RESISTORS

Electronics Engineering Work Practices (ECE101)

 INTRODUCTION
• The opposition to the flow of charge through an
electrical circuit, called resistance, has the units of ohms
and uses the Greek letter omega (Ω) as its symbol.
• The graphic symbol for resistance, which resembles the
cutting edge of a saw.

FIG. 1 Resistance symbol and notation.

 INTRODUCTION
• This opposition is due primarily to collisions and friction
between the free electrons and other electrons, ions,
and atoms in the path of motion.
• It converts the supplied electrical energy into heat that
raises the temperature of the electrical component and
surrounding medium.
• The heat you feel from an electrical heater is simply due
to current passing through a high-resistance material.
 RESISTANCE
➢ The resistance of any material is due to primarily four
factors:
• Material
• Length
• Cross-sectional area
• Temperature of the material
➢ The first three elements are related by the following
basic equation for resistance:
 RESISTANCE

FIG. 2 Factors affecting the resistance of a conductor.

 RESISTANCE
❑ Temperature Effects

FIG. 3 Demonstrating the effect of a positive and a negative temperature

coefficient on the resistance of a conductor.
 TYPES OF RESISTORS
• Resistors are made in many forms, but all belong in
either of two groups: fixed or variable.
• The most common of the low-wattage, fixed type
resistors is the film resistor.

➢ Fixed Resistors

FIG. 4 Film resistors: (a) construction; (b) types.

 TYPES OF RESISTORS
➢ Fixed Resistors

FIG. 5 Fixed-composition resistors:

(a) construction; (b) appearance.
 TYPES OF RESISTORS
➢ Fixed Resistors

FIG. 6 Fixed metal-oxide resistors of

different wattage ratings.
 TYPES OF RESISTORS
➢ Fixed Resistors

FIG. 7 Inside a Resistor

 TYPES OF RESISTORS
➢ Fixed Resistors

FIG. 8 Various types of fixed resistors.

 TYPES OF RESISTORS
➢ Variable Resistors
• Variable resistors, as the name implies, have a terminal
resistance that can be varied by turning a dial, knob,
screw, or whatever seems appropriate for the
application.
• They can have two or three terminals, but most have
three terminals. If the two- or three-terminal device is
used as a variable resistor, it is usually referred to as a
rheostat.
 TYPES OF RESISTORS
➢ Variable Resistors

FIG. 9 Potentiometer: (a) symbol; (b) and (c) rheostat connections; (d) rheostat symbol.
 TYPES OF RESISTORS
➢ Variable Resistors

FIG. 10 Molded composition-type

potentiometer. (Courtesy of Allen-
Bradley Co.)
 TYPES OF RESISTORS
➢ Variable Resistors

FIG. 11 Resistance components of a potentiometer: (a) between

outside terminals; (b) between wiper arm and each outside terminal.
 TYPES OF RESISTORS
➢ Variable Resistors

FIG. 12 Variable resistors: (a) 4 mm ( 5/32 in.) trimmer (courtesy of Bourns, Inc.); (b)
conductive plastic and cermet elements (courtesy of Honeywell Clarostat); (c) three-point wire-
wound resistor.
 RESISTOR COLOR CODING
• A wide variety of resistors, fixed or variable, are large
enough to have their resistance in ohms printed on the
casing.
• Some, however, are too small to have numbers printed
on them, so a system of color coding is used.
• For the thin-film resistor, four, five, or six bands may be
used.
RESISTOR COLOR CODING

FIG. 13 Color coding.

RESISTOR COLOR CODING

FIG. 14 4-Band/5-Band Color coding.

RESISTOR COLOR CODING

FIG. 15 Five-band color coding

for fixed resistors.
RESISTOR COLOR CODING

FIG. 16 Examples of 4-band,

5-Band and 6-Band color
coding for fixed resistors.
RESISTOR COLOR CODING

TABLE 1 Standard values of

commercially available
resistors.
 POWER DISSIPATION
• Resistance generates heat and the component must be
able to dissipate this heat to prevent damage.
• Physical size (the surface area available to dissipate heat)
is a good indicator of how much heat (power) a resistor
can handle
• Measured in watts
• Common values ¼, ½, 1, 5, 10 etc.
 CAPACITORS

Electronics Engineering Work Practices (ECE101)

 INTRODUCTION
• A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a
dielectric (insulator).
• Capacitors store energy in the form of electric field.
• Storage means the charge remains after the voltage
source is disconnected.
• The measure of how much charge is stored is the
capacitance C.
• Components made to provide a specified amount of
capacitance are called capacitors, or by their old name
condensers.
• Applying a voltage to a discharged capacitor causes a
current to charge the capacitor.
 INTRODUCTION
• Connecting a path across the terminals of a charged
capacitor causes current to flow which discharges the
capacitor.
• A capacitor concentrates the electric field in the
dielectric between the plates.
• The farad (F) is the basic unit of capacitance.
• One farad of capacitance equals one coulomb of charge
stored in the dielectric with one volt applied.
• Most capacitors have values less than 1 F:
✓ 1 μF (microfarad) = 1 × 10-6 F
✓ 1 nF (nanofarad) = 1 × 10-9 F
✓ 1 pF (picofarad) = 1 × 10-12 F
 INTRODUCTION
• The amount of charge Q stored in the capacitance is
proportional to applied voltage. The relationship is
summarized in the formulas:
• Charge on a capacitor, in coulombs: Q = CV
• Energy stored in a capacitor in joules: E = ½CV2

Where:
Q = electrical charge in coulombs
C = capacitance in farads
V = voltage in volts
E = energy in joules
 INTRODUCTION
Three ways to increase capacitance:
• A larger capacitor stores more charge for the same voltage.
• A larger plate area increases the capacitance: More of the
dielectric surface can contact each plate, allowing more lines
of force between the plates and less flux leakage.
• A thinner dielectric increases capacitance: When the plate
distance is reduced, the electric field has greater flux density
so the capacitance stores more charge.

Applications:
1. Radio tuner circuit uses variable capacitor
2. Blocks DC voltages in AC circuits
3. Act as switches in computer circuits
4. Triggers the flash bulb in a camera
5. Used in filter circuits in conversion of AC to DC
 INTRODUCTION

Ability to hold a charge depends on:

• Conductive plate surface area.
• Space between plates.
• Material between plates.
 TYPES OF CAPACITORS
Typical Capacitors
• Capacitors are classified by dielectric: Mica, Paper, Plastic film,
Ceramic, Electrolytic.
• They can be connected to a circuit without regard to polarity
(except for electrolytic capacitors).
• The polarity of the charging source determines the polarity of the
capacitor voltage.
• Capacitors block DC voltages and pass AC voltages.
 TYPES OF CAPACITORS
Dielectric Constant (Kε)

Material K
Air or vacuum 1
Aluminum oxide 7
Ceramic 80 – 1200
Glass 8
Mica 3–8
Oil 2–5
Paper 2–6
Plastic 2–3
Tantalum oxide 25
 TYPES OF CAPACITORS
Mica Capacitors
• Mica is a group of natural minerals. There are
two types of mica capacitors: clamped mica
capacitors and silver mica capacitors.
• Clamped mica capacitors are now considered
obsolete due to their inferior characteristics.
• Silver mica capacitors are made by sandwiching
mica sheets coated with metal on both sides.
• Mica capacitors are generally used when the
design calls for stable, reliable capacitors of
relatively small values (Typically 10 to 5000 pF).
• They are low-loss capacitors, which allow them
to be used at high frequencies, and their value
does not change much over time.
 TYPES OF CAPACITORS
Paper Capacitors
• Paper capacitor is also known as a Fixed
capacitor, in which paper is used as a dielectric
medium, that stores energy in the form of the
electrical field.
• These capacitors are used at power line
frequency with a capacitance value of 0.001µF
to 1.0µF.
• Paper capacitor is used in electronic noise
filtering, signal coupling and decoupling
systems, and remote sensing systems. Also,
utilized in signal processing systems such as
tuners, speakers, DRAM, radio receivers, and
analog equalizers.
 TYPES OF CAPACITORS
Film Capacitors
• Film capacitors are capacitors which use a thin
plastic film as the dielectric. This film is made
extremely thin using a sophisticated film
drawing process.
• They are used in many applications because
of their stability.
• There are many types of film capacitors,
including polyester film, metallized film,
polypropylene film, Polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE) film and polystyrene film.
 TYPES OF CAPACITORS
Film Capacitors
• The core difference between these capacitor types is the material
used as the dielectric, and the proper dielectric must be chosen
according to the application.
• They are very much temperature-stable. Frequently used in
circuits where this characteristic is a necessity, such as radio
frequency oscillators and timer circuits.
• It is more suited to lower capacitance values and bigger case sizes.
 TYPES OF CAPACITORS
Ceramic Capacitors
• Ceramic capacitors are made by coating two sides of a small
porcelain or ceramic disc with silver and are then stacked together
to make a capacitor.
• These capacitors are also called as disc capacitors.
• Ceramic capacitors are used in high frequency circuits such as audio
to RF.
• Ceramic Capacitors are the best choice for high frequency
compensation in audio circuits.
• It can be made by changing the thickness of the ceramic disc used.
• Ceramics are inexpensive to manufacture, and they come with
several dielectric types.
 TYPES OF CAPACITORS
Ceramic Capacitors
• Ceramic capacitors are usually made with very small capacitance
values, typically between 1nF and 1µF, although values up to 100µF
are possible. Voltage range is from a few volts up to many
thousands of volts.
• Ceramic capacitors are also very small in size and have a low
maximum rated voltage. They are not polarized, which means that
they may be safely connected to an AC source.
 TYPES OF CAPACITORS
Electrolytic Capacitors
• An electrolytic capacitor is a type of capacitor that uses an
electrolyte to achieve a larger capacitance than other capacitor
types.
• An electrolyte is a liquid or gel containing a high concentration of
ions.
• Almost all electrolytic capacitors are polarized, which means that
the voltage on the positive terminal must always be greater than
the voltage on the negative terminal.
 TYPES OF CAPACITORS
Electrolytic Capacitors
• Supercapacitors are a special subtype of electrolytic capacitors, also
called double-layer electrolytic capacitors, with capacitances of
hundreds and thousands of farads.
• The aluminum electrolytic capacitors have a typical capacitance
between 1µF to 47mF and an operating voltage of up to a few
hundred volts DC.
• Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are found in many applications
such as power supplies, computer motherboards and many
domestic appliances.
• They are commonly made of tantalum or aluminum, although other
materials may be used.
• Since they are polarized, they may be used only in DC circuits.
 INDUCTORS

Electronics Engineering Work Practices (ECE101)

 INTRODUCTION
• Inductors are much like conductors and resistors, used
in electronic devices to carry out specific functions.
• Normally, inductors are coil-like structures that are
found in electronic circuits. The coil is an insulated wire
that is looped around the central core.
• An inductor is a passive component that is used in most
power electronic circuits to store energy in the form of
magnetic energy when electricity is applied to it.
• Inductors are extensively used in much wider
application areas like signal controlling, noise
elimination, voltage stabilization, power electronic
equipment, automobile operations etc.
 INTRODUCTION
• An inductor is also named as a reactor, coil and choke.
• It is a two terminal electrical component used in various
electrical and electronic circuits.
• It comprises of a wire, usually twisted into a coil.
• When a current passes through it, energy stored
temporarily in the coil.
• A supreme inductor is equal to a short circuit for DC
and grants an opposite force to AC that depends on the
frequency of the current.
• An inductor is described by its distinctive nature of
inductance, which is defined as the ratio of the voltage
to the rate of change of current.
 INTRODUCTION
• Inductance is a result of the induced magnetic field on
the coil.
• It is also determined by several factors such as;
✓ The shape of the coil.
✓ The number of turns and layers of the wire.
✓ The space that is given between the turns.
✓ Permeability of the core material.
✓ The size of the core.
• The S.I. unit of inductance is henry (H) and it is denoted
by the symbol L.
 TYPES OF INDUCTORS
Different Types of Inductors
• Air Core Inductors
• Ferro Magnetic or Iron Core Inductors
• Ferrite Core Inductors
• Toroidal Core Inductors
• Bobbin based Inductors
• Multi Layer Inductors
• Thin Film Inductors
 TYPES OF INDUCTORS
Air Core Inductors
➢ In this inductor, core is completely absent.

➢ These inductors offer high reluctance path for the

magnetic flux, hence less inductance.

➢ The air core inductors have larger coils to produce

higher flux densities.

➢ These are used in high frequency applications

including TV and radio receivers.
 TYPES OF INDUCTORS
Ferro Magnetic or Iron Core Inductors

➢ Due to their higher magnetic permeability these

have high inductance property.

➢ These are high power inductors but limited in higher

frequency capacity due to the hysteresis and eddy
current losses.
 TYPES OF INDUCTORS
Ferrite Core Inductors

➢ These are the different types of inductors which offer

advantages of decreased cost and low core losses at
high frequencies.

➢ Ferrite is a metal oxide ceramic based around a mixture

of Ferric Oxide Fe2O3.

➢ Soft ferrites are used for the core construction to

reduce the hysteresis losses.
 TYPES OF INDUCTORS
Toroidal Core Inductors

➢ In these inductors, a coil is wounded on a toroid

circular former.

➢ Flux leakage is very low in this type of inductor.

➢ Special winding machines are required to design this

type of inductor.

➢ Sometimes ferrite core is also used to decrease the

losses in this design.