Elfred, King

An outstanding English King. He lived in Anglo-Saxon times and is famous for his
victories over the Vikings and for the beginnings of reform in Britain. In 871 AD
Alfred ascended the throne of Wessex. He defended England against Danish
invasion, founded the first English navy, and issued a new code of laws.
During his reign (871-899) he was not only famous as a military strategist and a
statesman but also for his educational campaign. Alfred enthusiastically devoted his
attention to reviving and maintaining learning. He brought many notable scholars to
Wessex, making his capital at Winchester a centre of intellectual life.
Among these learned men was Asser, a Welsh monk, who wrote the first biography
of Alfred and assisted the king in translating literary works from Latin to English.
In fact, in his determination to educate as many of his people as possible and to
England a centre of intellectual achievement, Alfred set up a scheme by which certain
important Latin works were translated into English. Some works he translated
himself adding and missing some information from source texts. Alfred supervised
the translation of five major works, including "The Pastoral Care" (Cura Pastoralis)
by Pope Gregory I, the famous "The Consolation of Philosophy" (De Consolatione
Philosophix) by Boethius, Orosius's "World History" (Historiarum Adversus Paganos
Libri Septem), "Seven books of history against the Heathens" and Bede's
"Ecclesiastical History of the English People" (Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis
Anglorum). He also encouraged the continuation of "The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" an
early history of England. The king established a school for young nobles in his court
and restored and promoted the Christian faith. Alfred strengthened the West Saxon
monarchy, thus preparing the way for the eventual union of England under one king.
Amidst the devastation caused by the war against the Danes, he fostered a revival of
religion, education, and literature in Anglo-Saxon England. This was necessary
during his reign because education had declined due to the fact that the Danes were
looting the monasteries and churches which were centres of education.
Alfred believed that learning makes life more rewarding and enjoyable and that the
worst thing of all is ignorance. He contributed his ideas for better education and
social order. There is a story how as a child Alfred won a prize of an illustrated book
from his Mother. This story may be true, or it may be imaginary, though it testifies to
the young Alfred's love of learning. His remarkable achievement rests in creating a
culture in which Old English became recognized as a language of prestige.
Throughout his long reign, Alfred showed himself to be an imaginative military
leader, a wise and determined ruler, and a skilled and charismatic statesman. The title
"Great" was justly given to him because of his leadership over the land and the
people he served. He is the only English monarch to be known as "the Great" and he
well-deserves this title. King Alfred the Great died on October 26, 899 and was
buried in the Old Minster at Winchester
Quotations:
"If Alfred had not come to the throne of Wessex in 871 the course of England and of
its language would no doubt have been immeasurably different. For Alfred's strategy
and tactics in both war and diplomacy enabled him first to regroup his forces and
then, in 886, by the Treaty of Wedmore, establish a truce with the Danish leader
Guthrum which in only translation is more slavish and unidiomatic than others which
we are certain Alfred made. It was probably made by Mercian translators working
under Alfred's influence." [Moore, Knott, Hulbert, 1977:234]

Lindisfarne Monastery
The Anglo-Saxon monastery founded by St Aidan around 635 AD. St Aidan was sent
from the West Coast of Scotland to Northumbria to establish a base for Christian
missions in northern England. He converted Northumbria to Christianity at the
invitation of its king, Oswald. Northumberland's saint, Cuthbert, was a monk and
later the Abbot of the monastery, and his miracles and his life are recorded by the
Venerable Bede. Cuthbert later became Bishop of Lindisfarne. He was buried there
and his remains were later transferred to Durham Cathedral. Lindisfarne is also
known as Holy Island, since it is a tidal island. It is connected to the mainland by a
narrow pathway that is cut off twice a day by tides. The Lindisfarne Gospels, a 7th
century illuminated Latin manuscript was written here, and is now a relic in the
British Museum. The island of Lindisfarne and its very rich monastery was attacked
by the Vikings from the end of 8 century and was eventually ruined by the Danes in
793. See also: Lindisfarne Gospels, the; Scandinavian Invasions
Quotations:
"A high standard of learning was reached in the best English monasteries, especially
in Northumbria, as early as the 8" and 9h c. There was the famous monastery of
Lindisfarne, founded by Aidan, who had come with the Irish priests; the monastery of
Jarrow, where the Venerable Bede, the first English historian, lived and worked.
During the Scandinavian invasions, the Northumbrian culture was largely wiped out.
The monastery at Lindisfarne was destroyed by the Danes in one of their early
plundering attacks. "[Rastorguyeva, 1983:61]
"Lindisfarne, also called Holy Island, is a tidal island off the northeast coast of
England. Home to a population of less than 200, Lindisfarne is connected to the
mainland by a causeway that is cut off twice a day by the tides. " [http://www.sacred-
destinations.com/england/lindisfarne].
"In 793, d Viking raid on Lindisfarne caused much consternation throughout the
Christian west, and is now often taken as the beginning of the Viking Age. The
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records: "In this year fierce, foreboding omens came over the
land of Northumbria. There were excessive whirlwinds, lightning storms, and fiery
dragons were seen flying in the sky. These signs were followed by great famine, and
on January 8th the ravaging of heathen men destroyed God's church at Lindisfarne."
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindisfarne_Gospels].
"Aidan organized the building of the first monastery at Lindisfarne in
635. Aidan and his monks came from the Irish monastery of lona and with the
support of King Oswald worked as missionaries among the English living in
Northumbria. In their monastery they set up the first known school in this area.
Lindisfarne became known for its skill in Christian art of which the Lindisfarne
Gospels are the most important surviving example. Cuthbert became prior of
Lindisfarne in 676. During this period Lindisfarne became known for its skill in
producing illuminated books. When Cuthbert died in 687 the magnificent Lindisfarne
Gospels book was made for the occasion.
Lindisfarne, because it had been the home of St. Aidan and St. Cuthbert, was visited
by pilgrims and it was claimed to be responsible for several miracles."
[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/NORlindisfarne.htm].

"England" and "English", the names

The earliest stage of the language can be named in one of two ways: Old English or
Anglo-Saxon. The Germanic invaders were called by the locals indiscriminately as
Saxons. Latin authors also called all the Germanic inhabitants in Britain as Saxones,
and the country Saxonia. Pope Gregory addressed the king of Kent as Rex Anglorum.
The Venerable Bede entitled his history as Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum.
King Alfred was called Rex Angulsaxonum in his biography. However, the Germanic
invaders called their language Englise (English). The name is a derivative of the
name the Angles (OE Engle), but it was used without distinction for the language of
all the settled tribes, as well as the land. In manuscripts written in the vernacular we
find Angelcynn "race of the Angles"
From the year 1000 the name Englaland begins to be in use. Thus, the name English
is earlier than England. It remains a mystery why the name of the Angles was
ultimately given to the people and to the language. In the 16* century the term
Anglo-Saxon was mostly used to refer to all aspects of the early period - people,
culture and language. But since the 19 century when the history of English came to
be studied thoroughly, Old English has become the correct term for the language. It
suggests the uninterrupting development of English, from the Germanic settlement
through "Middle English" to the present day. Some scholars, however, still use the
term Anglo-Saxon for the language and by this they emphasize the idea that the
nature of the language at this early stage is fairly different from what is later to be
found under the heading English.

Periods in the History of English

The same as: Chronological Division of the History of English, a The English
language looks very different at different stages throughout its development over
fifteen centuries. These differences are at times so drastic that it is reasonable to
distinguish separate periods of language evolution. Periodisation is used only for
learning and research purposes, and we should bear in mind that language evolusion
has been an unbreakable process and any subdivision is conventional and artificial.
The history of English is traditionally divided into three periods: Old English (OE),
Middle English (ME) and New English (NE).
At least two criteria are taken into account to make this division: the internal
(linguistic matters of the language) and external (extralinguistic, historical factors).
A chronological subdivision is attached to some historical events that have a drastic
influence on the change of the language. OE begins in 449, with the Invasion of the
Germanic tribes and ends with the Norman Conquest in 1066; ME lasts from 1066
until 1475, the Introduction of Printing. NE covers the period from 1475 until the
present day. The English scholar, Henry Sweet, divided the history of the English
language by phonetic and morphological features. Thus, Old English is the period of
full endings, Middle English is the period of levelled endings and he calls New
English the period of lost endings. Still the difference of the language within each of
these three periods is so striking that it is fairly reasonable to subdivide them with
more specific boundaries. All in all, the history of English has eight periods. Old
English is divided into Early or Prewritten Old English and Late Old English; Middle
English is divided into Early ME and Late Middle English, or Classical ME. The
latter is also called Chaucer's ME. New English distinguishes three subperiods: Early
NE, also called the Literary Renaissance; the period of Normalization and
Correctness; and Late New English, or Modern English. A special stage, the 8, which
English reaches in its evolution at the end of the 20" c. is called English as a World
Language or International Language, a linqua franca.

Old English Dialects

The local or regional dialects existing in Britain from the fifth till the eleventh
century. There are four of them: Northumbrian, Mercian, Kentish and West Saxon.
They all derived from the tribal dialects of the West Germanic tribes that invaded
Britain in the fifth century. The Northumbrian and Mercian dialects were developed
by the Angles. They were similar, but there were some distinguishing features for
each of them. The Northumbrian dialect was spoken to the north of the Humber, and
the Mercian dialect was spoken between the Humber and the Thames. The Kentish
dialect derived from the tongue of the Frisians and the Jutes. It was spoken in modern
Kent and Surrey. The West Saxon dialect was the dialect of Wessex and was
introduced by the Saxons. Its area was to the south of the Thames and of the Bristol
Channel, except Cornwall, where the Celts lived.
All the dialects were equal in oral speech, though in terms of writing each of them
became dominant as the centre of culture and education moved to each kingdom in
turn. The bulk of the Old English corpus is West Saxon in character, which reflects
the steady growth in West Saxon power during the tenth century. Soon late West
Germanic dialect reached the status of a literary standard. Due to this, and also
because most of the Old English literature survived in West Saxon, it is considered
the basis for Old English Studies. It is obvious been more than four dialects at this
time. And though linguistically recognizable are only four dialects, scholars admit the
existence of a wide range of local dialects, particularly if we take into account the
huge territory the dialects were scattered over. These four are distinguished by
scholars on the basis of the surviving literary texts. Most of the conclusions on
dialects were made from the phonological and morphological variations found in the
texts. The phonology and the morphology variations are extremely important for
dialect identity, because they are likely to turn up fairly frequently in a text. On the
contrary, vocabulary variations as a criterion for dialectal divergence are not
verifiable. When the entire corpus is so small, it is difficult to be sure whether a word
is genuinely dialectal or not. If a word is registered only in a West Saxon text, it does
not mean that it is a West Saxon dialect word; it may well be just a word which
happens not to be recorded in the texts of any of the other dialects. The real problem
for scholars is to decide which bits of the variation are random errors and which
reflect some aspect of the sociolinguistic situation of the time. The boundaries
between the dialects are vague. Most texts include evidence of more than one dialect,
and this immensely complicates any question of origin.

BEDE ( 673-735)
The first English historian, scientist and philologist. He lived in the North of England.
At the age of seven he was taken to the monastery of Wearmouth in Northumbria and
later joined the monastery at Jarrow. He became a deacon at nineteen and a priest at
thirty, working as a writer and a teacher. He was buried at Jarrow and his remains
later were moved to Durham Cathedral. He was canonized as a Saint and is often
referred to as The Venerable Bede. Bede began his work on history in his late fifties,
and finished it only four years before he died. Almost everything we know about
Bede comes from an autobiographical chapter at the end of his History. He also lists
in detail all his works: more than 35 papers on theology, treatises on language and
natural science; biographies, letters, compilations and histories. Bede's famous
Ecclesiastical History of the English People was written in Latin (Historia
Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum) and remains a masterpiece. The purpose of this work
was to tell the story of Christianity in Britain but in doing so he became the first to
give a full account of the history of England. He is also regarded as the earliest
literary source for the events which formed a nation. At the time when most
"historical" writing was inconsistent and ambiguous, Bede's Ecclesiastical History of
the English People maintained a high standard of accuracy, order, and verification of
sources. It is also well written and sustained the interest of readers both during and
after the Middle Ages. However, it lacks precision in some issues, which is inevitable
as Bede's history was written almost 300 years after the events it describes and was
focusing on only one aim - the history of Christianity. It is also acknowledged that
some events were presented superficially ignoring other Roman sources.

Christianization of Britain, the

The conversion of Britain to Roman Christianity began in 597 though the religion
was not entirely new in the island. This religion had already been introduced through
the Romans, and the Celts were the first to be influenced by this faith. There is no
evidence of when the first Christian arrived in Britain, but the earliest archaeological
evidence of British Christianity dates from around
200 AD. However, some Anglo-Saxons were not converted until the middle of the
eighth century, and some pagan customs held out for centuries. The process of
Christianization took place at least in two waves. According to Bede, Pope Gregory
the Great sent a mission to Britain, of about forty monks, headed by St. Augustine,
They made Canterbury a centre of their religion and gradually spread it throughout
the country. The success of their mission can be explained by the support of the royal
court. The second wave was spreading from the North, where Irish monks started
preaching the gospel and establishing monasteries.
Unlike St Augustine's campaign, their preliminary goal was the conversion of simple
inhabitants. Christianity in its Roman form was particularly attractive to Anglo-Saxon
rulers who wanted to strengthen links between their kingdoms and the more
developed areas of the Continent. The introduction of Christianity had an immediate
and great impact on the English language. It is not merely that a new religion
enriched Old English with new words, which are estimated as up to 400 lexemes, but
also that it gave the possibility to express abstract ideas. Thus the semantics of
vocabulary were increased. Conversion to Christianity changed the language in the
following ways: it brought a large church vocabulary; it introduced words and ideas
from different countries; and it caused the Anglo-Saxons to change the meaning of
existing words. Church words came from Latin, Greek and Hebrew. Of Latin origin
are the words: munuc (monk), biscop, disciple. But Psalter; pope, apostle are loan-
words from Greek. Sabbath came from Hebrew.
The Old English words: God, hell, heaven were given a more subtle meaning.
The introduction of Christianity was a cultural revolution which through building
monasteries and schools stimulated education, literacy and writing manuscripts.
Christians after all were supposed to read and understand the Bible and that, in itself,
intensified interest for learning. The manuscripts registered the dialects and served
the unification of the language. In fact, there are no written records available which
are not connected with Christianity. The most remarkable achievement of the
Conversion is the borrowing of the Roman alphabet and the translation of famous
religious books into Old English. This is a very poorly documented period in British
history, and the rise of Christianity and decline and eventual end of British paganism
is difficult to comprehend from a short description.

Runic Inscriptions
The earliest written records in Old English using the runic alphabet. The runes were
of an angular shape so as to be easily carved in wood or stone. They could represent a
whole word or a separate letter and were used for magical rituals. The peculiarity of
the runic inscription is the absence of horizontal strokes, although this characteristic
is shared by other alphabets. There are about forty runic inscriptions in Old English.
The two most famous runic inscriptions are on the "Franks Casket" (an inscription on
a box) and the "Ruthwell Cross" - a short text on a stone cross in Dumfriesshire in the
village of Ruthwell. These records are in the Northumbrian dialect.
Quotations:
"The largest group of surviving runic inscription are Viking Age lounger Futhark
runestones, most commonly found in Sweden. Another large group are medieval
runes, most commonly found on small objects, often wooden sticks. The largest
concentration of runic inscriptions is the Bargen inscriptions found in Bergen, more
than 650 in total. Elder Futhark inscriptions number around 350, about 260 of which
are from Scandinavia. Anglo-Saxon futhore inscriptions number around 100 items...
Unlike the situation on the continent, the tradition of runic writing does not disappear
in England after Christianization but continues for a full three centuries, disappearing
after the Norman Conquest. " [http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Runic inscriptions
"We have no sustained runic documents, however; what we do have are inscriptions
on crosses, art objects, headstones, and weapons. There is a beautiful little ivory box
in the British Museum with runic writing on it, probably from the early eighth
century, telling part of a story about the smith god of Northern mythology, Waeland.
There is also a massive cross, also probably from the eighth century, in Northern
England on which is inscribed, in runes, part of a poem about Christ's original cross.
Scandinavian Influence
The change in the English language which was caused by the Scandinavian invasions.
Though the invasions took place from 787 until 1041 evidence of its influence can be
traced much later in the twelfth century. For 300 years the influx of Scandinavians
was unevenly spread throughout time, as well as the areas. Thus the intensity of the
impact on English is not the same at all times. After a certain stage of assimilation
with British locals the Scandinavians gave up their language.
In other places, however, their language was spoken for a remarkably long time.
The gradual fusion of two peoples in Britain was facilitated by having a common
language group and the resemblance of their languages. The Anglo-Saxons and the
Danes mainly did not have linguistic obstacles. Some scholars doubt that their
respective languages were mutually intelligible. Some scholars, however, express a
revolutionary view that an Anglo-Danish creole was established. One way or the
other, a linguistic fusion took place. It had a considerable effect on all language levels
in English - phonetics, lexis and grammar. The full extent of the invasions can be
measured by the considerable number of place-names in the north-eastern part of
England, in Danelaw. They are one of the most important linguistic developments of
this period. Modern estimates suggest over 2,000 place-names found throughout the
area. Over 600 place-names in modern Britain have the suffix -by, which in Old
Norse means 'town', as in Derby, Grimsby, Westerby, Appleby and Whitby. Lots of
place-names end in -thorpe, "village', as in Millthorpe, Bishopsthorpe, Linthorpe; -
thwaite isolated piece of land', as in Braithwaite and Langthwaite. Some 300 names
like Sandtoft, Lowestoft contain the ending -toft, meaning 'homestead'
• Sometimes place-names can be a combination of Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian
names, but sometimes the whole word is a purely Norse word. Similarly, a high
percentage of Scandinavian words can be found in personal names, such as in -son,
Johnson, Widowson and Anderson. Since the two peoples lived intimately and their
languages were simila, it is very difficult to determine with accuracy Scandinavian
borrowings in English.
Some words, however, can be identified as of Scandinavian origin. Often, a word of
Scandinavian origin can be determined by the fact that it does not occur in Old
English, but does occur in Scandinavian. An example is the verb, "to take", which is
Scandinavian taka. This is not found in Old English, which uses the verb niman.
Many of the Scandinavian words have since disappeared from the English language,
but quite a number remain. We find the legal and administrative terms, such as the
words -- thrall, law, by-law, crave and riding. The largest group of words represents
seafaring, words like barda (ship), ceanerr (small warship), lip (fleet), dreng
(warrior), orrest (battle) and ran (robbery). Many of the words adopted were homely
and everyday lexemes. Thus the word sister is taken from Scandinavian. So are the
names of parts of the body leg and neck. Other common names from Old Norse
include: sky, knife, skin, dirt, cake and fellow, anger, are, awe, awkward, bag, billow,
birth, blunder, both, bulk, bull, call, cast, club, crawl, creek, die, dirt, egg, gawk, get,
gift, give, gosling, guest, gust, hack, hit, husband, knife, lad, law, loose, low, mire,
mistake, muck, mug, oat, odd, plough (plow), raft, raise, ransack, reindeer, rive, root,
rune, scarf, score, scrap, scrape, seem, skate (fish), skill, skin, skirt, slaughter, sleight,
snub, stagger, steak, take, talk, tarn, their, they, thrift, troll, wand, want, weak, whirl,
whisk, window, wing. Everyday adjectives include wrong, low, loose, odd, flat and
ugly. Among the everyday verbs are: get, give, call, want, take, drag, smile, thrive,
die etc. The conjunction though is also from Scandinavian. So are more remarkably
the pronouns they, them and their.
As Jespersen claims, such words as pronouns are rarely borrowed by one language
from another, which once more proves the mixture of two peoples, their linguistic
fusion and pidginization of the language. On the phonological level Old English had
a palatal g and Scandinavian a velar g. An example is the word for 'egg', which was
in Old English ag and in Scandinavian egg. Obviously, therefore, the modern word,
egg comes from Scandinavian. Similarly Old English sometimes had palatal c where
Scandinavian retained the velar k. That is why church is English and kirk is
Scandinavian. Again Germanic sk did not become palatalized in Scandinavian as it
did in Old English. Thus shirt is English and skirt, Scandinavian. The influence on
English morphology is also obvious. The suppletive form of to be, which is, are, has a
Scandinavian origin. But of all the effects the shift of English from the synthetic into
the analytical type of language is the most remarkable feature. The lexical similarity
between the two languages on the one hand, and the differences in endings, on the
other, stimulated the dropping of inflections, and thus, the simplification of the
grammatical system. No wonder that the decay of the OE declension started from
northern dialects and ended up with the southern ones.

Augustine, St (?-604)
Augustine is the Roman monk who was in charge of the missionaries sent to Britain
by Pope Gregory the Great to convert Britain to Christianity. The mission took place
in the 6" century and it was not an easy task. St Augustine had to introduce a new
Christian philosophy to an Anglo-Saxon pagan society.
Fortunately, there was one circumstance which made the task easier - Christianity
was not an entirely new religion on the island. There were some small numbers of
Christians in Kent and in Northumbria. Our knowledge of this mission derives
entirely from Bede, who claims that Augustine and forty Roman monks left Rome
and arrived in Britain in spring 597. One hundred years after the beginning of St
Augustine's mission all England became Christian. The missionaries' principal task
was to establish schools for training local priests. They also brought books and
ecclesiastical relics to England from Rome. One of these books survives as St
Augustine's Gospels. Quotations:
"Augustine's choice had long-lasting historical consequences, as to this day the
Church of England is headed by the archbishop of Canterbury.
Augustine succeeded in converting the king of Kent, Ethelbert (d. 616), whose wife
Bertha was a daughter of the Christian French king Charibert.
This set a precedent for the conversion of the English, which followed a top-down
pattern. The key to the conversion of an Anglo-Saxon kingdom was the king, the
queen, and the top nobles. A Christianized leadership would then support the
missionary effort among the common people. "[Burns, 2009:29]
"Some years later, however, when he [Pope Gregory] had become pope, he had not
forgotten his former intention and looked about for someone whom he could send at
the head of a missionary band. Augustine, the person of his choice, was a man well
known to him. The two had lived together in the same monastery, and Gregory knew
him to be modest and devout and thought him well suited to the task assigned him.
With a little company of about forty monks Augustine set out for what seemed then
like the end of the earth." [Baugh & Cable, 1993:81]
"In 597 AD Augustine and his fellow missionaries arrived in Britain and began the
gradual process of converting its inhabitants. The event is recorded in Bede's
Ecclesiastical History, and also in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (the Parker Chronicle,
the oldest manuscript of the Chronicle which is also known as the A version,
attributes it to 601 AD; the Peterborough Chronicle records it twice, once under 596
AD and once under 601AD). Fascinating from the linguistic perspective is Bede's
account, also in his Ecclesiastical History, of how this missionary project came to be
conceived. "[Irvine,2006:40]
"In due course King Ethelberht himself was converted, and by the end of 597
Gregory could write that Augustine had baptized more than 10,000 converts to the
faith. "[The Wiley Blackwell Encyelopedia of Anglo-Saxon England, 2014:54]

Scandinavian Invasions
The same as Viking Invasions. The invasions of Britain by the inhabitants of the
Scandinavian peninsula and Denmark who were closely related to British population
in language and culture. The Invasions took place from the middle of the eighth
century to the beginning of the eleventh century. The invaders were called by the
English the Danes, although, apart from the Danes, there were considerable
Norwegian settlements in north-west England. The fight by English against
Scandinavian attacks on Britain lasted over 300 years. Traditionally the whole period
of invasion is divided into three. The first stage, according to the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle, started in 787. These first invaders were small bands who attacked and
plundered the north-east areas of England. They also raided and ruined the
monasteries at Lindisfarne and at Jarrow, the centres of education and religion. There
was no permanent settlement during that time and the attacks were not organized.
The second stage started with the arrival of a Danish fleet of 350 ships in 850. In this
period there were a number of attacks and battles which ended in victories and
defeats for both sides. During King Alfred's reign (871-
899) the Danes made an attempt to capture Wessex. The battle at Ethandum (now
Edington) resulted in an overwhelming victory for the English and a capitulation by
the Danes. The treaty of Wedmore which was signed by Alfred and the Danish king
Guthrum is a milestone in the second stage of the invasions. According to this treaty
the north-eastern part of England remained under the Danish legal system and is
known as the Danelaw. The south-western part of Britain was ruled by Alfred. The
border ran along the ancient road, known as Watling Street, from Chester to London.
In addition, the Danes agreed to be converted to Christianity and Guthrum was
baptized into the Christian church. His conversion was of great significance. It was
not only a means of controlling the fulfilment of the treaty, but also led to
intermarriages and thus the intermingling of the Anglo-Saxon and the Danish peoples
in the area. The third stage of Danish invasions lasted from 878 till 1042, and is
characterized by new attacks and battles as well as rather peaceful settlement of the
Danish aristocracy and farmers. The arrival of the Viking fleet under Olaf
Tryggvason, the Battle at Maldon, the joint attack on London by the king of Norway
and the king of Denmark, Svein, were landmarks of that period. In 1014 Svein made
himself King of England. Three years later his son Cut succeeded him and for the
next twenty-five years England was under the reign of Danish kings. It is quite risky
to generalize about the Scandinavian settlements. First of all, the invasion was not a
product of one large enterprise, but of different waves of invasions and settlements.
The relationship of the English population with the newcomers was different
depending on the circumstances of the settlement: intermarriage and intermingling
were much more likely when the lands was bought by the Vikings or otherwise
legally acquired; contact was less likely when the newcomers had violently taken the
land. No matter what, favourable conditions for amalgamating the two races were
established. This amalgamation was largely facilitated by a close kinship in the style
of life and between the English and the Scandinavian languages. See also:
Scandinavian Influence; Danelaw, the; Alfred, King; "The Battle of Maldon";
Scandinavian Loan Words; Viking Invasions
Quotations:
"It is clear that some sort of change occurred in Scandinavia that spurred on the
Viking dispersals, but we cannot be sure whether it was famine or some other
economic crisis, or a need to explore and conquer, or a combination or succession of
these.
There are two possible etymologies for the word Viking: one is that it could derive
from the Old Norse word vik, which means, 'bay', suggesting a man from the bays or
inlets of the North Sea', while the other is that it derives from the Anglo-Frisian word
wic, meaning settlement, so that means quite simply, ' settlers'. These possible
etymologies reinforce the ambiguity surrounding the nature of the Scandinavian
invader, one suggesting the marauding seafarer, and the other the farmer who settles
side by side with his Germanic kin. " [Fennell,2004:58]
"We also have to be careful about assuming that a Scandinavian name always reflects
an original Danish or Norwegian settlement. It is likely that a local Danish
aristocracy sometimes imposed a Scandinavian name on an Anglo-Saxon community,
as the mark of a local 'empire'. Some of the relational names, such as Netherby
"lower farmstead' and Westby 'west farmstead", could easily have arisen in that way.
It is also possible that some native Anglo-Saxon communities voluntarily adopted a
Norse name, perhaps because of social relationship which had evolved with the
incomers.
But whatever the social situation, the Danelaw displays a significant level of place-
name influence throughout. " [Crystal, 2005:67-68/
...in spite of certain native customs that the Danes continued to observe, they
assimilated to most of the ways of English life. That many of them early accepted
Christianity is attested by the large number of Scandinavian names, found not only
among monks and abbots, priests and bishops, but also among those who gave land to
monasteries and endowed churches.

Runes
The ancient Germanic signs, used for writing and magic rituals. Each rune had its
own name and could stand for a sound, a word or a notion. They were used
throughout northern Europe, Scandinavia, the British Isles, and Iceland. The Old
Germanic Runic alphabet or «Elder Futhark» contains 24 runes. The names of the
first six runes of the alphabet gave the name to the runic alphabet «FUTHARK».
The number of runes in different OG languages varied. It was the largest in England;
all in all 33 symbols, as new runes were added to represent new sounds appearing in
English. The origins of the runic alphabet are uncertain. The three best-known runic
alphabets are the Elder Futhark, the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc, and the Younger Futhark.
The word rune originally meant 'secret' and 'mystery'. The angular shape of the runes
is typical for most contemporary alphabets of the period and this helped carving in
wood or stone. A peculiarity of the runic alphabet is the absence of horizontal
strokes, although this characteristic is also shared by other alphabets, such as the
early form of the Latin alphabet. See also: Franks Casket;
Ruthwell Cross; Futharc; Runic Inscriptions; Alphabet, the OE Roman
Quotations:
"No one knows exactly where the alphabet came from, but it seems to be a
development of one of the alphabets of southern Europe, probably the Roman, which
runes resemble closely. ...Current research suggests that the word rune had been
thoroughly assimilated into Anglo-Saxon Christianity, and meant simply sharing of
knowledge or thoughts. ... Modern English rune is not even a survival of the Old
English word, but a later borrowing from Norse via Latin." [Crystal, 1995:9].
"Neither on the mainland nor in Britain were the runes ever used for everyday writing
or for putting down poetry and prose works. Their main function was to make short
inscriptions on objects, often to bestow on them some special power or magic."
[Rastorguyeva, 1983:64].
"The earliest records of any Germanic language are in runes. Runic writing was a
system that the early Germanic peoples developed for inscribing names and short
texts on wood, bone, or stone. It was originally an epigraphic script: that is, a way of
writing on objects, not on parchment or paper. No one is quite sure how runes
originated, but it is clear that by the fourth century AD,

Pope Gregory the Great

Pope Gregory the First is also known as the Great. He was a Roman Catholic pope
and was made a Saint. Pope Gregory is famous for sending a mission to Britain in the
sixth century with the purpose of converting pagan Anglo-Saxons to Christianity.
This mission was successful and the Christian religion spread from Britain to other
European countries. See also: Chistianization of Britain, the;
Conversion to Christianity, the; Augustine, St;
Quotations:
"According to the well-known story reported by Bede as a tradition current in his
day, the mission of St. Augustine was inspired by an experience of the man who later
became Pope Gregory the Great. Walking one morning in the marketplace at Rome,
he came upon some fair-haired boys about to be sold as slaves and was told that they
were from the island of Britain and were pagans. "'Alas! what pity, 'said he, 'that the
author of darkness is possessed of men of such fair countenances, and that being
remarkable for such a graceful exterior, their minds should be void of inward grace?'
He therefore again asked, what was the name of that nation and was answered, that
they were called Angles. Right, 'said he, 'for they have an angelic face, and it is fitting
that such should be co-heirs with the angels in heaven. What is the name,
'proceeded he, of the province from which they are brought?' It was replied that the
natives of that province were called Deiri. 'Truly are they de ira' said he, 'plucked
from wrath, and called to the mercy of Christ.
How is the king of that province called?' They told him his name was Alla; and he,
alluding to the name, said 'Alleluia, the praise of God the Creator, must be sung in
those parts. ''[Baugh & Cable, 1993:80-81]
Heptachy, the Anglo-Saxon
The name of a group of several small Anglo-Saxon kingdoms founded by the West
Germanic tribes after invading Britain. At least seven of them are known:
Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Kent, Essex, Sussex and Wessex. Each of the
kingdoms was established by a specific tribe and each took supremacy and became
culturally, military and economically important at various times.
Quotations:
"At times one or the other (kingdoms) was more dominant and some of the kings
gained fame for spreading the rule beyond his original borders, over another of the
kingdoms, e.g. Northumbria had political and cultural supremacy over a number of
kingdoms at the beginning of the seventh century, Kent under king AEthelberht
(c.560-616) dominated part of the political scene, Mercia held leadership in the
eighth century and Wessex kings claimed to be kings of England throughout the ninth
century. Under Alfred the Great (871-899) Wessex became politically and culturally
the leading kingdom of England, paving the way for the future political unification of
the country." [Fisiak, 2000:42]
...the grouping [of the kingdoms - O.K.] was not very permanent, sometimes two or
more being united under one king, at other times kingdoms being divided under
separate rulers. In the early part of the seventh century Northumbria gained political
supremacy over a number of other kingdoms and held an undoubted leadership in
literature and learning as well. In the eighth century this leadership passed to Mercia.
Finally, in the ninth century, Wessex under the guidance of Egbert (802-839) began
to extend its influence until in 830 all England, including the chieftains of Wales,
acknowledged Egbert's overlordship. The result can hardly be called a united
kingdom, but West Saxon kings were able to maintain their claim to be kings of all
the English, and under Alfred (871-889) Wessex attained a high degree of prosperity
and considerable enlightenment." [Baugh & Cable, 1993:40/

Germanic Settlement in Britain, the

Otherwise called the Invasion of Britain by the West Germanic Tribes, and it took
place in the year 449. This event is first mentioned by Bede, a monastic scholar, in
his Ecclesiastical History of the English People. These invaders belonged to the
western branch of Germanic tribes and they became the founders of the English
nation. As stated by Bede: "Those who came over were the three most powerful
nations of Germany - Saxons, Angles, and Jutes?" We are told, two Germanic leaders
Hengist and Horsa from Jutland in modern Denmark were invited by the British king
Vortigern to come and to help militarily in a civil war in exchange for some land. The
Germanic settlement is considered to be a more or less peaceful process as compared
with Roman or Norman conquests. For more than a hundred years the invaders
gradually migrated from their homes in Denmark and the Low Countries and settled
in the island. The Angles came from the middle of the Danish peninsula, the Jutes
from the northern part, the Frisians and the
Saxons from the west and the south of the Angles. The participation of some tribes in
the invasion is still being questioned. The major problem is regarding the Jutes and
Frisians. Some historians believe that the Jutes did not exist. Bede mentioned them
only once. And Procopious (in Caesura' De bello gothico) speaks only about Frisians
and Angles. The archaeological evidence suggests that the Jutes had no clear ethnic
identity when they crossed the Channel. Before settling in Kent they must have
merged with Frisian and Frankish tribes. The Saxons occupied territory along the
south coast and on both banks of the Thames and formed the kingdoms of Wessex,
Essex, Sussex and later Middlesex. The last wave of invasion was by the Angles.
They established their settlement along the east coast and founded some kingdoms to
the north of the Humber: Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. See also: Germanic
Tribes, the West; Angles, the; Saxons, the; Frisians, the; Jutes, the; Franks, the; Bede;
"The Ecclesiastical History of the English People"

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the

A year-by-year record of the important events of English history from the Roman
invasion to the 11th century. It is given in the form of a series of chronological
records written in Old English by monks. The Chronicle was started in the 9th
century at various monasteries, during the reign of King Alfred and initiated by
Alfred himself. It continued to the 12th century. The Chronicle, comprising seven
different manuscripts, forms a unique record of early English history and of the
development of Old English prose up to its final stages in the year 1154, by which
date it had been replaced by Middle English. In the 9th century the chronicles were
unified at Winchester and then copied out by monks.
Several versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle have survived. The Chronicle is
valuable linguistically as a sample of Old English prose and syntax, free from Latin
influence. However, it is hard to judge OE syntax from it as the style represents oral
speech. Early entries in Anglo-Saxon historical records are not always authentic or
reliable. See also: Alfred, King; Old English Prose
Quotations:
"Having no particular literary value they are of greatest interest to the philologist, as
they afford a closer approach to spoken OE than 0E poetry or prose translations from
Latin; the style lacks conciseness, the syntax is primitive, for it reflects faithfully the
style of oral narration. " [Rastorgueva, 1983:671
"Copies of this Chronicle were distributed throughout the realm, and the annual
record of happenings in England was continued by various hands in various places,
sometimes only a short while after the events occurred.

Jarrow Monastery
One of the twin Anglo-Saxon monasteries at Wearmouth and Jarrow of the seventh
century with two Abbey Churches of St Peter and St Paul respectively. They were
founded in 674 by a Northumbria nobleman Benedict Biscop. The Venerable Bede
described them as one monastery in two places' and in its day, it was one of the
world's greatest and most influential cultural centres. The two monasteries were
closely connected and functioned as one unit, so they are often referred to as one
monastery, though there is a distance of seven miles between them. Wearmouth-
Jarrow was the first ecclesiastical structure in Britain built in stone, richly decorated
with stained glass which was also a novelty. Benedict himself was the first abbot, and
Jarrow prospered under him and his successor, St Ceolfrith.
On his travels to Rome Benedict collected books for the renowned monastery library.
The library became a cradle for English literature. The monastery was the home of
one of the most eminent theologians and historians of the age, the Venerable Bede,
who left a legacy of about 60 remarkable written texts which have survived across the
ages. Bede entered St Peter's aged seven and spent his life in the twin monastery of
Wearmouth-Jarrow. He records this himself.
Inspired by scholarship and a new style of monastic life, he dedicated his life to
study. He received his early education under Ceolfith's patronage and lived, wrote
and died as a monk. In the 10205 some bones, thought to be Bede's remains, were
taken from Jarrow to Durham Cathedral. From its foundation in the seventh century
until its destruction by Scandinavian raiders in the ninth century, Wearmouth-Jarrow
operated as a centre of learning, hosting travellers, pilgrims and royalty from across
Europe. The monastery declined in the 9" century and was re-founded in the eleventh
century.
During the period of Viking raids the history of the monastery is obscure. Jarrow was
destroyed by the Danes in 794. See also: Bede; Scandinavian Invasions;
Quotations:
"A high standard of learning was reached in the best English monasteries, especially
in Northumbria, as early as the 8h and 9 c. There was the famous monastery of
Lindisfarne, founded by Aidan, who had come with the Irish priests; the monastery of
Jarrow, where the Venerable Bede, the first English historian, lived and worked.
During the Scandinavian invasions, the Northumbrian culture was largely wiped out.
" [Rastorguyeva, 1983:61] ...by 700 several major centres of learning had emerged in
the north, notably at Jarrow, Durham, and Lindisfarne, with Bede and later Alcuin
producing influential works.
"[Crystal, 2004:38]
"Bede wrote more than 60 books but despite his immense scholarship, he rarely left
the monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow, where he was brought up and spent most of his
life. The monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow was a religious house on two separate
sites, which flourished during the seventh century, a golden age of learning and
culture in Northumbria, when Bede was alive.
The church of St Peter's, at Wearmouth, was founded by Northumbrian noble
Benedict Biscop, who also founded St Paul's at Jarrow, seven miles away.
Together, the two monasteries acted as one monastic site, which Bede was to call 'one
monastery in two places". Rachel Bellerby, 2009]
"Bede was born in Northumbria, in around the year AD 673. He was taken by his
family to St Peter's Monastery, Wearmouth at the age of seven.
During the early middle Ages, it was fairly common practice for families to give a
child to the care of a religious house, knowing that that child would be educated and
cared for until adulthood. At the time of Bede's entry, the monastery of Wearmouth-
Jarrow had recently been founded by Benedict Biscop, and monks at the twin site
seem to have spent their time split between the two monasteries, moving freely as the
need arose. Biscop set up the religious houses following six inspiring visits to Rome,
after which, he decided to try to replicate what he had seen in Italian churches, using

Kentish Dialect, the

One of the four Old English dialects which were spoken in the area now known as
Kent and Surrey and in the Isle of Wight. It derived from the tribal dialects of the
Frisians and the Jutes. The dialect is known from limited sources, mainly charters and
glosses of the eighth century and medical recipes, the Kentish Hymn, the Kentish
Psalm and the Kentish Proverb of the tenth century.
Quotations:
"The evidence for a Kentish dialect is thin, with just a few documents, glosses, and
poetic texts, chiefly ninth/tenth century, displaying features that seem to be south-
eastern in character. Although not numerous, these features are none the less among
the most interesting in the early history of English. Several, indeed, exercise a
permanent influence on the language, being taken up by some Middle English writers
(notably, Chaucer) and eventually entering Standard English. "[Crystal, 2004:37]

Mercian Dialect, the

One of the four Old English dialects which was developed and spoken by the Angles
between the rivers Humber and Thames. Like the Northumbrian dialect, it had
Anglian features. However, being similar, they still differed a great deal.
This difference testifies to a new dialectal subdivision: not tribal but regional.
The dialect is registered in the Charters and the Corpus and Epinal glosses of the
eighth century, in the Vespasian Psalter and Lorica glosses of the ninth century, and
in Royal and Rushworth Gospel glosses of the tenth century. See also: Old English
Dialects; Mercia
Quotations:
"The growth of Mercia as a political power and a centre of culture and learning,
during the eighth century, is reflected in the survival of several texts from that period.
The most important are glossaries in which many of the forms display a distinctive
West Midlands character, notably the Corpus and Vespasian Psalter texts. A
surprising number of charters, land records, and other official documents have also
survived... and they show many Mercian features. By no means, all of these texts
were actually written in Mercia, but they do contain features which could only have
been produced by people who were either from Mercia or whose speech had been
influenced by Mercians. Canterbury, in particular, attracted scholars from all over the
country, given its status as an authoritative religious centre within England.
Several eighth-century archbishops, indeed, were from the Midlands, and we can well
imagine that their speech would have provided a prestigious model. Mercian dialect
features would easily find their way into Kentish texts, as a consequence. The same
influence was later apparent in Wessex, at the end of the eighth century, when Alfred
began to realize his vision of a cultural renaissance. To achieve his aims, in the
absence of local expertise, he needed help from outside, which he found by
employing such scholars as Waerferp and Plegemund, who came from Mercia. "

Northumbrian Dialect, the

One of the four Old English dialects which was spoken by the Angles north of the
river Humber. It had Anglian features but still differed from the Mercian dialect,
which was also Anglian by origin. This difference testifies to a new dialectal
subdivision: not tribal but regional. The dialect is also presented in runic inscriptions:
the Ruthwell Cross, the Frank's Casket; in poetry attributed to Cadmon and
Cynewulf; in Beowulf and in the elegiac poems the Seafarer and the Wanderer. See
also: Old English Dialects; Nothumbria
Quotations:
"The early appearance of Northumbrian texts is not surprising when we recall that by
700 several major centres of learning had emerged in the north, notably at Jarrow,
Durham, and Lindisfarne, with Bede and later Alcuin producing influential works.
The amount of language in these texts is not large, but there are enough variant forms
used in a consistent way to indicate that a distinctive Northumbrian dialect existed by
the beginning of the eighth century... Interlinear glosses from the late tenth century
confirm the character of the dialect, notably those added to the Lindisfarne and
Rushworth Gospels.
The absence of Northumbrian texts between the eighth and tenth centuries is a further
result of the Viking burnings. "[Crystal, 2004:38]
"Northumbria was the first area of Anglo-Saxon efflorescence. The historian known
as the Venerable Bede, who completed his Ecclesatical History of the English Church
and Peoples in 731, was a Northumbrian (though he wrote in Latin). So, too, was
Caedmon, perhaps the first known poet in the English language. The great Bibles and
Gospels of early English life were produced in Northumbria, enormous hand-made
manuscripts, rich with illumination and color. The earliest written records we have in
Old English are interlinear glosses or translations of these Latin texts written in the
Northumbrian dialect." [Lerer, 2008:31]

West Saxon dialect

One of the four Old English dialects. It was spoken in Wessex from the fifth till the
eleventh centuries. It is the main dialect of the Saxons as other Saxon dialects have
not survived in written forms and so remain obscure. The boundaries of the dialect
are to the south of the Thames and the Bristol Channel, except for Cornwall, where
the Celts lived. It was the dominant dialect in writing when Wessex became a centre
of culture and education. Most Old English literature that exists now is written in the
West Saxon dialect. Therefore it serves as a source for Old English Studies. Samples
of the dialect are represented in the Charters, the Cura Pastoralis, and the Anglo-
Saxon Chronicle, as well as in medical recipes.
It seems that all scribes wrote and copied manuscripts in this prestigious written
form. Well-known poems appear to have been written originally in other Old English
dialects, but they were later "translated" into the standard Late West Saxon literary
language. There were two stages of the West Saxon dialect: Early West Saxon (9th
century) and Late West Saxon (10th century). Early West Saxon was the language of
King Alfred (849-899). By the eleventh century, the language had evolved into Late
West Saxon, which is sometimes referred to as Classic West-Saxon. Late West Saxon
was the dialect that became the first "standardised" written English (called "the
Winchester standard"). This dialect was spoken mostly in the south and west of
England around the important monastery at Winchester, which was also the capital
city' of the English kings. See also: Old English Dialects