly important to us.
We would be grateful if you could take a few moments to share your
thoughts and feedback on this book. Your input not only helps us understand
your experience as a reader but also guides me in enhancing and improving
future editions.
Please feel free to reach out with your comments, suggestions, or questions
at:
https://www.ecobiru.com/contact
Thank you for your time, and I look forward to hearing from you!

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About The Book 2

About The Book

A Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for refrigerant 134a (available in both

Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Cooling Systems

Figure 1.1: 1st Law of Thermodynamics representation

Figure 1.2: 2nd Law of Thermodynamics representation

Concepts of Heat Transfer

Vapor Compression Cycle

cycle is a closed loop, meaning that the refrigerant is constantly recycled

Compressor The compressor is the heart of the refrigeration cycle. It

heat from the surrounding air or object. As the refrigerant

the compressor to complete the cycle.

Figure 1.3: Vapor compression cycle

High Latent Heat of Vaporization: A good refrigerant should absorb a

Pressure Enthalpy Diagram

properties of refrigerant in a vapor compression cycle. The y-axis of the

The two-phase region is the region where the refrigerant is in a mixture

Figure 1.4: Pressure Enthalpy (P-h) Diagram

Vapor Compression Cycle on Ph Diagram

Point 1: The compressor inlet

Compression: The process from point 1 to point 2.

Figure 1.5a: Vapor compression cycle on P-h Diagram

Calculation and Analysis

Heat absorbed: The amount of heat absorbed per unit mass by a

Heat transfer: Q =m ×∆h

Figure 1.5b: Vapor compression cycle

Chapter 2: Building Cooling Load and Chiller

DX systems can be classi ed into three types:

outdoor unit (condensing unit).

Refrigerant leakage can be a problem

Figure 2.1: Vapor compression cycle on P-h Diagram

Inverter technology is a type of variable speed drive (VSD) that is used to

Chilled Water System

pumps water throughout the building.

Calculation inside the chilled water system

The heat balance equation is a fundamental concept in thermodynamics and

constant unless altered by external factors. In chilled water system, heat

balance equation can be expressed as:

Qcond =Qevap + Win

Chiller Plant E ciency

kW/Ton = Power Input (kW)/ Cooling Output (RTon)

Figure 2.3: ASHRAE Chiller Plant E ciency

Chapter 3: Building Management System

There are two main types of AHUs:

supplied to each space based on the load.

Comparison of AHUs and FCUs

Feature AHU FCU

Ductwork Required Not required

Space temperature control

Space temperature control is the most common type of AHU control

The set point for space temperature control is typically 24 to 26 degrees

The output device for space temperature control is a damper that

Static Pressure Control

Supply Air Temperature Control

temperature of the air leaving the AHU.

The sensor for supply air temperature control is a temperature sensor.

controls the amount of chilled water owing to the cooling coil.

Water-side controls and pump con guration

the same speed, even when the load is low.

not change very much.

Figure 3.2: Constant Primary Flow