UNIT 4: STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING MATHEMATICAL OBJECTS

Teaching Mathematical Concepts

As explained earlier, a concept is knowledge of what something is; for example th
10 or a circle, rectangle, ellipse hyperbola, etc. Concepts are a kind of subject matt
among the first things learned by young children. By means of concepts, other high
concepts are learnt.
Moves in teaching a concept
Some concepts are taught deliberately, and usually learnt; others are learnt. That is
teacher consciously takes time in class to teach some concepts. For others, the teac
uses a term that designate the concept; with repeated use, students acquire a conce
designated by it. For example a teacher who has deliberately taught a concept of a
function might not take the class time to teach a concept of a non-constant function
simply use the term and students would probably make correct inferences and acqu
concept.
Definition
Because most concepts in mathematics are precise, definitional moves can be used
is an elegant move since it employs a minimum of language. The more formal the
presentation is, the more definitions are used to teach concepts. For example, “A b
a polynomial having just two terms”.
Very elegance definitions may be a block to learning. Some students cannot simply
comprehend. However, for concepts that are not precise, definitions alone may not
useful concepts.
Stating a sufficient condition
Consider the statement: “If two lines do not lie in the same plane, they are skew”.
teacher might regard this as a definition. However, this is not explicitly a definition
state a sufficient condition for lines to be skew. This move is used frequently used
concept, and it simply called stating a sufficient condition. Some examples are:
“A function is a linear function provided that its graph is a straight line”.
“20 is an even number since it is divisible by 2”
Giving one or more examples
Examples are objects denoted by the concept – i.e. members of the set determined
concept. These are exemplification moves – giving one or more examples. Exampl
concepts. Perhaps this is because they are definite, specific and, if well chosen, fam
Exemplification is used frequently by teachers.

Comparing or contrasting objects denoted by the concept

We find that in teaching concepts, teachers often compare objects denoted by the c
they are teaching with objects with which they think students are familiar. This est
bond or association between the familiar and the less familiar. For example in teac
concept of the metric system, the teacher may compare it with the English system.
Comparison points out similarities, but since objects compared are not identical th
differences.
Giving counter-example
A counter-example is an example that disproves a false generalization. Suppose a
states as a definition that adjacent angles are a pair of angles with a common side.
teacher might give a counter-example such as the diagram on the right. The diagra
Teaching Mathematical Concepts
As explained earlier, a concept is knowledge of what something is; for example the number 10 or a
circle, rectangle, ellipse hyperbola, etc. Concepts are a kind of subject matter that are among the first
things learned by young children. By means of concepts, other higher concepts are learnt.

Moves in teaching a concept

Some concepts are taught deliberately, and usually learnt; others are learnt. That is the teacher
consciously takes time in class to teach some concepts. For others, the teacher simply uses a term
that designate the concept; with repeated use, students acquire a concept designated by it. For
example a teacher who has deliberately taught a concept of a constant function might not take the
class time to teach a concept of a non-constant function but would simply use the term and
students would probably make correct inferences and acquire the concept.
Definition
Because most concepts in mathematics are precise, definitional moves can be used. Definition is
an elegant move since it employs a minimum of language. The more formal the presentation is,
the more definitions are used to teach concepts. For example, “A binomial is a polynomial
having just two terms”.
Very elegance definitions may be a block to learning. Some students cannot simply comprehend.
However, for concepts that are not precise, definitions alone may not result in useful concepts.
Stating a sufficient condition
Consider the statement: “If two lines do not lie in the same plane, they are skew”. Some teacher
might regard this as a definition. However, this is not explicitly a definition. It does state a
sufficient condition for lines to be skew. This move is used frequently used to teach a concept,
and it simply called stating a sufficient condition. Some examples are:
“A function is a linear function provided that its graph is a straight line”.
“20 is an even number since it is divisible by 2”
Giving one or more examples
Examples are objects denoted by the concept – i.e. members of the set determined by the
concept. These are exemplification moves – giving one or more examples. Examples clarify
concepts. Perhaps this is because they are definite, specific and, if well chosen, familiar.
Exemplification is used frequently by teachers.

Comparing or contrasting objects denoted by the concept

We find that in teaching concepts, teachers often compare objects denoted by the concept they
are teaching with objects with which they think students are familiar. This establishes a bond or
association between the familiar and the less familiar. For example in teaching a concept of the
metric system, the teacher may compare it with the English system. Comparison points out
similarities, but since objects compared are not identical there must be differences.
Giving counter-example
A counter-example is an example that disproves a false generalization. Suppose a student states
as a definition that adjacent angles are a pair of angles with a common side. The teacher might
give a counter-example such as the diagram on the right. The diagram satisfies the condition
that the student stated, a pair of angles having a common side.

Stating a necessary condition

In this form which a necessary condition is stated, utilises only if. Form example “A
quadrilateral is a parallelogram only if both pairs of sides are parallel”. The condition
following the only if is a necessary condition. Thus a textbook might have “A parallelogram is a
rhombus only if all the sides are equal” thereby identifying the condition all the sides are equal
as necessary for a parallelogram to be a rhombus.
There are others that combine some of the above moves like
- stating a necessary condition
- giving one or more non-examples
- giving a non-example accompanied by a reason why it is a non-example
- etc.

Strategies in Teaching a Concept

A teachers rarely uses one move in teaching a concept, he or she usually uses different kinds of
moves and repetitions of a particular move. A strategy may be defined as a temporal sequence
of moves. Thus giving a definition and following it by two examples is a three-move strategy:
i.e. definition, giving an example, giving an example.
A strategy very commonly employed in textbooks is to follow definition by exemplification. In
this strategy, authors give the examples or non-examples or both, either accompanied by reasons
or not. The definition identifies the necessary and sufficient conditions and the exemplification
clarifies them. Many textbooks extend this strategy by providing exercises based on the
exemplification – i.e. the exercises present objects and students are asked to classify, to identify
examples and non-examples. Such exercises require students to apply the concept in making the
discrimination. The feedback students get as they learn whether their answers are correct helps
establish the concept.

Teaching Mathematical Generalizations

Introduction
Once mathematicians have conceived of mathematical concepts, they can study the properties of
these mathematical objects and the relations among them. The findings of such study provide
generalizations – that is, statements that hold over a set of objects. Generalizations, like
concepts, are a kind of subject matter that mathematics teachers teach their students.
Generalizations are usually taught in one of the two ways: by exposition or by heuristics (that is,
by guided discovery).
Moves in teaching generalization
As in the case of teaching concepts, when one analyzes the classroom dialogue that results when
generalization is taught, various moves can be identified. Consider the following transcription of
a dialogue. The context is an eighth-grade class studying formulas. The students had learnt what
a variable is and how to substitute for a variable in a formula. The formula under consideration
was one for converting Celsius temperatures into Fahrenheit:
9
F= C +32
5
9
Some students multiplied the Celsius temperature by 5 and then added 32. Others added 32 to the
9
Celsius temperature and then multiplied the sum by 5 . The particular exercise at issue was
converting 20o Celsius into Fahrenheit.
1. T: Well, who’s right? S1 added first and then multiplied, and S2 multiplied first and then
added.
 9
S2, why did you multiply first – that is take 5 of 20 and then add 32?
9
2. S2: 5 written next to 20 means multiply.
3. T: How did you do – ah – number 12? (This exercise required the conversion of 48o Celsius
into
Fahrenheit). Did you multiply first?
4. S2: Ah – ah – yes I guess so.
5. T: What did you get as an answer?
6. S2: Ah – 118.4o
7. T: 118.4o. Let’s see (pausing). Yes, you multiplied first and then added 32. I just wanted to
check to
see that you didn’t multiply first when changing 20o Celsius just because 5 divided evenly
into
20. But you were consistent. S1, why did you first add first and then multiply?
8. S1: The plus sign.
9. T: So we know that there is a good reason for doing either operation first. We ought to have a
rule
to tell which operation to do first. We’ll have other problems later where we’ll have to
know
which operation to do first. So let’s learn the rule mathematicians use. If there is a
combination
of multiplication or division combined with addition or subtraction, the multiplication or
division is done first, then the addition or subtraction. So for the problem w were dong,
who is
right, S1 or
S2? See (writes on the chalkboard)
4

So 20o Celsius equals 68o Fahrenheit. Let do another – number 12. Who will come to
the chalkboard and do this one? All right S3. (S3 does the exercise correctly on the board.)
10. T: One more. No two more. Numbers 14 and 17. Who’ll do 14? All right (indicating S4)
Number 17? S5 While they are putting these on the board, let’s talk about the other
formula,
5
C= ( F−32 )
9 .
Let’s do –mm – number 10. What’s given? S6 (The teacher writes the formula on the board)
11. S6: 212o.
12. T: Fahrenheit or Celsius?
13. S6: Fahrenheit

In teaching generalization, teachers use different moves to introduce the topic. This is called
introduction move in which the teacher sets the stage for subsequent instruction. Three kinds of
introduction moves appear to be used by teachers.
In one, the teacher focuses students’ attention on the topic of instruction. This is often done
simply by naming the topic. This is called a focus move. The teacher in the dialogue used a focus
5
C= ( F−32 )
move in utterance 10 where he said, “Let’s talk about another formula 9 .” By this
language, he directed the students’ attention to what he wanted to talk about next.
In another introduction move, the teacher states explicitly the goal or outcome of the subsequent
study. The teacher states the objective at the onset of the day’s lesson. This is called objective
move. A third introduction move is one in which the teacher tries to convince students the
generalization to be learnt is worth learning. This is called motivation move. Often motivation is
attained by pointing out the utility of the generalization. For example a teacher might point out
examples of the use of proportions in daily life in an attempt to persuade students to learn how to
set up and solve proportions.
Assertion moves: Another kind of move was illustrated in utterance 9, when the teacher state the
rule: “If there is a combination of multiplication of multiplication or division combined with
addition or subtraction, the multiplication or division is done first”. Here a generalization is
stated or asserted. This is called assertion move.
Sometimes the teacher directs the students’ attention to the generalization statement in a
textbook or helps the students verbalize the generalization which may have been discovered or
identified in a discussion.
Instantiation moves: Another kind of move is instantiation. In this move, the teacher employs
one or more instances of the generalization. If the generalization is in mathematical notation with
variables explicitly quantifiers as, for example,
For each rational number a and for all positive integers mi
m m m m1+m2 +.. ... .... ...+mi
i = 1, 2, 3, ……, n, a xa x . .. . .. .. a =a
1 2 i

an instance of the generalization is obtained by dropping the quantifiers and replacing at least
one variable by a constant from the domains of the variables.
Thus 22 × 23 = 25 10 × 102 × 103 = 106
a5 × a × a6 = a12 5a × 5b = 5a + b
are instances of the generalization. If there are no explicit quantifiers, as in
u  v = 0  u and v are orthogonal
where it is understood that the variables u and v range over the domain of vectors, a replacement
of either or both variables by a constant yields an instance of the generalization.
If a generalization is not in mathematical notation – that is, if it employs common nouns – an
instance is obtained by replacing at least one common noun by a proper noun or constant. Thus,
for the generalization
If both sides of an inequality are divided by a negative number, the inequality is reversed,
an instance is if -2x < 6, then x > -3.
In the dialogue, an instantiation move was used each time the rule concerning the order of
operations was followed. These instantiations clarified the meaning of the rule and showed how
it was applied.
Application moves
Instantiation moves are closely related to moves in which the generalization is applied. In
utterance 9 in the dialogue, after asserting the generalization, the teacher applied it when he
wrote on the board

The application is an instance of the generalization concerning the order of operations. The move
where the generalization is applied is called application moves.

MATHEMATICAL SKILLS DEVELOPMENT AT THE SHS LEVEL

Concepts and generalizations are cognitive knowledge that are taught in the classroom. Another
kind of knowledge that is also taught in the classroom is the knowledge of how to do something. For
example, mathematics teachers “show” students how to square binomials, interpolate, solve equations
and bisect line segments with speed and accuracy.

In this session, we shall consider the meaning of mathematics skill, its nature, structuring aspect
of skill and finally consider some moves in teaching mathematical skills.
Meaning of mathematical skills

A skill is any well established multi-step procedure usually visually moderated used to solve a
routine problem with speed and accuracy. As explained earlier, a skill may be described as the
knowledge of how to do something. How do we acquire skills? The mathematician creates his concepts
and then he “plays” games with them. Mathematics Philosophers state that “Mathematics is a game
played with senseless marks on a paper”. Every game has got a set of rules. For example, for whole
numbers, the rules are that we can combine any whole number with another whole number and come
out with a result which is also a whole number – this rule is adding.

A skill in mathematics is made up of basic rules. Some skills are known as basic (when we take
numbers, the basic skills are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. These are also referred to
as the four rules in arithmetic. For example, with the concept of vector, Mathematicians create vectors
and subject them to analysis.

Let u = and v =

The rules of arithmetic is different from the rules of vectors

u
u
v v+u

v+u -
But the addition of v and u is not the same as addition of 4 and 1. The addition of the vectors v and u is
a new rule defined in terms of basic skills. The addition of the numbers is subordinate skill of addition
of the vectors. Another example is the dot product (scalar products) of vectors.
Dot product of the two vectors u and v is

u.v=

=
= 4 + 6 = 10.
The dot product makes use of subordinate skills addition and multiplication. A skill such as dot
product may be in relation to its components referred to as a parent skill or super ordinate skill. If we
look at them in complexity, we can have a hierarchy of skills. Mathematics skills have hierarchy – Basic
(subordinate) and Parent (super ordinate) skill. To teach a parent skill, a subordinate skill should be
taught. The skill in mathematics made of basic skills is defined on certain concept, together with a
combination of property of the concepts of the basic skills.
For example, to solve a simultaneous linear equations in two variables

.
Solving this type of equations is a skill. It is a super ordinate skill. You need to know the set of basic
skills. They are defined in algebraic expressions

Eqn (3) + Eqn(4) :

x=2
We have made use of certain skills (defined in terms of algebraic expression). When we take any
equation, the left hand side is equal to the right hand side and any operation that is performed on the
right should also be performed on the left. This is a property defined. If you have two equations, you
should subtract the left hand side from the right hand side of the other equation and vice versa, it will
give the same result. For example, equation 5 is a linear equation in one variable and we know the rules
with linear equations in one variable.
Nature of skills
A distinguishing characteristic of learning how to do something is that, it can be learnt through
imitation. Consider the skill of squaring binomials. An algebra student may learn how to square
binomials by observing and imitating a teacher or another student. Through proper practice he may
improve in his ability to square binomials and be able to find products accurately and rapidly, thus
acquiring the desired skill.
One should not conclude, however, that the strategy of imitation followed by practice is the
best way to acquire a skill. Without some knowledge of theory and principles, imitation and practice
tend to be a time-consuming and unreliable approach to learning a skill. A algebra student who
understands the mathematical generalizations underlying the squaring of a binomial is likely to become
proficient in squaring binomials of various complexity.
Another characteristic of skills is that speed and accuracy are criteria of their performance. To
be able to do something very well and quickly requires practice. While students can learn how to use the
quadratic formula without practice, they need practice in using the formula in order to solve quadratic
equations with speed and accuracy. To teach skills, effectively, then, teachers must provide students
with opportunity for practice.
It must also be recognized that each skill has got a name. So when we teach skills we must also
teach the names of the skills. Each skill also has a meaning, so when we teach the skill we should also
teach the meaning of the skill. Skills are based on certain principles or generalization (as mentioned
earlier), so when we teach the skill, we should help students to identify the principles on which such
skills are based.
For example: The HCF of two numbers 12 and 18.
What is the meaning of it? – The highest common factor – the highest number that can divide 12 and at
the same time 18 – that is the meaning. If we talk of finding the HCF of two numbers 12 and 18, there
are several methods that had been developed.

Using the set theory method, we have: (Fn = factors of n)

F12 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12}
F18 = {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18}
F12  F18 = {1, 2, 3, 6}
Thus HCF = {6}.

Structuring aspect of a skill

We stated earlier that skills are based on certain generalization or principles.
Aspect has got conceptual as well as the procedural.

Conceptual Aspect

Aspect
Procedural Aspect

The procedural Aspect: By this we mean how the skill is employed (is used). It uses the various steps
involved in right sequence which when applied to the appropriate routine problems leads to the correct
solution.
If we take the case of the HCF, the procedural aspect tries to make it easier and faster. If we take 18 and
12 for example, we have
18 = 2 × 32
12 = 22 × 3
Thus HCF = 2 × 3 = 6
This is a procedure, which gives us the answer.

Euclid’s Algorithm
If a and b are any two integers (a, b  I) with b greater than a (b > a) then we can find other integers q, r
(q, r  I) such that
 b=a×q+r
Example 18 = 12 × 1 + 6 (express 18 in terms of 12, take the lowest remainder)
12 = 6 × 2 + 0 (express 12 in terms of the remainder)
The last remainder then becomes the HCF of the two numbers.

18 12(2
– 12 12

6 0

HCF (12, 18) = 6

We explained earlier that every mathematical skill has two aspects, the conceptual aspect (the name
and meaning of skill) and the procedural aspect. We can get other principles which will make the work
faster.
Moves in teaching mathematical skills
(a) Introduction move
The first move that we can identify when teaching mathematical skills is the introduction move.
Under this we have several types. A lesson on teaching of mathematical skills can be introduced by
focus, objective and motivation move.
(i) Focus move: On the focus move, the teacher may focus students’ attention by naming the skill and
briefly describing what it entails. For example we may have construction of Loci (plural of locus) using
ruler and a compass; angle bisector. That is the topic. So start by saying “We are going to deal with
construction of loci and today we are dealing with angle bisector.”
Bring in the conceptual aspect – What is angle bisector? – Line that divides angles into two congruent
parts or a line that divides any angle into two congruent parts.
We shall make use of a pair of compasses and a ruler to do the construction.

(ii) Objective move: This is the move where the teacher states the instructional objective in terms of
behavioural pattern of the student. For example, she may give the objective of the lesson as follows:

“By the end of this lesson, you (students) would be able to factorise quickly and correctly any
reducible quadratic trinomial.”

This makes students to be explicitly aware of the teacher’s instructional goal.

(iii) Motivation move: These are moves that are used by the teacher to motivate the students – i.e. to
arouse and maintain the interest of the students. By the use of this move, the student will have an inner
drive or desire to acquire the skill. This move includes the following:

 Utility: By this, we mean the move which will enable the student to realize that they will
sooner or later be putting the skill to good use. For example they will be employing the skill to
 learn other subjects or to learn other topics in mathematics – the relation (for
students in SHS 1 Physics). This is a quadratic equation. So at the beginning of teaching
quadratic equation, the teacher makes students aware that having knowledge of quadratic
equation will enable them study some topics in Physics (motion under uniform acceleration).
Their interest will be aroused and be maintained. That is the utility move.

 Problematic situation: By this we are referring to the situation where the students feel the
need for the skill in order to be able to solve a problem. For example, if students are asked to
add the first three counting numbers, they will do. When they are asked to find the sum of
the first seven counting numbers, they will do. But when asked to find the sum of the first 500
counting numbers, they will not like it. It will be boring and time consuming to them. They will
ask, “Is there no shorter formula to do that”? then the teacher will say “Yes there is a formula
that will do that”. They are ready now. You have put them in problematic situation, a critical
dilemma.

 Historical accounts: giving historical account – for example you are going to teach the
Pythagoras theorem, you will like to give a brief history about Pythagoras and the Pythagoras
theorem and allow the story which shall be interesting lead to the topic. If you want to teach
the sum of n terms in an arithmetic progression, start by telling the story about the schoolboy
who discovered it (Gauss), they will then like to learn more.

 Outlining: Give a brief outline of what is going to be taught or unfold in the lesson. The
overview of what the lesson is going to entail, something like abstract. Summarize main
points of what is going to be presented.

 Rational: The reason for studying the topic. The rational does not mention the use that you
are going to put the topic into.

All these put together gives the introduction move.

(b) Assertion move

This move refers to the situation in which the teacher gives verbal or written prescriptions as too
what to do and how to do it, clearly spelling out the sequence in which the various steps are to be
performed. For example, the prescription for solving a quadratic equation by method of factorization

(The canonical /Standard form)

This is the canonical form, but

is not canonical form. To change it to canonical form, we rewrite

So the assertion is to write the equation in canonical form. The next step (assertion) will be to write the
equation in factorised form that will be the second step. The next step is to equate either factor to zero
(applying property of real numbers – if product of two real numbers is zero, then either of the numbers
will be zero. That is divisors of the numbers.

For any two real numbers a and b, ab = 0 implies either a = 0 or b = 0.

The principles of divisors of zero.

The principle is applied to get two linear equations each with a single variable, then the last step will be
to solve each factor as a linear equation in one variable to obtain the elements of the truth set.

This set of prescription we have above is what is called the assertion. We either give them verbally or
write them down. We usually write the prescription using imperative mood.

(c) Interpretation move

Here, the teacher interprets, in terms of the skill, which appear unfamiliar to students, when the
assertion move had been used. It may be in the form of questions and answers. It is only the teacher
who interprets it. The teacher leads students to interpret the meaning of terms. Students who can, may
be asked to paraphrase a prescription for the other members of the class to know the meaning.

(d) Demonstration move

This is the move by which the teacher clarifies the procedure designated by the prescription by
providing students a model of behaviour they can imitate. It is an overt activity as designated by the
prescription. Strategies that interpret prescriptions without going through an example are generally less
effective than those that modelled the behaviour and at the same time give verbal cues as to when to
perform a certain task. Demonstration is very important.

(e) Analogy move

Reminding students that the procedure for accomplishing a desired task is similar to a previous
learnt procedure is what is referred to as Analogy move.

Example, simplifying fraction of the form and using this knowledge to simplifying complex

number (remembering that i2 = –1).

The teacher could capitalize on this knowledge to help them acquire the new skill.

Relating a skill being acquired to a previous skill already acquired is effective and provides
students with continuity in learning.

(f) Justification move

Justification move is a move used to convince students that following a given descriptive
principle that leads to a correct answer. A prescription is assigned a truth-valued of true, if following the
prescription attains the desired end – that is Mathematics, a correct result. There are two main types of
justification moves:

(i) Pragmatic justification

(ii) Deductive justification

(i) Pragmatic Justification

Pragmatic justification is the one where the student or the teacher checks the work for its
accuracy in order to demonstrate that following a prescriptive principles leads to the correct answer.

(ii) Deductive justification

Deductive justification is to establish that the prescriptions are predicted or accepted

mathematical generalization accordingly making use of them in strict adherence to the prescription will
lead to the correct result.

Examples

1. Consider the scale of constructing the angle bisector of a given angle: students can be
convinced that the result is correct by using a protractor to measure each of the congruent
halves of the given angle. This is an example of pragmatic justification.

2. A deductive justification could also be used by demonstrating that, since the prescriptions
are based on accepted mathematical generalization, the result is correct. In other words, the
prescription can be justified by using deductive reasoning to prove its validity.
For example, if the two triangles are proved equal
B
then the corresponding angles will be equal

Angle BAP = Angle CAP P

A

Deductive reasoning has been used to show

C
that the two parts are equal.

(g) Practice move

Practice makes man perfect, they say. It is only through practice that one develops the ability to
compete a task with speed and accuracy. The old adage “Practice makes Perfect” still has a ring of truth
to it. Practice will not itself ensure that students will become skilled at a particular task. Practice can be
effective, ineffective or detrimental depending on its context. Effective practice must be related to the
achievement of some end that, the student is motivated to attain. Students are motivated to learn a skill
because of its utility, because they enjoy doing it or because it is a means to attaining some other goal,
are likely to be interested and take an active part in the practice sessions, rather than viewing them as
useless exercise.
 Before we end the session, let us talk briefly about reinforcement and feedback.

Reinforcement is defined as any stimulus that creates the probability of a response. A generalization
sometimes referred to as law of reinforcement asserts that rewarded behaviour is more likely to re
occur. Practice must occur in a context to ensure success and benefit from effort. Furthermore, correct
response can be promoted by reinforcing by rewarding the desired responses.

After a skill has been learnt and you want students to practise, do not give them a lot of work,
because if it happens that way, those who are not doing the right thing will keep on repeating the errors
and it will stick to their minds and it will not be easy to extinguish it. Reinforcement must be used
judiciously. The following constraints must be adhered to if reinforcement is to be successful.

1. In the initial stages, learning all desirable outcomes/skills should be

reinforced.

2. Reinforcement should follow almost immediately when the desired

behaviour occurs.

3. In the minds of the learners, the reinforcement must be clearly associated

with the desired behaviour.

4. Do not reinforce undesirable behaviour.

Another factor to be considered in teaching skills is feedback. Feedback is defined as “The information
available to the student, which makes possible the comparison of his/her actual performance wit some
standard performance of a skill”. Feedback is sometimes referred to as knowledge of result. It has been
asserted that feedback is the most important variable in determining the learning of a skill. Feedback
provides corrective information to the student and hence enable him/her to monitor performance; the
corrective information can improve a student’s performance and hence serve as a rein forcer for the
behaviour that leads in improvement.