Atmosphere and Weather

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ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER
The diurnal (daily) energy budget
Diurnal: refers to the differences between day and night.
The diurnal (daily) energy budget accounts for how much energy is received by the Earth and its
atmosphere from the Sun each day, how much energy is then lost to space, as well as how much
energy is retained by the Earth and its atmosphere. An energy budget can also be defined as
the amount of energy entering a system, the amount leaving the system, and the transfer of
energy within the system. Energy budgets are commonly considered at a global scale (macro
scale) and at a local scale (micro scale).The main parts of the diurnal energy budget are
summarized in fig 2.1.
 Quantifying changes in the incoming, absorbed and outgoing radiation is required to

accurately model the Earth's climate and predict climate change.
 During the hours of daylight, the Earth receives incoming solar radiation, some of
which is then reflected by clouds and the Earth's surface; some is absorbed into the
surface and sub-surface, which then transfers this heat to the overlying atmosphere – an
example of sensible heat transfer. This energy may then be lost to space by long-wave
earth radiation. Latent heat transfer may take place when some of this energy is
absorbed by, or released from a substance during a phase change, for example from a gas
to a liquid or a solid or vice versa, for example, when water changes to water vapour by
evaporation.
 The process of evaporation may then be reversed when the water vapour is changed back
to water by the process of condensation.
BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

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 During the night, the Earth continues to emit long wave earth radiation and latent
heat transfer can take place resulting in the formation of dew. Dew is droplets of water
that appear on exposed objects in the early morning or evening due to condensation. As
the exposed surface cools by radiating its heat, water vapour condenses at a rate greater
than it can evaporate, resulting in the formation of water droplets. Sensible heat transfer
may again take place and absorbed energy is returned to the Earth.
November 2020
5(b) Explain the diurnal energy budget. [8]
The diurnal budget includes both daytime and night time budgets. Description and explanation
will be in terms of incoming short wave radiation, radiation absorption, latent heat transfer,
sensible heat transfer and outgoing long wave radiation. The first two components will be
missing at night time.
June 2020
2 (a) (i) Fig. 2.1 shows a simplified diagram of one part of the energy budget over land.

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Using Fig. 2.1: calculate the value of energy at A in W/m2 [1] =136
2(a) (ii) Using Fig. 2.1: name transfer B. [1]

Reflected solar radiation from surface
2(b) With reference to Fig. 2.1, describe how solar radiation is absorbed. [4]
The three main points are:
•Some gases in atmosphere absorb certain wavelengths of radiation, which gain energy and heat
up
• absorbed by water vapour/dust/ozone in the atmosphere
• absorbed by clouds (water vapour etc. as above)
• absorbed by conduction on the Earth’s surface
2(c) Explain why reflected solar radiation from clouds may vary over time.
• thickness of clouds
• density of clouds
• type of cloud
• altitude of cloud
• presence or absence of clouds
• composition of the particles within clouds
1 mark for each simple explanation, 2 marks for each developed explanation up to the
maximum. Development may come from the depth of the explanation or the linking of factors
together.
INCOMING (SHORTWAVE) SOLAR RADIATION

 The Earth's main source of energy is incoming short wave solar radiation from the Sun.
This energy fuels the Earth's weather system.
How much incoming solar radiation is received by the Earth is controlled by four
astronomical factors:
1. The solar constant- the energy released by the sun. This does vary in amount as it is linked to
the amount of sunspot activity on the Sun.
2. The distance of the Earth from the Sun – our distance is not constant due to orbital rotation;
this can cause a 6 per cent variance in the amount of solar energy being received.
3. The altitude of the Sun in the sky - as the Earth is a sphere, the amount of incoming solar
radiation being received varies greatly depending on the angle of the Earth's surface that it is
falling on. The same amount of solar radiation above 60° north and south of the Equator has to
cover twice the land surface compared to the Equator.
4. The length of night and day experienced - as the Earth is tilted at an angle of 23½0 there is a
long period of time during the year when areas north of the Arctic Circle (66½0 north of the
Equator) and south of the Antarctic Circle (66½0 south of the Equator) do not receive any

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incoming solar radiation; the areas between the two Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn (at 23½ 0
north and south of the Equator, respectively) receive high amounts all year round (fig 2.2).
Notice that the solar radiation received at the Equator is lower than that at the Tropics. This is
because of cloud cover over the Equator which is produced by the uplift of the warm and moist
air.
The absorption is mainly by the gases ozone, water vapour and carbon dioxide and minute
particles of ice and dust in the atmosphere.
Diagram showing factors affecting how much Incoming Solar Radiation is received by the
Earth:
REFLECTED SOLAR RADIATION

As the radiation from the Sun passes through the atmosphere, some is absorbed by liquids, gases
and solids. Some is reflected and scattered, especially by the tops of clouds. The amount of
energy that is reflected by a surface is determined by the reflectivity of that surface, called the

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albedo. Albedo is expressed as a percentage. A high albedo means the surface reflects the
majority of the radiation that hits it and absorbs the rest. A low albedo means a surface reflects a
small amount of the incoming radiation and absorbs the rest. For instance, fresh snow reflects up
to 95 per cent of the incoming radiation. Generally, dark surfaces have a low albedo and light
surfaces have a high albedo. Thin clouds reflect 30-40 per cent, thicker clouds 50-70 per cent,
while towering cumulonimbus clouds can reflect up to 90 per cent.
June 2019
5 (c) With the aid of examples, assess the extent to which reflected solar radiation is the
most important factor in determining the diurnal energy budget. [15]
Candidates are free to develop their own approach to the question and responses will vary
depending on the approach chosen. Whichever route is chosen, essays which discuss the extent
to which reflected solar radiation is the most important factor and support their argument with
relevant examples will be credited. There may be detailed consideration of one or more
examples, or a broadly conceived response, drawing on several examples to illustrate the factors
involved. Reflected solar radiation clearly has a significant effect on the diurnal energy b dget,
with a clear difference between night time and day time energy budgets. This clearly is an
important factor when considering the overall temperature and diurnal energy budget. Albedo
rates might be discussed.
However, it is not just the reflected solar radiation which has a significant influence on the
diurnal energy budget. A variety of other factors in the diurnal energy budget (incoming solar
radiation, outgoing radiation, absorption, sensible heat transfer, latent heat, cloud cover,
seasonality, human activity etc.) could be discussed. Diagrams of the energy budget (daytime
and night time) could be credited.
June 2017
8 (a) (i) Describe the terms reflected solar radiation and earth (terrestrial) radiation. [4]
Radiation which is reflected (bounced off) the Earth’s surface (1 mark).
Any elaboration i.e. shortwave radiation / albedo etc. (1 mark)
The outgoing (terrestrial) radiation from the earth back into the atmosphere
(1 mark).
Any elaboration i.e. long wave radiation, infrared radiation (1 mark)
June 2018
5 (a) (i) Describe how albedo varies with the nature of different surfaces. [3]
• The ratio between incoming radiation and the amount reflected, expressed as a percentage, is
known as the albedo. Albedo can also be defined as the amount of radiation a surface reflects.
• A darker surface, such as tarmac or woodland, reflects less than a light surface (sand or snow).

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• Albedos also vary over different land surfaces, from less than 10 per cent over oceans and dark
soil, to 15 per cent over coniferous forest and urban areas, 25 per cent over grasslands and
deciduous forest, 40 per cent over light-colored deserts and 85 per cent over reflecting fresh
snow. Where deforestation and overgrazing occur, the albedo increases.
•Additional mark for specific data or development of the idea.
Table showing selected Albedo Values:
Energy absorbed into the surface and subsurface

This incoming short wave solar radiation is converted into heat energy when it reaches the
surface of the Earth. Incoming solar radiation exceeds outgoing heat energy for many hours after
noon and equilibrium is usually reached in midafternoon, from 3-5 p.m.
The amount of energy absorbed by the surface and sub-surface during daylight hours can be
affected by a variety of factors, such as the presence of large bodies of water and snow cover.
These can have a high albedo and reflect as much as 80-90 per cent of the incoming radiation.
Some of the incoming energy will be transferred from the surface into the sub-surface soil and
rocks by conduction. A light-coloured soil or rock, like chalk, is a poor conductor, so heating
will mainly be confined to the surface; this explains the high temperatures of 50-60°C recorded
in hot deserts in daytime. In contrast, a dark volcanic soil or dark rocks like basalt and slate, with
low albedos of 5-10 per cent, will absorb heat well.
The moisture content of a sub-surface soil will also affect its ability to conduct heat. A coarse
sandy soil that has large pore spaces will be a poor conductor of heat, so the heat will concentrate
on the surface, whereas a soil with a high water content will conduct heat down into the sub-
surface and so the soil surface will be cooler.

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Wind can remove heat quickly from a land surface, while the amount of cloud cover and the
amount of water vapour in the atmosphere will affect the amount of reflection of incoming
radiation and therefore the amount of incoming radiation that will reach the surface and sub-
surface.
LONG WAVE RADIATION

As the Earth's surface warms up, it then radiates energy, at a longer wavelength, back to the
atmosphere as Earth or terrestrial long-wave radiation. Of this, 94 per cent is absorbed by the
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere such as carbon dioxide, water vapour and methane, warming
the atmosphere and producing the natural greenhouse effect. The remaining 6 per cent is lost to
space. Without the greenhouse effect the Earth's average temperature would be about 33 °C
colder than it is at present and life as we know it would not be possible.
June 2018
5(b) Explain the role of shortwave radiation and long wave radiation in the diurnal energy
budget. [8]
Candidates should be familiar with the role of short wave (incoming) solar radiation and long
wave radiation. The role of shortwave radiation is primarily one of supplying energy to the
diurnal budget. Candidates may also refer to the reflected shortwave radiation. The role of long
wave radiation dominates the night time energy budget, as there is no shortwave radiation from
the sun and no reflected solar radiation.
SENSIBLE HEAT TRANSFERS

During the day, when incoming short-wave solar radiation enters the atmosphere it is absorbed
by the land surface before being re-radiated as long wave Earth radiation which then heats the air
above it. This is an example of a sensible heat transfer. Sensible heat is the energy required to
change the temperature of a substance with no phase change. The temperature change can come
from the absorption of sunlight by the soil or the air itself. Or it can come from contact with the
warmer air caused by release of latent heat (by direct conduction).
November 2017
8 (a) (i) Define the terms sublimation and sensible heat transfer. [4]
Sublimation is the change of state from a solid to a gas (usually ice to water vapour) (1) without
going through the liquid phase (1). It is also used for the reverse process.
Sensible heat transfer is the transfer of heat by conduction (1) or convection (1). Can accept
either if developed by an example for the 2 marks.

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LATENT HEAT TRANSFERS

Latent heat is the energy absorbed by or released from a substance during a phase change from a
gas to a liquid or a solid or vice versa, for example, when water changes to water vapour by
evaporation. When heat is taken from the atmosphere to help with this process it will result in
the atmosphere being cooled. When the process of evaporation is reversed, for example when
water vapour is changed to water by condensation, heat energy is released into the atmosphere
which will heat up as a result. The main processes that do this type of transfer are radiation,
conduction and convection. During the night, there is no incoming solar radiation, which means
that the only source of energy is the radiation that is being held/retained within the atmosphere.
The main energy flow is therefore a net loss of heat from the land, which cools the air from the
surface upwards.
November 2020
5 (a) (i) Define the terms latent heat transfer and albedo.
Latent heat transfer: the heat transferred without a change of temperature (1) following a change
of state, such as gas to a liquid or liquid to gas (1).
Latent heat transfer (evaporation) occurs when heat energy is used to turn liquid water into
water vapour. In contrast, when water vapour becomes a liquid, heat is released. Thus, when
water is present at a surface, a proportion of the energy available will be used to evaporate it, and
less energy will be available to raise local energy levels and temperature.
Latent heat transfer (condensation) is released when water condenses. During the night, water
vapour in the air close to the surface can condense to form water, since the air has been cooled
by the cold surface.
Albedo: the percentage or equivalent
November 2018
5 (a) (i) Define the terms latent heat transfer and sublimation.
Heat energy absorbed or released by a substance (1 mark) during a change in its physical state
(e.g. condensation, evaporation) (1 mark) that occurs without changing its temperature (1 mark).
These are the essential points to look for, but they might be expressed slightly differently.
Sublimation is the process whereby a solid, such as ice, passes into the vapour state (1 mark)
without going through the liquid phase (1 mark). It can also act in reverse.
Additional notes:
What is meant by the term “heat budget of the atmosphere”?
 The term heat budget refers mainly to the balance between incoming solar radiation and
the outgoing radiation from the earth. This concept makes us understand why the earth is
continuously receiving solar radiation (insolation) and also losing this radiation in the

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form of terrestrial radiation but is neither warming up nor cooling down to an

appreciable/considerable/noticeable/substantial extent.
 As shown in the diagram below, of the original solar radiation input of 100%, about 31%
is emitted through long wave radiation and a further 6%, escapes through the atmospheric
windows. When theses quantities 31%, 63% and 6% are added, the result is a long term
vertical energy balance for the earth-atmosphere system. To maintain this balance,
vertical heat transfers occur thus preventing the earth from becoming getting hotter and
the atmosphere getting colder. In this case, heat is transferred from the earth’s surface to
the atmosphere by conduction, radiation and the release of latent heat.
 Horizontally, a heat budget also exists between the equator and the poles. As shown by
the diagram below, horizontal heat transfers occur to prevent the equator from becoming
increasingly hotter and the poles increasingly colder. In this case, heat is transferred
between the two by means of air movements (e.g. Jet streams; hurricanes and
depressions) and water movements (ocean currents). The former is responsible for
transferring 80% of the heat and the later only 20%.

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November 2019
2(a) Fig. 2.1 shows solar radiation absorbed and reflected by the Earth’s surface and
reflected by clouds.
State the maximum amount of solar radiation reflected by the Earth’s surface shown in
Fig. 2.1. [1]
130 ± 10 W/m2
Need units for the mark.1
2(b) Compare the trend in solar radiation absorbed by the Earth’s surface with the trend
in solar radiation reflected by clouds shown in Fig. 2.1. [4]
Radiation reflected by clouds has a gentle rise from the North Pole to about 0°, followed by a
general even trend but with fluctuations and then a sharp fall to the South Pole. That absorbed by

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the Earth’s surface is an even curve peaking at the equator (0°). This information needs to be
integrated into a comparison with words such as however, whereas, etc.
2(c) Explain the latitudinal variation in solar radiation reflected by clouds as shown in Fig.
2.1.
The points that need explaining are:
• The peak over the equator
• The dips about 25°N and 30°S
• The low values at the poles
• The rise in mid-latitudes.
Explanation will be in terms of the amount of incoming radiation and the cloud cover at the
equator as a result of intense heating and convectional uplift and less cloud cover in areas
controlled by the descending limb of the Hadley cell. The rise in the mid-latitudes also reflects
the rising limb of the Ferrel cell with the high pressure at the poles being reflected in generally
clear skies.
THE SIX FACTOR DAY AND FOUR FACTOR NIGHT MODEL
Exam Tip
Make a simple labeled diagram to show the daytime energy budget and the night-time
energy budget.
The energy budget finds expression in the six factor and four factor day and night models
respectively. The model shows how energy is distributed in the atmosphere and on the surface.
The six factor day model illustrates the processes of heat transfer during the day whilst the four
factor night model represents heat distribution and transfer during the night.

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1. Reflection
 Clouds, cloud free air and the earth surface reflect solar radiation back into space. Clouds
reflect approximately 20%, the atmospheric air reflects 6% while the earth’s surface
reflects 4% of the 100% solar radiation from the sun. Altogether, the total radiation
reflected back to space comes to 30%
 The 30% reflection is a loss at the top of the atmosphere such that only 70% are possible
to reach the earth’s surface.
 This 30% loss through reflection is known as the earth planetary albedo.
2. Absorption
 Solar energy is absorbed in the atmosphere as radiation passes through the atmosphere.
Cloudless air absorbs 16% while clouds absorb 3%. This means that of the 70% solar
radiation that remains after 30% is reflected, 19% is absorbed such that only 51% is
possible to reach the earth’s surface.
3. Earth surface absorption 51%

 Of the 100% incoming solar radiation from the sun, 49% (30% + 19%) is lost through
reflection and absorption in the atmosphere and the remaining 51% is absorbed at the
earth’s surface. The earth disposes this energy in the form of infrared radiation,
sensible heat and latent heat. Infrared which alternatively called the outgoing long
wave radiation (terrestrial radiation), accounts for 21% of the 51% absorbed at the
earth’s surface. The 21% is sent back into the atmosphere at a long wave length. 15% of
this outgoing radiation is absorbed in the atmosphere and the remaining 6% reaches
space.

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 After removing the 21%, the remaining 30% is transferred in the form of sensible heat
which accounts for 7% and latent heat transfer which accounts for 23%.
November 2016
(b) With the aid of a diagram, explain the daytime energy budget. [8]
The main components are incoming short wave solar radiation, reflected solar radiation, energy
absorbed into the surface and subsurface, sensible heat transfer, long wave earth radiation and
latent heat transfer, usually by evaporation.
A well annotated diagram could obtain good marks.
Award marks based on the quality of explanation and breadth of the response.
If no diagram, then maximum 5 marks.
There are six components to the daytime energy budget - incoming solar radiation
(insolation), reflected solar radiation, sùrface absorption, latent heat transfer (evaporation),
sensible heat transfer and long-wave radiation. These influence the gain or loss of energy for
a point at the Earth's surface. The daytime energy budget can be expressed by the formula:
Energy available at the surface = incoming solar radiation - (reflected solar radiation +
surface absorption + sensible heat transfer + long-wave radiation + latent heat transfers)
November 2017
8 (b) With the aid of a diagram, describe what happens when solar radiation enters the
Earth’s atmosphere. [5]
The diagram should show incoming short wave radiation with scattering by clouds, absorption
by clouds and the atmosphere, absorption by the Earth’s surface, re-radiation and more scattering
and absorption. It is basically the daytime radiation balance.
Definition of important terms:

Scattering:
Scattering occurs when incoming radiation is diverted by particles of dust, as from volcanoes and
deserts, or by molecules of gas. It takes place in all directions and some of the radiation will
reach the Earth's surface as diffuse radiation.
Absorption:
 Process by which substance retains radiant energy (heat and light waves) instead of
reflection, reflaction or transmitting it.
 Dark and wet surfaces absorb higher proportion of heat compared to lighter and shiny
surfaces such as snow or ice.
 Oxygen and nitrogen the major atmospheric gases do not absorb much radiation (except
the gar ultraviolet radiation), unlike the minor gases, ozone, nitrous oxide, water vapour
and carbon dioxide which have got significant effect on the atmospheric absorption.
 The atmosphere absorbs 24% whilst clouds and ozone absorb 3% and 1% respectively.

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 Absorption enables the earth-atmosphere system to regulate heat and maintains a state of
stability in terms of temperature.
Differences between Shortwave Radiation/ Insolation and Long wave Radiation

SHORTWAVE RADIATION/ LONG WAVE RADIATION
INSOLATION
This is the energy emitted by the sun Energy received from the sun continues to
be reradiated back into the atmosphere
during the night and this has the impact of
cooling the surface during the night
It has short wavelength of below 3metres It has a long wavelength
and it travels faster
It can penetrate through the atmospheric It cannot penetrate through atmospheric
gases gases
Does not harm the atmosphere
Consists of visible light (light that helps us
to see), infrared (warms the atmosphere),
and ultraviolet (dangerous light)
June 2022
5 (a) (ii) Briefly describe how solar radiation may be reflected. [3]
atmosphere/pollution dome
1 mark for each.
THE GLOBAL ENERGY BUDGET
The latitudinal pattern of radiation: excesses and deficits
As can be seen from fig 2.3, there is a positive heat balance around the Equator and a negative
heat balance towards the North and South Poles, as more solar radiation is received at the
Earth’s surface between the tropics than at the polar areas. This is a result of the impact of solar
radiation in the area between the tropics, on the one hand, and the greater curvature of the Earth,
combined with the extent of the atmosphere at the poles, on the other. In fact, there is a net
surplus of radiation arriving in the area between 40° north and 35° south of the Equator; the
difference between the two sides is due to the large land masses north of the Equator which
absorb more radiation than the large areas of ocean to the south. This illustrates the influence of
latitude, or distance from the Equator, on climate.

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June 2020
5(b) Explain the global latitudinal pattern of radiation.
• Approximately between 35°N and 35°S there is net radiation gain
• Net radiation loss occurs nearer the poles
Explanation from:
• Sun’s rays being more concentrated/direct at the equator
• Less atmosphere as more direct angle onto surface between tropics
• More atmosphere in the higher latitudes to pass through
• Sun’s rays less concentrated and more dispersed closer to the poles
• Surfaces e.g. tropical rainforests absorb and Polar Regions reflect radiation.
Award marks based on the quality of explanation and breadth of the response using the marking
levels below.
June 2022
2 (a) Fig. 2.1 shows the Earth’s global energy budget.

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Calculate the difference between incoming (shortwave) solar radiation and outgoing
longwave radiation at the Equator. Show your working. [2]
Incoming (325–310) – outgoing (270–255) = 40–70
1 mark for correct workings.
1 mark for one correct figure if calculation based on the figures is correct.
2 (b) Describe the pattern of outgoing longwave radiation shown in Fig. 2.1. [3]
change)
Hemisphere rather than in Northern Hemisphere

Any three valid points for 3 marks.
2 (c) With reference to Fig. 2.1, explain why there is excess energy at lower latitudes. [5]
balance at these latitudes.

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latitudes because of the high

angle of the sun (concentrated at lower latitudes)
levels of solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface

ends to be lower albedo rates thus less is reflected
1 mark for each explanation, a 2nd mark for detail.
ATMOSPHERIC TRANSFERS: PRESSURE BELTS, WIND BELTS AND OCEAN

CURRENTS
a) Atmospheric Transfer
To balance/budget this imbalance in radiation sensible heat transfers (horizontal heat transfers)
take place, where heat is moved horizontally away from the hot tropical areas towards the cold
polar areas. This is either by winds (80 per cent) or through the movement of ocean currents (20
per cent) moving the heat away from the tropics. Warm currents flowing toward the Poles and
cold currents flowing towards the Equator have a major influence on the temperatures of the air
above them. These transfers take place when heat energy is transferred by convection or by
direct conduction.
In short:
 Horizontally, a heat budget also exists between the equator and the poles. As shown by
the diagram below, horizontal heat transfers occur to prevent the equator from becoming
increasingly hotter and the poles increasingly colder. In this case, heat is transferred
between the two by means of air movements (e.g. Jet streams; hurricanes and
depressions) and water movements (ocean currents). The former is responsible for
transferring 80% of the heat and the later only 20%.
 Vertical heat transfers Heat is also transferred vertically, thus preventing the Earth's
surface from getting hotter and the atmosphere colder. This is achieved through radiation,
conduction, convection and the transfer of latent heat.
b) Pressure and wind belts

The circulation of wind in the atmosphere is driven by the rotation of the Earth and the
incoming energy from the Sun. Wind circulates in each hemisphere in three distinct cells which
help transport energy and heat from the Equator to the poles. The winds are driven by the energy
from the Sun at the surface as warm air rises and cooler air sinks. Heated air occurs in equatorial
areas and this rises and then travels towards the poles before descending in the sub-tropical areas.
These cells generate areas of high and low pressure that influence local weather. For example, in
areas of high pressure, cooler, denser air descends towards the Earth's surface. As it does so, the

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air becomes compressed and less humid. This explains why areas of high pressure are
characterized by fair weather and limited precipitation.
These cells also generate belts of wind. The three main wind belts are the Trade Winds,
Westerlies and Polar Easterlies (diagram below).
The Trade Winds are found between the equatorial low pressure areas and the sub-tropical high
pressure areas. They blow from the south east in the Southern Hemisphere and from the north
east in the Northern Hemisphere due to the influence of the Earth's Coriolis farce.

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The Westerlies are found to the north and south of the Tracie winds. The Monsoon winds are an
extension of these moving into the northern Indian ocean and Bay of Bengal.
The Polar Easterlies begin at approximately 60° north and south latitude and reach the poles.
When air moves toward the poles, it causes a polar high pressure zone. Air from this high-
pressure zone then rushes toward the low-pressure zone surrounding the sub-polar region. This
flow of air is altered by tr1e Earth's rotation, the Coriolis force, and deflected west, giving them
the name easterlies as they come from the east.
June 2022
5 (a) (i) Define the atmospheric terms convection and wind belts. [4]
Air warmed (during the daytime) (1) and rises in pockets (1).
Global bands of wind (uniform temperature and moisture) (1) blowing in a predominant
direction (1) over a seasonal/long time period (1)
Any two points for each term.
November 2019
5 (a) (i) Describe how atmospheric pressure affects the direction and strength of winds.
Essentially winds blow from high to low pressure with the wind strength being related to the
pressure difference.
Must describe both direction and strength for 3 marks.
November 2016
2 Fig. 1 shows a simplified global pattern of pressure and winds.

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(a) Using Fig. 1, identify:

(i) pressure A; [1]
low (equatorial/tropical)
(ii) pressure B; [1]
low (subpolar/polar)
(iii) the winds at C; [1]
trades / easterlies / northeasterlies / southeasterlies
(iv) the winds at D. [1]
easterlies / northeasterlies / southeasterlies (polar)
(b) Explain how pressure systems develop and how they influence the global pattern of
temperature. [6]
Explanation of pressure systems:
• pressure systems reflect the heating of the earth’s surface and atmosphere
• the earth is heated at the equator leading to the surface warming of the air, which rises
producing low pressure
• the rising air descends in the subtropics giving rise to high pressure
Influence on global pattern of temperature:
• heat is transferred around the globe by winds
• surface winds blow from high to low pressure areas

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• this re-distributes heat around the globe

The subtropical high pressure area is a zone of wind divergence producing the westerlies which
flow polewards, meeting the winds from the polar high pressure area produced by cooling. Many
will explain this with reference to the tri-cellular model with diagrams. Figure 1 provides clues to
the explanation.
There are two elements; mark 3/3, 2/4 or 4/2 depending on the depth and accuracy of knowledge
and understanding.
June 2017
2(a) Fig. 1 shows a diagram of atmospheric circulation in the Northern Hemisphere.
Describe the main features of atmospheric circulation in the Northern Hemisphere shown
in Fig. 1. [4]
• Location of high and low pressures
• Air flow from high to low
• Surface winds
• Three key cells within which air broadly rotates
Some specific detail is required for full marks.
2(b) Describe and explain how seasonal variations may affect atmospheric circulation. [6]
• The description of the seasonal variations includes the seasonal shift of the ITCZ and low
pressure zones, due to the passage of the overhead sun.
• How this then affects the atmospheric circulation includes the displacement of pressure belts
and global wind patterns.
• Discussion of monsoon climates would be appropriate.
• Change in location of jet stream etc.

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c) Sea currents
The effect of ocean currents on temperatures depends upon whether the current is cold or warm.
Warm currents from equatorial regions raise the temperatures of polar areas (with the aid of
prevailing westerly winds).
Sea water that is heated at the Equator becomes less dense and moves north and south towards
the poles. These ocean currents are one of the main mechanisms for redistributing heat around
the Earth's surface (fig 2.5 below).
Warm ocean currents circulate around their ocean basins in a clockwise direction in the Northern
Hemisphere (like the North Atlantic Drift in the North Atlantic Ocean), and anticlockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere (Brazil current in the South Atlantic Ocean). The circulation of ocean
currents explains why some coastal areas have different temperatures in winter and summer than
what could be expected given their latitudes. For the eastern coasts of North and South America
or the western coast of Europe have higher temperatures in winter and lower temperatures in
summer because of warm currents circulating along their shores. The reverse is true far south
west Africa, where the cold Benguela current brings cold water and cooler air temperatures
northwards, or far the west coast of South America, where the Humboldt (Peruvian) current has a
similar effect.
November 2019
5(c) ‘Ocean currents are as important as winds in transferring global heat energy.’ With
the aid of examples, how far do you agree? [15]
depending on the approach chosen. Whichever approach is chosen, essays that address the
question and support their argument with relevant examples will be credited. There may be

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detailed consideration of a case study/one or more examples, or a broadly conceived response,

drawing on several examples to illustrate the factors involved. There needs to be a discussion of
the way that heat energy is transferred globally with a comparison between the role of ocean
currents and wind systems. Discussion of the tri-cellular model will probably feature with the
effects of wind patterns, such as trade winds.
June 2019
2(a) Fig. 2.1 shows the global pattern of ocean currents.
Using Fig. 2.1, describe the pattern of ocean currents in the Southern Hemisphere. [3]
The emphasis should be on the pattern and not a current by current account.
• most are circular / anti-clockwise (1)
• all have the warmer current flowing towards the south and the colder current flowing towards
the north (1)
• S. Equatorial current flowing west near the equator (1)
• East Wind Drift current flowing west along 60 °S / west wind drift 40–
60 °S (1)
Three points for 3 marks.

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2(b) Explain two ways in which the ocean currents described in (a) affect the seasonal
variation of temperature in the Southern Hemisphere. [4]
The emphasis should be on seasonal variation. Seasonal changes in temperature can be the result
of winds, modified by the temperature of ocean currents, meeting continental air (prevailing
winds will influence the effectiveness of changing temperatures at the coast). Ocean currents
transport heat energy (about 25% of the total energy budget). Thus, ocean currents will tend to
decrease seasonal temperature variations in coastal areas (warm ocean currents will tend to
increase minimum winter temperatures, cold ocean currents will tend to decrease summer
maximum temperatures).
1 mark for a simple explanation. 2 marks for each developed explanation.
2(c) Explain one factor, other than ocean currents, that affects the seasonal variation of
temperature in the Southern Hemisphere. [3]
The syllabus suggests that the candidate can offer either latitude or land sea distribution with the
emphasis again on seasonal variations. For latitude the apparent movement of the sun, north and
south, will affect seasonal variations in temperature. This could be linked to seasonal pressure
changes and winds. Land-sea distribution could be part of another explanation with different
thermal capacities of the land and sea. The sea heats more slowly in the summer than the land,
and retains heat in the winter more than the land.
1 mark for each simple explanation, 2 marks for a developed explanation up to the maximum of
3 marks.
June 2018
5(c) ‘Ocean currents are the most important influence in the atmospheric transfer of
energy.’ [15]
With the aid of examples, how far do you agree?
depending on the approach chosen. Whichever route is chosen, essays which discuss the role of
ocean in the atmospheric transfer of energy alongside other variables, such as wind systems, will
be credited. Candidates may support their argument with relevant examples or with reference to
specific ocean currents and their warming or cooling effect. There should be detailed
consideration of the other factors which are also important for the transfer of energy, such as
wind systems. Factors that may be considered are vertical transfers (radiation, convection and
conduction) and horizontal transfers (wind systems as well as the ocean currents). Rossby waves
and jet streams are also relevant.
Seasonal variations in temperature, pressure and wind belts
The influence of land and sea distribution

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The land and the sea can differ quite markedly in their ability to absorb, transfer and then radiate
heat energy. The sea is much more transparent than the land and so can absorb heat down to a
depth of about 10 metres. This heat can then be transferred to deeper depths through the
movement of waves and currents.
Also, the sea has twice the specific heat capacity of the land surface. Specific heat capacity is
the amount of heat energy that is needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance, like the
land or the sea, by 1 °C. It is expressed in kilojoules per kg per 1 °C. This means that water
needs twice as much energy as the land to raise its temperature by the same amount. Therefore it
takes the sea a much longer time to heat up than the land in summer, but, in winter, the apposite
occurs as the land loses its heat much more rapidly than the sea. This results in the oceans and
seas acting as heat or thermal reservoirs and areas close to the sea have a much smaller annual
range of temperature than those areas in the centre of continents which are far away from the
influence of the seas and oceans.
Areas of land and sea can affect temperatures as a result of their different thermal capacities, i.e.
as the land heats up faster and cools faster than the seas. The result is a greater movement and
concentration of isotherms (lines that join points with the same temperatures) aver the land
masses rather than over the oceans.
As the oceans absorb and store vast amounts of heat, making them warmer than the land masses
in winter it results in a shift of the isotherms over the oceans towards the North and South Poles.
The warm ocean currents, such as the North Atlantic Drift/Gulf Stream therefore push isotherms
north in the Northern Hemisphere winter while the cold Peruvian current pushes isotherms
towards the Equator).
The differences between the temperatures of land masses and sea areas on a global scale
A close look at the mean sea temperatures for January and July maps (fig 2.6 and 2.7) shows that
there is a marked difference between the Northern and Southern hemispheres which reflects the
differences in the areas of the land masses and oceans in each sphere. In the Southern
Hemisphere (which is experiencing its winter in July) the isotherms are moved to the north,
towards the Equator, over the oceans, whereas, in the Northern Hemisphere (when it is summer
in July) they are moved northward over the large land areas.
This is due to the different thermal capacities of land and sea. The sea heats up more slowly in
the summer in the Northern Hemisphere and cools more slowly in Southern Hemisphere winter
as more heat is retained in the oceans. Conversely, the land masses heat up and lose their heat at
a faster rate.

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Wind belts
Winds between the tropics converge on a line known as the intertropical convergence zone
(ITCZ) or equatorial trough (Figure 2.4).
Latitudinal variations in the ITCZ occur as a result of the movement of the overhead Sun.
• In June the ITCZ lies further north, whereas in December it lies in the southern hemisphere.
• The seasonal variation in the ITCZ is greatest over large land masses (e.g. Asia).
• By contrast, over the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans its movement is far less. The word monsoon
means reverse and refers to a seasonal reversal of wind direction.
• The monsoon is induced by Asia - the world's largest continent – which causes winds to blow
outwards from high pressure in winter, but pulls the southern trades into low pressure in the
summer.
• The monsoon is therefore influenced by the reversal of land and sea temperatures between Asia
and the Pacific during the summer and winter.
• In winter surface temperatures in Asia can be as low as -20°C. By contrast, the surrounding
oceans have temperatures of 20°C.
• During the summer the land heats up quickly and may reach 40°C. By contrast, the sea remains
cooler at about 27°C.
•This initiates a land-sea breeze blowing from the cooler sea (high pressure) in summer to the
warmer land (low pressure), whereas in winter air flows out of the cold land mass (high pressure)
to the warm water (low pressure).
The uneven pattern in Figure 2.4 is the result of seasonal variations in the overhead Sun. Summer
in the southern hemisphere means that there is a cooling in the northern hemisphere, thereby
increasing the temperature differences between polar and equatorial air. Consequently, the high-
level westerlies are stronger in the northern hemisphere in winter.

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Few notes on ITCZ

The ITCZ
The distribution of tropical climates is closely linked to the position of certain air masses. Air
masses are large bodies of air that display homogeneous surfaces largely derived from their
source regions. Air masses from north and south of the Equator meet or converge in an area
known as the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The ITCZ is a broad zone of low
pressure where the convergence of the air masses takes place. It lies more or less parallel to
the Equator, but it moves north and south as the position of the sun changes. It moves with
the sun due to the Earth's tilt. In July the ITCZ moves northward when the sun is overhead
at the Tropic of Cancer; in January it moves south of the Equator when the sun is overhead
at the Tropic of Capricorn. The convergence of the northern and southern maritime
tropical air masses can result in convectional uplift, cooling and precipitation.
November 2018
2(a) Fig. 2.1 shows global surface pressure systems and surface winds for July.
Name the line labelled A shown in Fig. 2.1. [1]

The position of the Inter Tropical Convergence zone.
Accept thermal equator.1
2(b) Describe the pattern of surface winds south of the Equator shown in Fig. 2.1. [3]
There are several components to this that can be described:
• the pattern of west to east winds in high southern latitudes

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• winds radiating out of high pressure zones

• winds blowing towards the Equator (south-east trade winds) might be described
Any other points that seem relevant from the figure.
2(c) Explain the distribution of global surface pressure systems shown in Fig. 2.1. [6]
One of the important features of the northern hemisphere is the location of low pressure systems
in the landmass and the general high pressure systems in the oceans. As it is July, the land
pressures can be related to the passage of the overhead sun and the differential heating of land
and sea.
The southern hemisphere distribution is somewhat different because of the relative lack of land
masses.
Allow credit for discussion of tri-cellular model if clearly related to low pressure at the July
position of the ITCZ.
There needs to be reference to both low/high pressures and land/sea.
1 mark for each simple explanation, 2 marks for each developed explanation and 3 marks for
each well-developed explanation.
Explaining Variations in Temperature, Pressure and Winds

Latitude
Latitude
Areas that are dose to the equator receive more heat than areas that are dose to the poles (Figure
2.5). This is due to two reasons:
1 incoming solar radiation (insolation) is concentrated near the equator, but dispersed near the
poles.
2 insolation near the poles has to pass through a greater amount of atmosphere and there is more
chance of it being reflected back out to space.

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November 2020
5(c) ‘Latitude is the most important factor in explaining seasonal variations in
temperature.’ With the aid of examples, how far do you agree? [15]
depending on the approach chosen. Whichever approach is chosen, essays which address the
drawing on several examples to illustrate the factors involved. Latitude is clearly important
because of the position and passage of the overhead sun between the tropics, but there are other
influences such as land/sea distribution, altitude, wind systems and ocean currents. There needs
to be an emphasis on seasonal variations and not just a comparison of temperatures at different
latitudes.
Distribution of land and sea

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There are important differences between the specific heat capacities of land and water. Land
heats and cools more quickly than water. It takes five times as much heat to raise the temperature
of water by 2°C as it foes to raise land temperatures.
Water also heats more slowly because:

• it is clear, so the Sun's rays penetrate to a greater depth (distributing energy over a larger
volume)
• tides and currents cause the heat to be further distributed
Distance from the sea has an important influence on temperature. Water takes up heat and gives
it back much more slowly than the land. In winter, in midlatitudes, sea air is much warmer than
the land air, so onshore winds bring heat to the coastal lands. By contrast, during the summer,
coastal areas remain much cooler than inland sites. Areas with a coastal influence are termed
maritime or oceanic, whereas inland areas are called continental.
Additional Notes on Distance from the Sea

Distance from the sea
It takes more energy to heat up water than it does to heat land. But it takes longer for water to
loose heat. Therefore land is warmer than the sea during the day, but colder than the sea during
the night. Areas that are close to the sea are cool by day, but mild at night. This effect is reduced
with increasing distance from the sea. (See fig below).

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Ocean currents
Surface ocean currents are caused by the influence of prevailing winds blowing steadily across
the sea. The dominant pattern of surface ocean currents (known as gyres) is roughly a circular
flow. The pattern of these currents is clockwise in the northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in
the southern hemisphere. The main exception is the circumpolar current that flows around
Antarctica from west to east. There is no equivalent current in the northern hemisphere because
of the distribution of land and sea there.
In the Pacific Ocean, there are two main atmospheric states. The first is warm surface water in
the west with cold surface water in the east (normal circulation); the other is warm surface water
in the east with cold in the west (El Nino events). In both cases, the warm surface causes low
pressure. As air blows from high pressure to low pressure, there is a movement of water from the
colder area to the warmer area. These winds push warm surface water into the warm region,
exposing colder deep water behind them and maintaining the pattern.
WEATHER PROCESSES AND PHENOMENA

Atmospheric moisture processes: evaporation, condensation, freezing, melting, deposition
and sublimation.
• Evaporation is the process by which a liquid is changed into a gas by molecular transfer, for
example, liquid water into water vapour. The process can be helped if there is high insolation,
dry air, high wind speed, bare ground or if there is a large water source present like a sea or a
lake.
Evaporation will take place if:
not saturated
additional non-saturated air can replace it
re is an energy source to sustain the transformation. This may come in the form of direct
sunlight or from advected air containing sufficient heat energy.
November 2018
5 (a) (ii) Briefly describe the factors that influence the rate of evaporation. [3]
The key factors are:
• temperature
• wind speed

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• relative humidity (moisture content in the air)

• source of water
These points need a qualification.
1 mark for a list.
• Condensation is the process by which water vapour changes/converts into liquid water or solid
ice, a latent heat transfer, usually helped by the presence of condensation nuclei in the
atmosphere and by the atmosphere being cooled. Condensation nuclei are sometimes called
hygroscopic nuclei and they are normally tiny (there can be 1 million in 1cm3 of air) particles of
dust which can be from dust storms blown up from deserts and dried soil (40 000 tonnes reaches
as far as South America from the Sahara desert in Africa each year). It can also be volcanic ash,
salt from sea spray and smoke from fires and burning fossil fuels. In a vertical section through
the atmosphere, the condensation level is the height at which the dew point is reached and
visible water droplets in the form of clouds can be seen. Condensation takes place when air that
is not fully saturated with water vapour is cooled. If the atmospheric pressure remains constant, a
critical temperature will be reached when the air becomes fully saturated (it has a relative
humidity of 100 per cent) with water vapour. This critical temperature is known as the dew
point. If the air is cooled any further condensation will take place.
In short:
When condensation occurs latent heat locked in the water vapour is released, causing a rise in
temperature. Condensation occurs when either (a) enough water vapour is evaporated into an air
mass for it to become saturated or (b) when the temperature drops so that the dew point (the
temperature at which air is saturated) is reached. The first is relatively rare, the second common.
Such cooling occurs in three main ways:
 radiation cooling of the air
 contact cooling of the air when it rests over a cold surface
 adiabatic (expansive) cooling of air when it rises
Condensation requires particles or nuclei onto which the vapour can condense. In the lower
atmosphere these are quite common, for example as sea salt, dust and pollution particles. Some
of these particles are hygroscopic - they attract water.
Condensation According to Waugh:

Condensation
This is the process by which water vapour in the atmosphere is changed into a liquid or, if the
temperature is below O°C, a solid. It usually results from air being cooled until it is saturated.
Cooling may be achieved by:
1. Radiation (contact) cooling
This typically occurs on calm, clear evenings. The ground loses heat rapidly through terrestrial
radiation and the air in contact with it is then cooled by conduction. If the air is moist, some

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vapour will condense to form radiation fog, dew, or - if the temperature is below freezing point -
hoar frost.
2. Advection cooling
This results from warm, moist air moving over a cooler land or sea surface. Advection fogs in
California and the Atacama Desert are formed when warm air from the land drifts over cold
offshore ocean currents. As both radiation and advection involve horizontal rather than vertical
movements of air, the amount of condensation created is limited.
3. Orographic and frontal uplift
Warm, moist air is forced to rise either as it crosses a mountain barrier or when it meets a colder,
denser mass of air at a front.
4. Convective or adiabatic cooling
This is when air is warmed during the daytime and rises in pockets as thermals. As the air
expands, it uses energy and so loses heat and the temperature drops. Because air is cooled by the
reduction of pressure with height rather than by a loss of heat to the surrounding air, it is said to
be adiabatically cooled.
Condensation does not occur readily in clean air. Indeed, if air is absolutely pure, it can be
cooled below its dew point to become supersaturated with an RH in excess of 100 per cent.
Laboratory tests have shown that clean, saturated air can be cooled to -40°C before condensation
or, in this case, sublimation. Sublimation is when vapour condenses directly into ice crystals
without passing through the liquid state. However, air is rarely pure and usually contains large
numbers of CONDENSATION NUCLEI. These microscopic particles, referred to as
hygroscopic nuclei because they attract water, include volcanic dust (heavy rain always
accompanies volcanic eruptions); dust from windblown soil; smoke and sulphuric acid
originating from urban and industrial areas; and salt from sea spray. HYGROSCOPIC
NUCLEI are most numerous over cities, where there may be up to 1 million per cm3, and least
common over oceans (only 10 per cm3). Where large concentrations are found, condensation can
occur with an RH as low as 75 per cent
November 2016

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8 (a) (i) Define the terms condensation and relative humidity. [4]
Condensation is the cooling of air (1) to the dew point (1).
Relative humidity is the amount of moisture (1) in the atmosphere expressed compared to the
maximum amount of moisture that can occur (1).
• Freezing, melting deposition and the process of sublimation: The process of sublimation
may take place when water vapour either undergoes freezing, turning directly into ice crystals,
or melting, when the ice crystals return to water vapour. If the temperature of the air falls below
freezing, O °C, then the water vapour gas will condense directly into solid ice crystals. lt occurs
either by condensation taking place onto a frozen surface or at very high altitudes with the
production of ice crystals, seen by the presence of very high cirrus clouds.
• Deposition will take place when dew forms as condensation and water droplets are deposited.
This happens when moist air comes into contact with a cold surface such as grass, leaves,
windows and car roofs in the early morning or evening. It is formed most easily on surfaces
which are not warmed by conducted heat from the land surface. When temperatures are below
freezing, the water vapour will be deposited onto freezing surfaces as hoar frost.
Causes of precipitation
For precipitation to take place the water vapour has to be condensed. The process of
condensation requires the air to be cooled and there are four common ways for this to happen:
Convection
When air that is in contact with a warm land surface starts to warm up, it expands and starts to
rise as an invisible parcel/bubble of air, called a thermal. However, as the air rises, it will also
find itself entering a lower atmospheric pressure, as atmospheric pressure also drops with height.
This causes the air to expand and lose energy, which means it loses heat and its temperature falls
causing condensation to take place. When convection occurs aver a hot land surface in summer,
anticyclones in the air may be in contact with the hot land surface for several hours. This heated
air will expand, become less dense, rising and cooling. Tall, towering clouds will form as the
water vapour in the air condenses and the latent heat released will add further warmth to increase
the speed of the ascent, until the tropopause is reached, forming a cumulonimbus cloud. This can
release several hundred thousand tonnes of water quite quickly and is responsible for localised
flash flooding in summer months.

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November 2020
5(a) (ii) Briefly explain how convection causes precipitation. [3]
Surface heating (1) leading to uplift of air (1), cooling (1) to condensation level causing
precipitation (1).
Any three for 3 marks.
November 2018
5 (b) Explain how convection and frontal uplift of air can lead to precipitation. [8]
They are both mechanisms whereby air is forced to rise which may enable the rising air to reach
dew point from which condensation occurs. If the air keeps on rising, then there may be
sufficient condensation for precipitation to occur. Convection requires the heating of the land
surface to produce air that is capable of rising. Frontal precipitation requires the warm air to rise
above cold air at a front. In both situations, the air needs to keep on rising. In the case of
convection, the air needs to be warmer than the general environmental air. In the case of frontal
uplift, it will depend on the type of front.
There does not need to be an equal balance, but both are required for Level 3. Thus only one
restricts it to the top of Level 2, depending on the quality of explanation.
FRONTS
Fronts mark the boundary between two air masses which have contrasting temperature. Fig 2.9
illustrates what happens in a frontal system.

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A warm front (Y on the diagram) is the surface boundary between a warm air mass and a cold
air mass. When warm air moves into an area of colder, drier air, the two air masses do not readily
mix. This results in the warm air mass rising slowly over the colder air mass because it is less
dense. This upward movement of warm moist air over the colder air causes it to cool.
Condensation of the water vapour takes place to produce clouds and precipitation, often well
ahead of the warm front approaching at ground level. Steady precipitation is often the result
along the boundary of a warm front. The amount of precipitation, however, will depend on the
amount of moisture in the air ahead of the surface front. If the warm air is relatively dry and
stable, precipitation is not likely to occur. However, if the air is moist, heavy precipitation can
occur over a wide area.
During winter in temperate climates, an approaching warm front may bring about hazardous
winter weather conditions. Along the warm front, near the surface, where temperatures are
relatively warm, rain will be the likely form of precipitation. However, outside of this rain area,
ahead of the warm front, sleet or snow may be found in an area that is at or just below freezing.
Behind the warm front is a warm sector, where the air mass is usually relatively warm and moist.
A cold front (X on the diagram) separates a cold, dry air mass from a warm air mass. A heavier,
cold air mass may push under a warm air mass because of its higher density, forcing this warm
air to rise. lf enough moisture exists in the atmosphere at this time, then thick clouds and
possibly thunderstorms could develop. Cold fronts tend to move much faster than warm fronts
and are usually accompanied with areas of low pressure.
Ahead of the cold front boundary there is often a narrow band of precipitation. Depending on the
amount of moisture in the air and the speed of the approaching cold front, the area of
precipitation may range from no precipitation to heavy precipitation. During the summer months,
an approaching cold front may bring thunderstorms.

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When a moist air mass moves off an ocean onto the land it may be forced to rise over high
ground and condensation and precipitation may occur as the air mass is cooled. Orographic uplift
often intensifies rainfall, accounting for the high totals experienced over mountains.
Radiation cooling
This is a common process on calm evenings when there is a clear sky. It may occur when the
land surface rapidly loses heat as the sun goes down and long wave earth radiation is quickly lost
to space. The air in contact with the ground is then cooled by conduction and condensation of the
water vapour near the ground surface may take place and form fog - called radiation fog - see
later explanation.
Dew is also commonly produced and, if temperatures are below freezing, water vapour forms
directly into ice crystals and is called hoar frost. Dew is water droplets that form when the moist
air comes into contact with a cold surface such as grass, leaves, windows and car roofs in the
early morning or evening. It is formed most easily on surfaces wr1ich are not warmed by
conducted heat from the land surface.
Temperature Inversion:
A relative increase in temperature with height in the lower part of the atmosphere is known as a
temperature inversion (or radiation/nocturnal inversion – Diagram below).

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This happens when there are relatively calm (high pressure) conditions and little mechanical
turbulence from the wind causing the air to mix. As the cold air at the surface is dense, it will
tend to stay at the surface. During the longer nights of winter there is even more time for the air
near the surface to cool. During calm, high-pressure conditions the band of cooled air may
extend a few meters before the warmer air is reached.
Temperature inversions are important as they influence air quality. Under high pressure
conditions and limited air movement, a temperature inversion will act like a lid on pollutants,
causing them to remain in the lower atmosphere next to the Earth’s surface (Figure 2.1). Only
when the surface begins to heat up, and in turn warms the air above it, will the warm air be able
to rise and with it any pollutants that it may contain.
Temperature inversions are common in depressions and valleys. Cold air may sink to the
bottom of the valley and be replaced by warmer air above it. In some cases, the inversion can be
so intense that frost hollows develop. These can reduce growth of vegetation, so are generally
avoided by farmers. Urban areas surrounded by high ground, such as Mexico City and Los
Angeles, are also vulnerable as cold air sinks from the mountains down to lower altitudes.
Circumstances leading to the occurrence of temperature inversions:

 in depressions where warm air overrides cold air at a warm front
 when warm air is undercut by colder air at a cold front
 in anticyclonic conditions when there is rapid loss of heat from the ground due to
radiation at night
 when warm air is advected over a cold surface
Humidity
Humidity is a measure of water vapour content in the atmosphere (Waugh, 2009). It can be
represented by three different measures: absolute humidity, relative humidity and vapour
pressure. Humidity depends on the temperature of the air. At any given temperature, there is a
limit to the amount of moisture that the air can hold.
Absolute humidity refers to the amount of water in the atmosphere. For example, there may be
8 grams of water in a cubic metre of air. It is measured in grams per cubic metre (g/m3).
Relative humidity refers to the water vapour present expressed as a percentage of the maximum
amount air at that temperature can hold.

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Relative humidity can also be defined as the amount of water vapour held in a volume of air at a
given temperature compared with the maximum amount that could be held at that temperature
(Buckle, 1996). Therefore it is the ratio of the air water vapour content to its water vapour
capacity. Relative humidity measures how near the air is to saturation at a given temperature. If
the relative humidity is 100%, the air is saturated. If it is between 80 and 99%, the air is said to
be moist and the weather is humid or clammy (Waugh, 2009). When the relative humidity drops
to 50%, the air is dry.
June 2016
8 (a) (i) Define the terms relative humidity and absolute humidity. [4]
Relative humidity is the amount (percentage) of water vapour in the air compared to that which
can be held at a particular temperature, with 100% relative humidity being saturated.
Absolute humidity is the mass of water vapour which is present in the air at any one time.
ADIABATIC PROCESSES (LAPSE RATES)

Normal or environmental lapse rate (ELR) is the actual temperature decline with height – on
average, 6°C/km.
In other words, the term ELR refers to the general decrease of temperature with height. This
general decrease is about 6.50c per 1 000 metres. The temperature decreases because the
atmosphere is heated from below by terrestrial radiation. This means that, as one move away
from the earth’s surface-one will be moving away from the source of heat (the earth) hence
temperatures must certainly decrease. The ELR varies from place to place and from time to time.
As an example, it is higher in tropical regions but lower in Polar Regions. Seasonally, it is
greater in summer than in winter.
Adiabatic lapse rate
The term ALR refers to the decrease in temperature with height for an isolated air parcel as a
result of changes in pressure. In this case, the decrease in temperature occurs because as the air
parcel rises, its volume increases by forcing the exterior air away. To do this work, energy is
required and this energy comes from the heat of the air parcel itself. This then decreases its
temperature as the energy is expanded. For adiabasy to occur there should be no loss or gain of
heat from the surroundings. This is possible because air is a bad conductor of heat hence this
enables the air parcel to retain its thermal identity which will be different from the surroundings.
There are two types of adiabatic lapse rates viz the DALR and the SALR. The lapse rates for
DALR and SALR are about 9.80c and 4 to 90c per 1 000 metres respectively.

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Adiabatic cooling and warming in dry (unsaturated) air occurs at a rate of approximately
10°C/km. This is known as the dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR). In other words, The DALR, is
the rate at which an unsaturated parcel of air cools as it rises or warms as it descends, remains
constant at 9.80C per 1000 m (i.e. approximately 1°C per 100 m).
Air in which condensation is occurring cools at the lower saturated adiabatic lapse rate
(SALR) of 4–9°C/km. The rate varies because of the amount of latent heat released. It will be
less for warm saturated air (4°C/km) than cold saturated air (9°C/km). However, an average of
5°C/km is generally accepted for the SALR.
Conditional Instability
 Conditional instability occurs when the Environmental lapse rate (ELR) is less than the
Dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) but greater than Saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR):
DALR>ELR>SALR .
 The rising parcel of air is stable in its lower layers and being cooler than the surrounding
air.
 It is called conditional instability because it arises upon the condition of being forced to
rise, becoming saturated and releasing the latent heat. In other words, instability is on
condition that the stable parcel of air is forced to rise over an uplifting mechanism e.g. a
mountain as in the case with orographic rainfall.
 Beyond this point, cooling takes place at the slower (SALR) and the parcel may become
warmer than the ambient air.
 So, suddenly the air becomes unsaturated upon saturation. The moment the air becomes
saturated as a result of adiabatic cooling, it releases latent heat, making it warmer than the
environment.
 The air continues to rise even if the uplifting mechanism is removed since the parcel of
air is now unstable. Diagrammatically, this is shown below

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Absolute stability
 Occurs when a parcel of air resists vertical uplift, sometimes it is forced to rise but it
returns to its original position.
 It is noted by the absence of vertical movement of air.
 Moreover, the parcel of air which is usually unsaturated cools at a faster rate than the
surrounding air, thus ELR<DALR.
 This is shown diagrammatically when the ELR lies to the right of the DALR, as in the
diagram below.
 The weather conditions that are associated with stable conditions are shallow flat topped
cumulus clouds which bears no rainfall, stratus clouds and anticyclonic conditions (sunny
conditions).Stable conditions are usually experienced during winter times in savannah
climates.

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ABSOLUTE INSTABILITY
 Is experienced when the warm parcel of air usually unsaturated continues to rise in the
atmosphere.
 The resultant parcel of rising unsaturated air cools less rapidly than the surrounding air.
In other words, the surrounding/ambient air will be cooling at a faster rate than the
surrounding air thus it continues to rise since it is warmer (ELR>DALR>SALR).
 In this case, as shown in the diagram below, the ELR lies to the left of the DALR. To add
on, localized heating of the ground warms the adjacent air by conduction creating a
higher lapse rate, thus the resultant parcel of air rises.
 As the air rises, dew point is reached, latent heat of condensation is released hence clouds
are formed.
 The following are the weather conditions that are associated with unstable conditions:
cumulonimbus cloud, precipitation and thunderstorms.

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 Diagrammatically this is shown below.
With the aid of a labelled diagram, briefly explain the term atmospheric instability.
 Atmospheric instability is a condition of the atmosphere, which occurs when the ELR is
more than the DALR for a given parcel of air. This means that the surrounding air will be
cooling faster than the parcel of air, therefore the air parcel will continue to rise.
Therefore, in atmospheric instability, there are vertical currents of air. In most cases, the
air parcel rises up to dew point then continues to rise at the SALR because of the release
of latent heat at condensation, which heats up the air.
 Weather conditions associated with atmospheric instability:
-Atmospheric instability is usually associated with a high level of cloud cover and in
most cases, the sky will be overcast. There will be low-level clouds or rain bearing clouds
of great vertical development, especially cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds. Due to the
presence of such types of clouds, there will be heavy rainfall associated with thunder and
lightning. The fact that there will be clouds and rainfall implies that the relative humidity
will be quite high.
-In atmospheric instability, there will be strong vertical wind movements, which cause
the cumuli-form clouds. Initially, before the rain, temperatures will be high and therefore,
pressure will below since temperature is inversely related to pressure.
Types of precipitation
Precipitation refers to the various forms of water droplets and ice particles that fall from the
clouds. The forms of precipitation are rain, hail, snow, drizzle and sleet. The form and size of
precipitation reaching the ground depend on the humidity and temperature conditions beneath the
cloud base, and on the processes within the cloud. Certain conditions are needed for the
formation of precipitation:

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• Clouds form when air is cooled until it reaches dew point and the water vapour condenses
either into water droplets or ice crystals. At some point the water droplets or ice crystals become
large enough to fall as precipitation rain, snow and hail. There are 20 plus types of clouds and
they are classified according to their height and shape (Diagram below).
Another diagram showing Classification of clouds according to height

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In other words:
 Clouds can be classified according to altitude. In this case, the average height of the
base of the cloud is used. Using this classification, there are three basic types of
clouds, namely, the high level clouds, the middle level clouds and the low level
clouds as shown in table below.
The classification of clouds according to height:

Group Mean upper and lower levels Types of clouds
High cloud 6 000-12 000m Cirrus
Cirrocumulus
Cirrostratus
Medium 2 000- 6 000m Altocumulus
clouds Altostratus
Low clouds Less than 2 000m Stratocumulus
Stratus
Cumulus
Cumulonimbus
 Clouds are classified according to their form or structure. This classification can be traced
back to as far as 1803 when Howard Luke classified clouds on the basis of three Latin
words, namely, Cirrus (hair), Cumulus (pile or heap) and Stratus (layer). Using this

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classification, cirrus clouds are those that are white and fibrous in nature, and the
cumuliform clouds are those that have usually a flat base and a cauliflower appearance.
Stratiform clouds are those that are layered.
 The physical process by which the clouds are produced can also be used to classify these
clouds. As said earlier on, clouds are formed by the cooling of air to or below dew point.
This cooling can be caused by the uplifting and consequent expansion of the air or by
nocturnal radiation. In this case, therefore, the cause of uplift of air is used to classify
these clouds. Using this criterion, there are convection clouds. These owe their formation
to strong up-draughts of air. Today, cumuliform clouds are often called convection clouds
because they are formed this way.
 There are also orographic clouds which are formed when warm moist air is forced to
ascend over a mountain barrier. The type of clouds produced by this physical process
depends on the consequent stability or instability caused by the uplift. If the air is stable,
layered clouds with a flat base are formed but if it is unstable, clouds of great vertical
development are formed, for example, cumulonimbus clouds.
 Turbulence is another physical process that causes clouds called turbulence clouds. In the
formation of such clouds, friction caused by obstructions on the earth’s surface causes
eddies, which cause different air masses to mix, and in most cases, producing layered
clouds associated with fogs.
 Lastly, there are frontal clouds. These are formed during frontogenesis (the formation of
fronts.) In this case, two air masses, one cold and dry and the other warm and moist meet
at a front. On meeting, the warm moist air is forced to rise. As it rises, it expands cools
and condenses, hence producing the clouds.
 Appearance has also been used to classify clouds. In this classification, there are
lenticular clouds which appear like lenses with clear cut edges e.g. altostratus. There are
also fracto clouds which have a fragmented appearance e.g. cumulus clouds. Castellatus
clouds which have a turreted appearance and an example of these would be the
altocumulus clouds.
 A combination of the criteria of height, form and appearance already mentioned, has been
used to produce the International Atlas of clouds, which has produced the ten major types
of clouds.
 In general, therefore, clouds can be classified according to their altitude, their form,
appearance, the physical processes that cause them and lastly, a combination of the first
three criteria.
•Rain is formed when the condensation of water vapour takes place around a particle of dust – a
condensation, or hygroscopic nuclei. This initially produces tiny water droplets less than 0.05mm
in diameter. Being so tiny, they are easily kept up in the air by rising air currents and form

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clouds. As further condensation takes place, they become larger and heavier droplets which are
too heavy to be kept up by rising air currents so they fall as rain.
Types of Rainfall:
Convectional Rainfall:
When the land becomes very hot it heats the air above it. This air expands and rises. As it rises,
cooling and condensation take place. If it continues to rise rain will fall. This is very common in
tropical areas. In temperate areas, convectional rain is more common in summer.
Frontal/Cyclonic Rainfall:
Frontal rain occurs when warm air meets cold air. The warm air, being lighter and less dense, is
forced to rise aver the cold, denser air. As it rises it cools, condenses and forms rain. It is most
common in middle and high latitudes, where warm tropical air and cold polar air converge.

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June 2020
5 (a) (ii) Explain how the frontal uplift of air may cause precipitation. [4]
Mainly mid-latitudes when warm and cold air meet (1). Warmer moister air rises over the front
(1). Forced to rise (1) cools condenses and rain occurs (1). The ITCZ may also be discussed (1).
Four relevant explanatory points for 4 marks.
June 2018
5 (a)(ii) Explain how frontal rainfall occurs. [4]
The key is the rising of air to dew point. This can occur due to:
• Two different air masses meet
• At warm fronts, warm air rises over cold air / at cold fronts, warm air is forced to rise because
of undercutting by the cold air
• Cooling and condensation occur leading to rainfall
Orographic Uplift of Air (Relief Rainfall):

Air may be forced to rise aver a barrier such as a mountain. As it rises it cools, condenses and
forms rain. There is often a rain shadow effect whereby the leeward slope receives a relatively
small amount of rain. Altitude is important, especially on a local scale. In general, there are

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increases of precipitation up to about 2 km. Above this level rainfall decreases because of the air
temperature being so low.
June 2019
5(a)(i) Define the terms orographic uplift and condensation. [4]
When air is forced upwards (1) because of the terrain / relief / topography (1). When gas turns
into a liquid (1) through cooling (1).
• Hail When raindrops are cooled below freezing, hail is formed. Hail is frozen raindrops that are
larger than 5mm in diameter. They are commonly formed in towering cumulonimbus clouds
which have rapidly rising air within them, that can reach heights in excess of 10 kilometres - well
above the height where temperatures are below freezing. Hail is most common in warmer
climates where the land is heated sufficiently to produce a rapid uplift of air.
June 2020
5 (a) (i) Briefly explain the formation of hail.
Within cumulonimbus clouds (1). Updraught and falling of water particles forming ice (1).
Super-cooled water droplets collide with and freeze around the ice (1). When the droplets are too
heavy they will fall as hail (1).
Three relevant points for 3 marks.
• Snow forms in the same way as rain, except that the water vapour goes directly into a frozen
state, as an ice crystal - a process called sublimation. The ice crystals are quite complicated
hexagonal shaped structures and tend to interlock and become attached to each other to form a
larger snowflake. For snow to fall, the temperatures at the ground level must be below freezing.
As it falls, it will encounter warmer temperatures near the ground surface, so it may partially
melt; this is called sleet.

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Another description of snow:

Snow is frozen precipitation. Snow crystals form when the temperature is below freezing point
and water vapour is converted into a solid. However, very cold air contains a limited amount of
moisture, so the heaviest snowfalls tend to occur when warm, moist air is forced aver very high
mountains or when warm, moist air comes into contact with very cold air at a front.
• Dew is the direct deposition of water droplets onto the surface and vegetation. It occurs in
clear, calm, anticyclonic conditions (stability), where there is rapid radiation cooling by
night. The temperature reaches dew point, and further cooling causes condensation and direct
precipitation onto the ground and vegetation.
•Mist is also another result of condensation of water vapour near the ground level. Mist is thin
fog that reduces visibility to one to two kilometres. Very thick mist which reduces visibility to
less than a kilometre is called fog. Fog exists when water is present in the air at ground level.
June 2016
(ii) Briefly explain the formation of mist. [3]
Mist is the suspension of small water droplets in the air, where the visibility is still further
than 1000m/1 km. It may form in the same way as fog, though as the water droplets are so
small, it may still be present when relative humidity is near 80%. This explanation must reflect
the understanding that it is a low level (ground level) occurrence and that radiation or advection
are the usual triggers.
• Fog: Fog is cloud at ground level. It mostly occurs in high pressure (calm) conditions as
winds tend to mix and disperse it (Nagle, 2000). In the morning fog usually disappears when
the ground is heated causing rising air to lift it. There are different types of fog – radiation,
advection fog and steam fog.
Radiation fog is commonly formed on calm evenings when there is a clear sky. When the land
surface rapidly loses heat as the sun goes down, long wave earth radiation is quickly lost to
space. The air in contact with the ground is then cooled by conduction and this may cause
condensation to take place. This tends to be most common where cold dense air
accumulates - often in valley bottoms at dawn and sunrise.
Advection fog is formed when warm moist air moves over either a cooler land or sea surface.
The air is then cooled and condensation takes place to form fog.
Steam Fog
Steam fog occurs when cold air passes over much warmer water. In such circumstances
condensation results in minute droplets (steam). In very cold conditions moisture is converted
directly to ice (ice-fog).

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Exam Tip:
Fog forms during calm, high-pressure conditions. If there is a low-pressure system, the winds
will prevent fog from forming by mixing the air.
Typical Mistake:
Some students think that fog is common all year round. It is more common in temperate areas in
spring and autumn. In summer, the sea is cooler than the land so air is not cooled when it blows
onto the land, while in winter there are more low pressure systems, causing higher winds and
mixing the air.
Describe and explain the results of condensation of water vapour at

or near the earth’s surface.
 The results of condensation of water vapour at or near the earth’s surface include
dew. Dew refers to small water droplets found on the surfaces of bodies
especially on the earth’s surface in the morning. It is usually found within one
metre of the ground surface. Dew occurs when condensation takes place on the
surface of these bodies because the air above them will have cooled by conduction to
dew point due to rapid terrestrial radiation at night. Dew best occurs when there are
calm days to allow evaporation of water and calm evenings so that the cooling
effectively occurs. Dew is destroyed by increase in temperature for the water droplets
are then easily evaporated off.
 Hoar frost refers to small ice spicules which are also formed exactly in the same way
as dew. The only difference being that, the dew point temperature in the formation of
hoar frost will be below freezing point so that the water vapour is turned into solid
instead of liquid. The conditions necessary for the development of hoar frost are the
same as those required in dew formation. These include a clear sky to allow
terrestrial radiation to occur, calm conditions so that the formation of cold air is
not disturbed and sufficient moisture in the air to condense at temperatures
below freezing point. Given these conditions, at first, dew is formed but further
decreases in temperature will cause the dew to freeze and hence any further
condensation will turn directly into hoar frost.
 Rime is ice which is found on trees, telegraph poles etc, and usually in cold
regions. The ice is formed when super-cooled water droplets usually, in the form
of fog are driven against trees, wires etc and freeze on them.
 Mist is also another result of condensation of water vapour near the ground level.
Mist is thin fog that reduces visibility to one to two kilometres. Very thick mist
which reduces visibility to less than a kilometre is called fog. Fog exists when
water is present in the air at ground level.

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 There are different types of fogs. Radiation fog is formed when there is rapid cooling
of the ground by nocturnal radiation so that warm moist air above the ground
condenses to form tiny water droplets, which can be suspended in the air. Light winds
of less than 5m per second are required so that cooling affects a greater thickness of
air and also, so that cooling goes on without turbulence. It is commonly low lying
areas and also industries where there are lots of hygroscopic nuclei. Radiation fog is
dispersed by the warming up of the atmosphere and strong winds the Southern
Hemisphere, winter is the most favourable season for the formation of radiation fog.
 Advection fog is formed when warm moist air moves over a cold surface. In this
case, the air cools and condenses since it gives off heat to the cold surface. Advection
fog can occur over the land or the sea. Over the sea, it is formed when warm moist air
from the land moves over a cold sea surface. Wind speed does not matter in its
formation and also the idea of clear skies is not essential. This means that, advection
fog can be formed on any day.
 Hillslope or expansion fog is formed when air moves upslope for a long time over
rising terrain. This that, the temperature of the air will decrease by adiabatic
expansion causing condensation.
 Steaming fog occurs when cold air crosses a warm sea surface so that the sea appears
to be steaming. It is a rare type of fog, it is actually a type of advection fog because of
the physical processes involved in its formation. The comparatively mild steam from
tarred highways following an afternoon shower is a type of steaming fog.
 Frontal or mixing fog is formed when two air masses, one warm and moist and the
other one cold and dry meet and mix at a front. It usually accompanies a warm front
which is the boundary between warm moist air and cooler dry air.
June 2019
5 (a) (ii) Describe how fog forms. [3]
Air is cooled (1), with water vapour condensing (1), under calm conditions (near the ground) (1).
Cooling can be the result of radiation loss or advection.
November 2016
8 (a) (ii) Explain how one type of fog forms. [3]
The two main types are radiation fog and advection fog. Both require the temperature of the
atmosphere to be lowered to the dew point near the surface of the earth. Radiation fog requires
cooling at night with clear skies; advection fog requires cooler air moving over a warm surface
or cold air moving over a warm surface. Other types could include frontal fog, hill fog, smog.
For fog to form there should be calm conditions. Only one type of fog is required.
THE HUMAN IMPACT
The enhanced greenhouse effect and global warming

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Evidence for the greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect is the process by which the Earth's atmosphere is warmed as certain gases
within the atmosphere absorb some of the long wave earth radiation being emitted by the Earth
and re-radiate some of it back. The most common greenhouse gases are Water Vapour, Carbon
Dioxide, Methane, Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Nitrous 0xide.
The greenhouse gases allow the incoming shortwave solar radiation to pass through them, but
they are then very effective in trapping the outgoing long-wave terrestrial radiation. Without
these greenhouse gases life on the Earth as we know it could not exist. The greenhouse gases
combine to raise the average temperature of the Earth by 33 °C.
Before the rapid growth of the human population and its various activities in the last 200 years,
which have altered the amount of greenhouse gases, the atmosphere was fairly balanced with the
carbon dioxide being produced by animals and humans equalling the amount being taken up in
plants as part of the process of photosynthesis.
The enhanced greenhouse effect (EGE) and global warming are the terms used to describe the
buildup of greenhouse gases and the impact it has had in the last 200 years by human actions and
activities. 0ne of the most significant changes in the last 60 years has been the rise in carbon
dioxide from 315 ppm to 392 ppm today (fig 2.11). lncreasing amounts of heat are now being
retained in the Earth's atmosphere leading to a global rise in temperatures.

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POSSIBLE CAUSES
The rise in carbon dioxide started with:
• clearing of forests by burning this has the double effect of increasing carbon dioxide levels but
also of removing trees which convert carbon dioxide to oxygen and land cultivation
• Industrialization since the nineteenth century has put large amounts of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere from the burning fossil fuels.
• Emissions from internal combustion engines and jet engines.
Methane is the second biggest contributor to global warming. It is increasing by 1 per cent per
year, but it absorbs 25 times more heat than the equivalent amount of carbon dioxide.
Methane may be produced from:
• Cattle, which emit 100 million tonnes per year
• Wet rice fields
• Natural wetlands - both of which release methane by decomposing organic matter

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• melting of permafrost in Arctic areas which releases methane from the organic matter that was
previously frozen and is now melting as a result of global warming.
CFCs are human produced synthetic chemicals used as propellants in spray cans, coolants
in fridges, freezers and air conditioning systems. Though alternatives to this chemical exist,
they are not being fully used and the amount of CFCs is increasing by 6 per cent a year. The
problem with CFCs is that they are 10 000 times more efficient at trapping long-wave earth
radiation than carbon dioxide.
There are also concerns about the possible contribution from urban heat islands (UHls) to
global warming. An urban heat island is a city or urban area that is significantly warmer than its
surrounding rural areas, due to human activities. The temperature difference is usually larger at
night than during the day, and is most apparent when winds are weak. The main cause of the
urban heat island effect is from tt1e modification of land surfaces, though waste heat generated
by energy usage is a secondary contributor. As a population centre grows, it tends to expand its
area and increase its average temperature. Monthly rainfall may also be greater downwind of
cities, partially due to the UHI. lncreases in temperature within urban centres may also increase
the length of growing season, and decreases the occurrence of weak tornadoes. The UHI can also
decrease air quality by increasing the production of pollutants such as ozone, and decrease water
quality as warmer water flows into local rivers and streams and puts stress on their ecosystems.
IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING

The effect of global warming has been to increase the Earth's average temperature by about
0.5°C since 1950 and to potentially produce a further increase of 2 °C by 2100.
This will have several impacts (fig 2.12) including:
• Polar ice sheets and glacier ice melting
• rising sea levels - threatening low lying countries such as the Maldives, Bangladesh, several
small Pacific Island nations such as Kiribati, Tuvalu, Marshall lslands, Vanuatu, and the
Netherlands; the level of economic development (MICs/LICs) in providing coastal defences will
vary enormously
• changing climatic patterns a pole-ward shift of climatic belts an increase in dynamism of
climatic and more extreme weather events such as storms, hurricanes, floods and droughts; the
greater amount of heat producing more dynamic systems, when linked with rises in sea level,
could lead to increased evaporation and rainfall and more frequent and larger storms
• conversely, the greater amount of heat in the atmosphere means that more water vapour can be
held in the atmosphere, therefore producing less rainfall, extinction of plant and animal species.

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Climate change
There are many causes of global climate change. Natural causes include:
•variations in the Earth's orbit around the Sun
• Variations in the tilt of the Earth's axis
• Variations in solar output (sunspot activity)
• Changes in the amount of dust in the atmosphere (partly due to volcanic
• Changes in the Earth's ocean currents as a result of continental drift
AII of these have helped cause climate change and may still be doing so, despite
anthropogenic (human-generated) forces.
Climate change is a very complex issue for a number of reasons:

• The increase is due to human activities - primarily the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and
natural gas) and deforestation. Deforestation of the tropical rainforest also increases atmospheric
carbon dioxide levels because it removes the trees that convert carbon dioxide into oxygen.
• It involves interactions between the atmosphere, oceans and land masses.
• It includes natural as well· as anthropogenic forces.
• There are feedback mechanisms, not all of which are fully understood.
• Many of the processes are long term and so the impact of changes may not yet have occurred.

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URBAN CLIMATES

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• Urban climates occur as a result of extra sources of heat released from industrial, commercial
and residential buildings as well as from vehicles.
Urban climates refer to the changes in temperature, humidity, wind patterns, precipitation and
air pressure that are noticeable over large urban areas during high-pressure conditions.
• In addition, concrete, glass, bricks and tarmac all act very differently from soil and vegetation.
For example, the albedo (reflectivity) of tarmac is about 5-10% while that of concrete is 17-27%.
In contrast, that of grass is 20-30%.
• Some of these materials - notably dark bricks - absorb large quantities of heat and release them
slowly by night.
•In addition, the release of pollutants helps trap radiation in urban areas.
•Consequently, urban microclimates can be very different from rural ones.
•Greater amounts of dust mean increasing concentrations of hygroscopic particles.
Urban heat budgets differ from rural ones. By day the major source of heat is solar energy; in
urban areas brick, concrete and stone have high heat capacities.
In urban areas there is relative lack of moisture. This is due to:

• Lack of vegetation
• High drainage density (sewers and drains), which remove water
Thus, there are decreases in relative humidity in inner cities due to the lack of available moisture
and higher temperatures there.
Nevertheless, there are more intense storms, particularly during hot summer evenings and
nights, owing to greater instability and stronger convection above built--up areas. There is a
higher incidence of thunder, but less snow fall. At night the ground radiates heat and cools; in
urban areas the release of heat by buildings offsets the cooling process. In addition, some
industries, commercial activities and transport networks continue to release heat throughout the
night. There is higher incidence of thicker cloud cover in summer and radiation fogs or smogs in
winter because of increased convection and air pollution respectively.
Exam Tip:
The contrasts between urban and rural areas are greatest under calm, high pressure
conditions. The typical heat profile of an urban heat island shows the maximum at the city
Centre, a plateau across the suburbs and a temperature cliff between the suburban and
rural area. Small-scale variations within the urban heat island occur, with the distribution
of industries, open space, rivers, canals and so on.

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Daytime temperatures in urban areas are, on average, 0.6°C warmer. This urban heat island
effect is noticeable, especially by dawn during anticyclonic conditions. The effect is caused by a
number of factors:
•heat produced by human activity
•buildings having a high thermal capacity in comparison with rural areas – up to six times greater
than agricultural land
•fewer bodies of open water (therefore less evaporation) and fewer plants (therefore less
transpiration)
•the composition of the atmosphere, involving the blanketing effect of smog, smoke or haze
•less thermal energy required far evaporation and evapotranspiration due to the surface character,
rapid drainage and generally lower wind speed
London's heat island effect produces minimum temperatures that may be 6°C higher in the city
compared with surrounding rural areas. Air flow over an urban area is disrupted - winds are
slow and deflected over buildings. Large buildings can produce eddying. Severe gusting and
turbulence around tall buildings causes strong local pressure gradients from windward to leeward
walls. Deep, narrow streets are much calmer unless aligned with prevailing winds to funnel flows
along them - the 'canyon effect'. The nature of urban climates is changing, however. With the
decline in coal as a source of energy there is less sulfur dioxide (SO2) pollution, hence fewer
hygroscopic nuclei and so less fog.
June 2022
5 (b) Explain how human activity can affect the temperature of an urban area. [8]
The albedo rate of different surfaces in urban areas is relevant. Concrete and tarmac absorb heat.
However, some areas, such as those with a large glass surface area in the buildings, reflect more
light and have a higher albedo.
Industrial and residential buildings also release heat. Vehicles release gases such as sulphur
dioxide, carbon dioxide etc. which help to reduce loss of longwave radiation and increase
temperatures. Central heating and air conditioning are also relevant.
The presence of dust particles, along with condensation nuclei means that urban areas can create
more heat. These particles also help to keep heat in overnight, creating warmer temperatures. In
some cases, the smog forms a pollution dome which traps radiation, thus heat, further. However,
this also reduces the incoming solar radiation.
Candidates may discuss variations of temperature within an urban area.

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Specimen Paper
5) a) (i) Briefly describe how some incoming solar radiation is prevented from reaching the
earth’s surface. [3]
About 16% of incoming solar radiation is absorbed by water vapour, dust and carbon dioxide
effectively preventing it from reaching the earth’s surface. About 20% is reflected back into the
atmosphere by clouds while some is scattered by dust and pollution particles and as such is
prevented from reaching the earth’s surface.
(ii) Briefly explain why some surfaces absorb more solar energy than others. [4]
Surfaces that are dark in colour such as forests and vegetation absorb more solar energy than
light coloured surfaces such as snow or large masses of light coloured sand. This degree of
reflectivity is known as albedo. In surfaces with high albedos they reflect most of the incoming
solar radiation, and only absorb a small amount. As well as colour playing a role, the degree of
surface reflection is also important. Shiny surfaces such as snow and some bodies of water are
reflective and so absorb less solar energy, while duller surfaces such as vegetation tend to absorb
more.
b) Describe and explain how temperatures are influenced by distance from the sea. [8]
Land and water have different thermal properties; land heats and cools more quickly than water.
Because of this, water takes up heat and gives it back more slowly than the land. In winter, in
mid-latitudes, sea air is much warmer than the air over the land, so onshore winds bring warmer
temperatures to the coastal lands. However in summer, cooler sea breezes over coastal areas
cause coastal temperatures to be cooler than inland. This means that places closer to the sea have
their temperatures moderated by the sea, while places further from the sea have more extreme
temperature in both summer and in winter. This can be seen in average summer temperatures for
Glasgow and Moscow, both on similar lines of latitude. Glasgow experiences an average
summer temperature of 15oC compared to Moscow at 19oC with average winter temperatures
for Glasgow 3oC compared to Moscow -8oC.
c) ‘Global warming is caused as much by individual people as by large organisations.’ With
the aid of examples, how far do you agree? [15]
One of the main causes of global warming is the increased amounts of carbon dioxide, methane
and other greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere. While all of these gases appear naturally, their
concentrations are being increased due to human activity, which is causing an enhanced
greenhouse effect leading to global warming. The main human sources of greenhouse gas
emissions are: fossil fuel use, deforestation, intensive livestock farming, use of synthetic
fertilizers and industrial processes. Both individuals and large organisations contribute to this. By
using electricity generated from fossil fuel power stations; burning gas for heating or driving a
petrol or diesel car every person is responsible for the carbon dioxide emissions that contribute to
global warming. In addition, every product or service that humans consume indirectly creates
carbon dioxide emissions as energy is required for their production, transport and disposal.
However, the impact of large organisations on global warming far outweighs the impact of
individuals. Deforestation is a major contributor to global warming and cattle farming is now the

63 | P a g e
biggest threat to the remaining Amazon rainforest, a fifth of which has been lost since 1970. Big
ranches are blamed for 80% of all deforestation in the region; the number of cattle in the
Amazon grew from 21m in 1995 to 56m in 2006. Many large international organisations buy
beef raised in the rainforest and thus directly support their actions which contribute to global
warming. In addition, an
analysis from the journal of Climatic Change found that between them, just 90 companies on the
list of top emitters produced 63% of the cumulative global emissions of industrial carbon dioxide
and methane between 1751 to 2010. All but seven of the 90 were energy companies producing
oil, gas and coal; the remaining seven were cement manufacturers. These companies include
Chevron, Exxon, BP, and Royal Dutch Shell and coal producers such as British Coal Corp,
Peabody Energy and BHP Billiton. These large organisations therefore have a much bigger
impact on global warming than individuals.
June 2022
5 (c) With the aid of examples, assess the extent to which human activity is the main cause
of global warming. [15]
depending on the approach chosen. Whichever approach is chosen, essays which address the
drawing on several examples to illustrate the factors involved.
Candidates will consider the range of causes of global warming, focusing on the sources of
greenhouse gases. Candidates may acknowledge that there is a combination of natural and
anthropogenic (human) causes. They may discuss the causes being a result of volcanic eruptions
or variations relating to the sun. However, candidates need to consider the extent to which
human activity is the cause, such as the burning of fossil fuels, releasing nitrous oxides from
vehicles, CFCs from aerosols and methane from agriculture. The candidate may consider a
temporal scale, commenting on the difference between the extent of human activity causing
global warming in the present compared with the past.
Award marks based on the quality of the response using the marking levels below.

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ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER

The diurnal (daily) energy budget

Diurnal: refers to the differences between day and night.

 Quantifying changes in the incoming, absorbed and outgoing radiation is required to

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

2(a) (ii) Using Fig. 2.1: name transfer B. [1]

INCOMING (SHORTWAVE) SOLAR RADIATION

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

REFLECTED SOLAR RADIATION

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

Table showing selected Albedo Values:

Energy absorbed into the surface and subsurface

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

LONG WAVE RADIATION

SENSIBLE HEAT TRANSFERS

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

LATENT HEAT TRANSFERS

Albedo: the percentage or equivalent

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

form of terrestrial radiation but is neither warming up nor cooling down to an

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

THE SIX FACTOR DAY AND FOUR FACTOR NIGHT MODEL

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

3. Earth surface absorption 51%

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

Definition of important terms:

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

Differences between Shortwave Radiation/ Insolation and Long wave Radiation

1 mark for each.

THE GLOBAL ENERGY BUDGET

The latitudinal pattern of radiation: excesses and deficits

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

Hemisphere rather than in Northern Hemisphere

balance at these latitudes.

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

latitudes because of the high

levels of solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface

ATMOSPHERIC TRANSFERS: PRESSURE BELTS, WIND BELTS AND OCEAN

b) Pressure and wind belts

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

(a) Using Fig. 1, identify:

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

• this re-distributes heat around the globe

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

detailed consideration of a case study/one or more examples, or a broadly conceived response,

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

Seasonal variations in temperature, pressure and wind belts

The influence of land and sea distribution

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

BMC LOWER SIX NOTES: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER MR. S. KANGOMA

Few notes on ITCZ

Name the line labelled A shown in Fig. 2.1. [1]