LEXICOLOGY AND LEXICOGRAPHY - EXAM TOPICS

1. Word, morpheme, and lexeme. Motivated and arbitrary

words.
Word:
● A word is the smallest unit of language that carries meaning. It can stand alone or be
combined with other words to form sentences. Words can be classified into various categories,
such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc.

Morpheme:
● A morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit in a language. It can be a whole word or a
part of a word that carries meaning. Morphemes can be free (stand alone as a word) or bound
(attached to other morphemes to create words). For example, in the word "unhappiness," "un-"
is a bound morpheme, and "happy" and "-ness" are free morphemes.

Lexeme:
● A lexeme is the base form or root of a word, excluding any inflections, derivations, or
variations in pronunciation. It represents the core meaning of a word. For example, the lexeme
for "running" is "run."

Motivated Words:
● Motivated words are those whose form is directly related to their meaning. The sound or
structure of the word reflects something about the concept it represents. Onomatopoeic words,
which imitate natural sounds, are examples of motivated words. For instance, "buzz" or "meow"
are motivated words because the sounds they make resemble the sounds of a bee or a cat.

Arbitrary Words:
● Arbitrary words, on the other hand, have a form that does not inherently suggest their
meaning. The connection between the word's form and its meaning is not immediately apparent.
Most words in language fall into this category. For example, there's nothing about the sound or
structure of the word "book" that inherently relates to the concept of a written or printed work.
In summary, motivated words have a clear connection between form and meaning, while arbitrary
words do not necessarily exhibit such a connection.

2. Word-formation processes in English.

Affixation:

Prefixation: Adding a prefix to the beginning of a base word. Example: "un" in "undo" or "dis" in
"disagree."
Suffixation: Adding a suffix to the end of a base word. Example: "ness" in "happiness" or "able"
in "comfortable."
Compounding:
Creating a new word by combining two or more existing words. Examples include "blackboard,"
"sunflower," or "software."

Conversion (Zero Derivation):

Changing the grammatical category of a word without adding any affixes. For instance, using a
noun as a verb or vice versa, such as "table" (noun) becoming "to table" (verb) or "run" (verb)
becoming "a run" (noun).

Blending:

Combining parts of two words to create a new word. This often involves taking the beginning of
one word and attaching it to the end of another. Examples include "brunch" (breakfast + lunch)
or "smog" (smoke + fog).

Back-formation:

Creating a new word by removing an affix from an existing word. For example, "editor" gave rise
to "edit" or "burglar" to "burgle."

Acronyms and Initialisms:

Forming a word from the initial letters of a phrase (acronym) or from the initial letters
pronounced separately (initialism). Examples include "NASA" (National Aeronautics and Space
Administration) or "DVD" (Digital Versatile Disc).

Reduplication:

Repeating all or part of a base word to create a new one. Examples include "boo-boo," "bye-bye,"
or "choo-choo."

Clipping:

Creating a new word by shortening an existing one. Examples include "phone" (telephone) or
"bike" (bicycle).

Derivation:

Creating a new word by adding affixes to an existing word, changing its grammatical category or
meaning. For instance, "happy" becomes "happiness" through the addition of the suffix "-ness."

Coinage (Neologism):

Introducing an entirely new word into the language, often for a new concept or product.
Examples include "googling," "selfie," or "blog."
3. Variation in vocabulary choice. Centre and periphery in
the vocabulary of a language.
Centre in Vocabulary:

The centre of a language's vocabulary consists of words that are commonly used and widely
understood by its speakers. These are words that form the core of everyday communication and
are considered standard or conventional. They often have clear and precise meanings. For
example, in English, words like "house," "eat," and "happy" are part of the central vocabulary.

Periphery in Vocabulary:

The periphery of vocabulary includes words that are less commonly used, more specialized, or
have specific or nuanced meanings. These words may be used in certain contexts or by groups of
people. They might be more technical, abstract, or borrowed from other languages. Examples in
English might include terms like "ephemeral," "ubiquitous," or "serendipity." While these words
are part of the language, they are not as frequently used in everyday conversation.

Variation in Vocabulary Choice:

Individuals and groups may vary in their vocabulary choices based on factors such as education,
occupation, interests, and regional influences. For instance, someone working in a scientific field
might use more technical and specialized vocabulary, while a person with a passion for literature
might employ a rich and diverse set of words. Regional dialects and cultural influences can also
contribute to variations in vocabulary choice.
Additionally, language is dynamic and evolves over time. New words may enter the language
(neologisms), and the usage of existing words may shift, leading to changes in the centre and
periphery of the vocabulary.

4. Analysing the meaning of a word: sense and reference.

Centre and periphery in the meaning of a word.
Sense and Reference:

Sense: The sense of a word refers to its conceptual meaning or the mental image it invokes. It
involves the understanding of the word's characteristics, associations, and connotations. For
example, the sense of the word "bank" includes the concept of a financial institution.

Reference: The reference of a word is the actual object or entity in the world to which the word
points. It is the real-world referent of the word. Using the example of "bank" again, the reference
could be a specific bank building or the financial institution itself.
In summary, sense is the mental understanding of a word's meaning, while reference is the real-
world object or concept that the word points to.

Centre and Periphery:

 Centre: The centre of meaning refers to the core or central aspects of a word's meaning. These
are the most essential features that define the word. For example, the centre of the word "dog"
might include features like four-legged, domesticated mammal.

Periphery: The periphery encompasses the less central, more peripheral features of a word's
meaning. These are the additional characteristics or associations that are related to the word but
are not as crucial to its core meaning. Using the example of "dog," features like "loyal" or "barks"
might be in the periphery.

5. Semantic and lexical fields, componential analysis.

Lexical field
 the linguistic realization of a semantic field in a particular language; there is no absolute list
of such fields
 a group or framework of related words and word elements that covers or refers to an aspect
of the world, e.g. colours, day of the week, months, culinary terms, military ranks
 each group comprises labelled lexical sets – synonyms, antonyms or associated words.

Componential analysis
 based on similarities among sets of words

 the word is broken down into meaningful components which make up the total sum of the meaning
in a word

man noun + male + adult + human

 components are treated as binary opposites distinguished by + / -, but not all features can fit the
binary pattern

 semantic markers – semantic features shared by a large number of words; they have an impact on
grammar, e.g. only animate nouns can take the Saxon genitive and can carry such actions as
laughing and sleeping
SM lion (+noun) (+animate) (-human) (+countable)

 semantic distinguishers – semantic features shared by a very limited number of words

SD lion (+wild) as opposed to a pet or domestic animal
(+four-legged) as opposed to such animals as penguins or fish

6. The meaning of a word: conceptual and associative

meanings.
In semantics, conceptual meaning is the literal or core sense of a word. There is nothing read into
the term, no subtext; it's just the straightforward, literal, dictionary definition of the word.
 Reflects the ‘real world’ experience associated with the word which may vary according
Connotative to time, culture and social context

Stylistic Signals the social circumstances of language use and reflects stylistic variation

 formality commence begin

 jargon dose sponge radiology worker
fighting Darwin patients refusing essential
treatment through stubbornness
or stupidity
Affective Reflects the emotions and attitudes of the speaker/writer

lanky thin + suggests awkwardness and loose-jointedness

skinny thin + lacking usual or desirable bulk, quantity, qualities
slim thin + thin in an attractive way
slender thin + thin especially in an attractive or graceful way
Reflected Results from association with another sense of the expression leading to ambiguity
and possible misinterpretations. Often used to produce humorous effect.

Disaster tabker adrift in a sea of baffling questions

Sir Humphrey: Dear lady.

Dorothy: Not as dear as a Cabinet Secretary, Humphrey.
Collocative Results from association with words with which the lexical item tends to collocate. It is
connected with the notion of semantic prosody – the way in which certain seemingly
neutral words can be perceived with positive or negative associations through
frequent occurrences with particular collocations.
handsome + man, building beautiful / pretty + girl, picture

7. Polysemy and homonymy.

Polysemy and Homonymy
Homonymy – the case when different words (homonyms) happen accidentally to have the same form
 absolute homonyms – can of beans – yes, I can
 homophones – sameness of phonetic form – know – no
 homographs – sameness of graphic form – lead – lead

Polysemy – the existence of several distinct-but-related meanings of the same word

He shook his head The head of the committee resigned.

8. Changes in the meaning of words: widening and narrowing
the meaning of a word.
 Widening/extension of meaning – the semantic area of a word becomes more general
or more abstract

place – an open square in a town, market place →

place – any location

thing = assembly (court of law), Parliament →

thing – any location + abstract meaning
 Narrowing of meaning - the semantic area of a word is restricted to a specific use or to
a limited number of expressions in a limited type of context; there is a tendency for the
abstract to become concrete and for the generic to stand for the specific
meat – food of any kind (M.E.) →
kept in: meat and drink, sweetmeats

flesh – meat (M.E.) →

flesh – the flesh of living beings

undertaker – one who undertakes business (M.E.) →

undertaker – funeral undertaker

9. Elevation and degeneration of the meaning of a word.

Taboo and euphemism.

 affective meanings – change along a ‘positive – neutral – negative’ axis

 elevation/raising of meaning – shift from neutral or negative to positive

sharp (OE – able to cut) → with high mental abilities – a sharp boy, girl
right (ME – the opposite of left) → correct (the opposite of false)
fame (ME – rumour) → good fame (popular, well-known )

 b) degeneration/lowering of meaning – shift from positive or neutral to

negative meaning
animal → human She is a viper. They are swine.
villain (ME) – belonging to the class of the serfs → wicked or evil person
silly (ME) = blessed, happy → simple minded
 10. Semantic and stylistic neologisms. Types of semantic
shift in figurative language. Conceptual metaphor.
Stylistic neologism
 a shift of a word form one stylistic layer into another
 Taboo words – avoided for religious, moral, social or psychological reasons
(taboo – Polynesian term denoting the sacred and mystically untouchable
 Tabooed words are replaced by
 modification/adaptation – by changing one or several sounds in the word
God = gad, gog, gom, Gosh!
Damn it! = Dash it
 abbreviation
f-word p-word
 substitution
euphemism *dysphemism
perspiration = sweat snail mail = post mail
maniac = madman pig = policeman
to pass away = to die bullshit = lies

Semantic neologism
 a shift of a word form one stylistic layer into another
 Taboo words – avoided for religious, moral, social or psychological reasons
(taboo – Polynesian term denoting the sacred and mystically untouchable
 Tabooed words are replaced by
 modification/adaptation – by changing one or several sounds in the word
God = gad, gog, gom, Gosh!
Damn it! = Dash it
 abbreviation
f-word p-word
 substitution
euphemism *dysphemism
perspiration = sweat snail mail = post mail
maniac = madman pig = policeman
to pass away = to die bullshit = lies

Conceptual metaphor – the underlying identification of an abstract concept with a more basic or
concrete concept (i.e. a mapping between a concrete domain and an abstract domain). Conceptual
metaphors may be seen as invoked to explain the coherence between whole sets of ordinary language
expressions.

ARGUMENT is WAR
 their claims are indefensible, their criticism was right on target

LIFE is a JOURNEY
we’ll have to go our separate ways, their relationship is a dead-end street

11. Idiomaticity.
Idiomaticity is the tendency of phrases to take on meanings that go beyond the
meanings of their parts.
Idiomaticity refers to the use of idioms in language, where the meaning of a phrase or expression
cannot be inferred from the literal meanings of its individual words. Instead, the meaning is often
cultural, contextual, or metaphorical. Idioms are expressions that have a figurative rather than a
literal meaning, and they are unique to a particular language or community. Understanding and
using idioms is an essential aspect of language proficiency.

Key characteristics of idiomaticity include:

Non-compositionality: The meaning of an idiom cannot be deduced from the meanings of its
individual words. The combination of words in an idiom creates a unique expression with a
specific, often figurative, meaning. For example, "kick the bucket" does not literally mean kicking
a bucket; it is an idiom for dying.

Cultural and Contextual Significance: Idioms often carry cultural or contextual meanings that
may not be apparent to non-native speakers. They can reflect cultural values, historical events,
or shared experiences within a community. For instance, the idiom "to spill the beans" means to
disclose a secret, but understanding this requires knowledge of the cultural context.

Figurative Language: Idioms frequently use figurative language, such as metaphors, similes, or
personification, to convey their meaning. For example, the idiom "it's raining cats and dogs" is a
metaphorical way of expressing heavy rain.

Fixedness: Idioms typically have fixed forms, and altering the wording may change or lose the
intended meaning. For instance, the idiom "burning the midnight oil" means working late into
the night. Changing the words or structure may result in a loss of idiomatic meaning.

12. Sense relations: synonymy and antonymy.

Synonymy
 based on sameness or similarity of meaning; synonymous words which display different shades of
one and the same basic meaning (semantic component)
 Types of synonyms according to the criteria for meaning differentiation:
 Absolute synonyms are words identical in meaning
voiced stops = mediae; voiceless stops = tenues
 Phraseological synonyms, i.e. context dependant synonymy
 FIELD = space proper to something ; a debate covering a wide AREA; unsurpassed in his own
BRANCH; belonging to the DOMAIN of philosophy
 Relative synonyms are words standing for the same meaning but varying in the shade of
meaning and collocation restrictions: do v. make
key – clue (less certain than a key) – hint ( less certain than a clue)
 Stylistic synonyms – linked to a particular context, style
foreign v. native words enemy – foe ask – question – interrogate
dialect / sociolect person – man – chum – chap
archaic / poetic vs. common English maine – sea joyful – jocund
emotive / evaluative value politician (-) v. statesman (+)
taboo vs. euphemism to die – to pass away

Antonymy
 the relation of incompatibility of meaning; holds only between words belonging to one and the
same word

 gradable – opposite values within a semantic domain seen as a scale

 implicit superlatives, generally resisting to grading adjectives
huge – tiny wonderful – terrible brilliant – stupid
 marked vs unmarked members How old / young is he?
hot – cold big – small quick – slow
 complementary – mutually exclusive, incompatible notions within the relevant semantic
domain
up – down dead – alive man – woman
complementary opposite pairs may be asymmetrical (negative prefix)
happy – unhappy like - dislike
 relational/converse – express a relationship between two entities, which may be reversed

buy – sell husband – wife offense – defence

13. Sense relations: hyponymy and meronymy.

Hyponymy
 hyponymy – the relation of generalization where the meaning of one word is included in another
(the “kind of” relation); it suggests the logical link of entailment – if a dalmatian is a dog
This is a dalmatian. = This is a dog. = This is an animal. = This is a living being.

 co-hyponyms – lexical units which share the same level of generality and have the same
superordinate unit are called

 hypernymy – the relation of specification where the meaning of a more general word and a more
specific one
Meronymy
 Meronymy – the part-whole relation (generalization)
  structural units – whole wheel – car
 temporal sequences year - month
 spatial sequences front – surface

 Holonymy – the relation of the whole to its parts (specification)

Holonym sentence

co-meronyms subject verb object

14. Lexical cohesion.

 semantic relations holding between textual components when the interpretation of one
element is dependent on that of another

I bought three oranges. They were very tasty.

You should eat more apples. Fruits are good for your health.
Reiteration
 repetition of some kind
 with the same referent, indicated by the or demonstrative
 without identity of referent
 occurrence of a synonym, hyponym etc.
 simple repetition and complex repetition
If you don’t call your friend you would never know whether she wants to come or not.
So make the call to your friend and let’s get going.

 substitution (and ellipsis)

Mary likes driving but she would never make a good driver.

 equivalence (synonymy)

Finding a job is quite difficult these days. I have been looking for work for nearly two months
now?
 generalization (hyponymy)
I will not vote for Labour. Actually, for any political party.

 (co-)specification (from general to more specific term)

Although birds have wings, some species, such as penguins or nandus, cannot fly.
  contrast (antonymy)
What is responsible for this population rise is not an increase in birth rate, but a sharp decline in
the death rate in developing countries.

Collocation
 words that tend to occur in the same lexical environment are thus associated with one
another
 ordered set (e.g. colours, numbers, days of the week etc.)

It is customary to list indigo as a colour lying between blue and violet, but it has never
seemed to me that indigo is worth the dignity of being considered a separate colour. To
my eyes it seems merely deep blue.

 activity-related collocation (related to scenarios; actions and objects acted upon, e.g.
driving a car, writing a book)

A person who just wants to fly locally for the fun of it is typically looking for a cheap
and reliable plane.

 elaborative collocation (related to mental frames and based on shared world knowledge
– going to a restaurant, having a class etc.)

The United Kingdom intends to withdraw from the European Union, a process commonly known
as Brexit, as a result of a June 2016 referendum in which 51.9% voted to leave the EU. The
separation process is complex, causing political and economical changes for the UK and other
countries.

15. Lexicography. Types of dictionaries. Definition of a

word: strategies and problems.
 A branch of linguistics which studies how dictionaries are compiled, and what are the principles
applied to the selection, representation and definition of words in dictionaries

 Lexicography has its specific metalanguage which is used to describe language as a semiotic
system

 Lexicography studies
 selection of words in dictionaries
 arrangement of dictionary entries
 explanation of meaning
 choice of medium
updating dictionary contents
1) According to purpose
 o General purpose dictionaries – aimed at native speakers of the language

o Learner’s dictionaries – aimed at those learning English as a second of foreign language

 vary according to the level of proficiency – e.g. intermediate, advanced

o Children’s dictionaries – aimed at young learners acquiring English as a native language or

through English-medium instruction

 vary according to age groups

from very young learners to adolescents

2) According to size

 desk size

Oxford English Dictionary (OED)

Webster

 concise size

Collins Cobuild Dictionary

Longman Consize English Dictionary

 pocket size

3) According to the content

 Encyclopaedia – explains the facts the words refer to
 Language – explains the meaning of words and the context of their use

4) According to the historical period

 Diachronic
 historical – Old English, Middle English, Modern English
 etymological – study the origin and the development of the form and meaning of words
 Synchronic
 present modern language,
 dictionaries of previous states of the language without translation into modern English
5) According to the number of languages involved
 Multilingual dictionaries for translation purposes
 bilingual
 plurilingual
 Monolingual (English/English) dictionaries
 explain the meaning of words by periphrastic devices or by using synonyms, antonyms
etc.
6) According to the principle of arrangement
 alphabetical
  frequency
 according to topics – thesaurus
7) Dictionaries according to the medium used
 printed form
 computer dictionaries
 Explain the potential meaning of words which is to be specified in context when the word is
used in communication

 Analytical definitions – categorized the class of items the word refers to and then distinguishes
it from the other members of the class
 phrase definitions use as head elements a word corresponding to the word class of the
word which is being explained
book – a written text that can be published in written or electronic form
play – to take part in a game or other organised activity
 sentence definitions are more appropriate for learners dictionaries asd they seem to
convey a teacher’s voice
A book is a written text that you can publish in written or electronic form.
When you play, especially as a child, you spend time doing and enjoyable and entertaining
activity.

 Definitions using synonyms and antonyms

slow – not quick actually – really

Obscurity – when the meaning of the word in explained
 in terms of more lexical items
take: accept and receive possession of
 by words in a semi-metaphorical meaning
find: to come upon by chance
 by the use of unusual phrases
gather: to bring together in one company or aggregate
 in terms of scientific definitions
air: a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen and other gases which surrounds the earth and forms its
atmosphere

2) Circularity – explain one word recurring to another word, which is in turn explained with reference to
the first (within the definition or the dictionary)
demand: ask for as authority or claim as a right
claim: to demand by or as by virtue of a right
3) Superfluous components – the definition comprises a component which may be removed without
affecting the explicitness of the definition
weapon: an instrument of offensive or defensive combat; something to fight with

4) Accuracy – concerns the level of accuracy of a definition

 inaccuracy occurs when a definition is too broad, i.e. it may cover the whole range of use
of the word itself and more besides
cashier: person in charge of cash
 or when the definition is too narrow, i.e. it does not account for the possible uses of a
word
appointment: a time you have arranged to go and see someone
16. The structure of a dictionary entry.
 Citation form (lemma)

 Phonetical information – transcription

 Spelling – irregular forms

 Morphological information – inflectional forms

 Syntactic information – word class, transitivity, prepositions

 Semantic information – definition of the word

 Sociolinguistic information – register/dialect variation

 Etymological information – origins and historical development of the form/meaning of the word