SAC NOTES

Glossary:
Acculturation The learning process where knowledge is transferred from one
culture to another.
Continuity The persistence or consistent existence of cultural elements in
a society across time. Continuity can also be referred to as
the maintenance of the traditions and social structures that
bring stability to a society.

Enculturation Learning to be a full member of a society or subculture, using

accepted patterns of behaviour.
Macro-Level Society The big picture- the wider social structure, social processes
and their interrelationships. Macro-level society includes those
social institutions – such as the media, the law, the workplace
and the government – that help to shape the social and cultural
world. The macro level examines how these collective groups
relate to the wider society of which they are a part (as a
whole).
Meso-Level Society The middle ground where individuals interact within groups
such as schools, communities, church groups and
neighbourhoods (e.g. Gladesville, riversideghs). It focuses on
relationships between middle level social structures and the
individual.
Micro-Level Society Where individuals every day actions and social interactions
occur- e.g. family, ravens soccer team. The micro-level
focuses on a pattern of social interaction at the individual level.
Social and Cultural Literacy These are the skills that enable people to communicate
effectively across different societies.
Cultural hybridity Where two or more cultures are combined, new, different
forms of culture emerge.

Nature Refers to all of the genes and hereditary factors that influence
who we are - from our physical appearance to our personality
characteristics.
Nurture Refers to all the environmental variables that impact who we
are, including experiences, how we were raised, our social
relationships and out surrounding culture.
Class A system were societies are organised into hierarchical levels based on power,
privilege and wealth.

Ethnicity An individual’s identification with, or sense of belonging to, an ethnic group. This is
based on perceived common origins that people share, such as a specific ancestry and
culture, that mark them as different from others.

Kinship Established relationships between individuals and groups in the basis of socially
recognised biological relationships or marital links.

Life Course A culturally defined sequence of age categories through which people are
usually expected to pass as they progress from birth to death. Culturally defined/socially
constructed.

Life Stages The successive stages of life from childhood to ‘adolescence’, adult life and old
age that collectively define people by being of a particular age group. More biologically
associated.

Responsibility The ability or authority to act or make decision on one’s own, without
supervision. This is associated with being accountable for decision that are made.

Rights The social, civil and political rights according to individuals. These include human
rights- the fundamental rights that individuals should have as humans, such as the right to
life, equality before the law, education and freedom of belief.

Roles The social expectations attached to a particular social position and the analysis of
those expectations. This may include the rights and obligations associated with the position.

Self-Concept Composed of the various identities, attitude, beliefs and values that an
individual hold about himself or herself and by which the individual defines himself or herself
as a specific objective identity: the self.

Social Construct A socially created aspects of social life. Social constructionists argue that
sociality is actively and creatively produced by human being rather than being merely given
or taken from granted.

Socialisation The process by which individuals learn to become functioning members of

society by internalising the role, norms and values of that society. Socialisation occurs as a
result of the individual’s interaction with the agents of socialisation, through, through which
he or she learns to perform social roles.

Status The form of social stratification in which social positions are ranked and organised by
legal, political, cultural criteria into status groups which confer positive and negative
privileges. Status groups can be competitive as they seek to preserve privileges by
excluding rivals.

SOCIOLOGY:
- Scientific study of society and human behaviour
- Its Objective and looks at patterns
- Tries to understand not only the norms but also the unusual
- Take down stereotypes, understands and fixes public policy
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
Society:
 A large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory made up of people,
networks, institutions, systems.
 E.G. Australia

Culture:
 Refers to constantly evolving shared knowledge, behaviour, and attitudes that create
coherence within a society.
 E.G. Australian culture is racist due to the lack of indigenous education

Environment:
 Physical settings providing opportunities, and constraints
 E.G rural areas have poorer access to healthcare services

Persons:
 The individuals who make up society
 E.G. Children are an important component of society

Time:
 A socially constructed concept always in reference to continuity and change, and the
measurement of chronology.

ADDITIONAL COURSE CONCEPTS

Power:
 The ability to make changes or influence others.
 E.G. Government

Authority:
 The legitimate use of power
 E.G. The government enforcing restrictions during Corona

Globalisation:
 Increased international trade and connections
 E.G. The ability to work in another country

Technologies:
 Tools which assist human societal interactions
 E.G. The invention of the smartphone

Identity:
 The qualities, beliefs, personality looks and or expression/mannerisms of a person
 E.G.The qualities of a person

Gender:
 The socially constructed differences between males and females
 E.G. Women are held to higher beauty standards based on patriarchal values


➢ Social and Cultural Literacy:

A socially and culturally literate person uses concepts to demonstrate that he or she:
 - Has a sense of personal, social and cultural identity and understands that
culture underpins one’s behaviour, beliefs and values.
- Is interested in, observes and asks questions about the micro, meso and macro
levels of society.
- Empathises with and appreciate the diverse beliefs and values of different
societies and cultures.
- Researches effectively and ethically, showing critical discernment towards
information and the media.
- Communicates effectively with individuals and groups and works cooperatively
in a cross – cultural setting.
- Applies skills to achieve social inclusion and is aware of the issues of
discrimination and prejudice.
- Avoids making judgements of another culture’s practices using the values of
his or her own culture.
- Has a sense of social responsibility and displays active citizenship by engaging
critically with social issues, and takes considered action for the welfare,
dignity, social justice and human rights of others at local, national and global
levels.
- Is aware of, and sensitive to, major national and global issues such as poverty,
disease and conflict, including armed conflict.
- Considers the impact of globalisation, technologies and rapid change, as well as
continuity and its implications for the future

RESEARCH TYPES:
Quantitative – can be measured, counted or quantified, resulting in a statistical report.
Focusing on what and how many. E.g. questionnaire, observation, stat analysis, content
analysis.

Qualitative – Aims to gather an in depths understanding of an issue by way of open-ended

questions or value based observations. Focuses on why and how. E.g. Focus group,
participant observation, case study, personal reflection, secondary research, interview + the
above methods.

Likert scale questions - a question which contains 5 or 7 response options. The choices
range from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree so the survey maker can get a holistic view
of people's opinions and their level of agreement.
Alike to …
Ratings scale questions – numeric rating scales are most common where it is asking the
participant to rate their opinion of something. The higher the number the more favourable.
Also like …
Frequency questions – Used to access the frequency of something usually on a time scale,
a behaviour, habit or consumption.
ETHICAL RESEARCH – practicing ‘ethics’ when we conduct social research. Most use and
ethical checklist such as:
 Interviewee has been informed in full detail, the experiment and has given consent
(before the fact)
 Interviewer will not disclose any personal information
 Risk of harm is 0
 Anonymity is promised
 Vulnerable groups will be made comfortable and research is conducted according to
particular groups needs

TYPES OF FAMILIES:
Nuclear families, extended families, single-parent families, reconstituted families and
childless families.

RELATED DEPTH STUDY CONCEPTS

Kinship
Marital or biological links with others

Class
The social stratification of different socioeconomic factors

Social construct
An idea that has been created and accepted by people within a society

The self and self-concept

The way we believe we are viewed by society

Socialisation
Our development is shaped by agents which influence our experiences: learning to behave
in a way which is acceptable to society. Primary socialisation is the knowledge we gain from
our family. Secondary socialisation is eg. peers and media, these roles values and norms
become internalised.

Life stages and life course

Life stages refer to the biological stages which an individual passes through from birth to
death. Life-course refers to the socially constructed events which an individual is expected to
pass through to fulfil the values of existence.
E.G. graduation, marriage, children, retirement.

Roles and status

Roles; expectations, rights, or obligations attached to a social position. Status; a social
position in the form of stratification based on socio-economic prospects.

Rights and responsibilities

Rights are the freedoms or authorisations of access to certain things. Responsibility is a form
of accountability in which someone is trusted to fulfil a certain task.

Ethnicity
Perceived common origins that people share creates an identification with or sense of
belonging to an ethnic group.

EXTRA
Social and cultural literacy
The idea that people should possess a body of knowledge and understanding to promote
respect for themselves and others.

Community
A society which has formed due to common traits or location

Continuity and change

Continuity refers to unchanging aspects, change refers to the fluidity of areas within society.

Citizenship
The position or status of being a citizen of a country.

Micro, meso, macro-level

Micro:
Intimate social units and communities
E.G. SCHOOL: FRIEND GROUP

Meso:
Social units of intermediate size occurring between the micro and macro levels.
E.G. SCHOOL: SRC OR PRINCIPLE

Macro:
Impersonal interactions within large social units, usually bureaucratic, operating at a national
or global level.
E.G. SCHOOL: THE INSTITUTION

THE NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONAL AND SOCIAL IDENTITY

Personality: Combination of qualities forming an individual’s character

Self-awareness: An individual’s conscious knowledge of their own character

Self-concept: an individuals answer to the question: ‘who am I?’‘ Composed of the various
identities, attitude, beliefs and values that an individual hold about herself’
→ The beliefs about oneself created by oneself

Social self:
 A conscious experience of which you become aware of your own personal identity
distinct from other people
 An analysis of the self based on the social nature of the self
→ How you view yourself socially

The role of socialisation and the influence of the agents on the development of personal and
social identity

AGENTS OF SOCIALISATION:
Ethnicity, culture, beliefs:
 Ethnicity refers to perceived common origins which may create an identification with
or sense of belonging to a particular group.
Micro: Your ethnicity as an individual may subject you to racism
Meso: identification with people of similar ethnic groups in a state setting may influence the
areas you go to
Macro: connecting with others experiences globally of growing up with a particular ethnicity

 Culture refers to shared knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours which create

coherence within a society.
Micro: Familial celebration of a cultural event creates different childhood experiences
Meso: A culture which is uncommon within Australia creates a unique way of life
Macro: The patriarchal culture permeates global institutions such as parliaments, inhibiting
on women’s opportunities

 Beliefs refer to the values and ideologies a person holds,

Micro: Local church may influence conservatism
Meso: Community-wide e.g. LGBT parade in Sydney enables queer people to feel accepted
Macro: Christianity as a leading religion breeds hatred, can create a sense of difficulty
coming out

Family and kinship:

 Biological or marital links with others.
Micro: immediate family imbues your values and love language
Meso: connections across the state can reinforce identification with others; a support group
Macro: common ancestry with people overseas can increase confidence

Gender and sexuality:

 Gender is a socially constructed difference between men and women
Micro: Schools asserting gendered roles with the available subjects lead to the conformity of
gender roles
Meso: Community values of women as the primary child-carer implements binary notions of
men and women
Macro: Julia Gillard’s misogyny speech highlights the discrepancies between men and
women in parliament

Media:
  Mass communication
Micro: infiltration of social media on an individual creates self-esteem issues
Meso: the culture of using laptops for school work heightens disparities between the poor
Macro: Global communications enable civilians to become educated on external issues

School:
 An education institution
Micro: our interactions with students and teachers can affect confidence
Meso: creates the belief that stress is normal
Macro: culture of productivity can lead to burnout

Peers:
The people we spend time with
Micro: affect our likes and dislikes
Meso: impact our grades
Macro: influence our views of global events

NATURE VS NURTURE
Genetics and socialisation both play an important role in the formation of identity, however,
nurture has a more profound impact. This can be justified through the three strangers
documentary, in which triplets are separated at birth, and once reunited, they discover
shared characteristics. Whilst this could be analysed as support for the nature argument, it
highlights their shared personality traits, which are evident of the socialisation of young
Jewish men in New York. The common likes for cigarettes, women, and cars, are not unique
to these three men, rather, their similarities are a representation of the patriarchal
socialisation which enhances male conformity. Therefore, socialisation/nurture plays a
significant role in the formation of identity.

Adolescence
Socially constructed idea of the developmental period between childhood and adulthood
beginning with changes associated with puberty culminating the acquisition of adult roles
and responsibilities.

THEORIES THAT OFFER AN EXPLANATION OR UNDERSTANDING OF THE

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL SELF

Erikson:
8 stages of psychosocial development throughout the life stages:
During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive
or negative outcome for personality development, resulting in the obtainment or lack of a
virtue.

EXAMPLE:
1. Infancy: trust vs mistrust = hope
2. Toddler: self confidence vs self-doubt = will
3. Pre-schooler: positive or negative self image = purpose
4. School age: industry vs inferiority = compete
5. Adolescence: identity vs role confusion = fidelity
6. Young adulthood: intimacy vs isolation = love
7. Adulthood: generativity vs stagnation = care
8. Old age: ego integrity vs despair = wisdom

Gilligan:
3 stages of moral development: no age ranges
1. Pre-conventional morality: individual survival e.g. child understands importance of
connections with others
→ Recognising the benefits of relationships

2. Conventional morality: heightened sense of responsibility due to connections with others

creating empathy
→ Becoming closer with friends, and caring for their wellbeing

3. Post-conventional morality: conflicts between care for oneself and the balance of love for
others.
→ Care for others begins to inhibit on the ability to care for oneself

MANHEIM GENERATIONAL THEORY

Relates closely to the concept of a life course. The collective mentalities that develop
amongst a generational cohort as they come of age will continue to influence their behaviour
throughout their lives allowing them to redefine the stages of and approach to the life course
as they progress

Year 12:

Social and Cultural Continuity and Change

Continuity - The repetition of patterns of thinking. The persistent or consistent existence of
culture in society across time. Can also be referred to as the maintenance of the traditions
and social structures that bring stability to a society.
Change - The alteration or modification of cultural elements in society. Change to society
can occur at the micro, meso and macro levels. It can be brought about by modernisation
processes, including technological innovation
Modernisation - The process of dynamic social change resulting from the diffusion and
adoption of the characteristics of apparently more advanced societies by other societies that
are apparently less advanced. It involves social transformation whereby the society becomes
technologically advanced and updates cultural life.
Sustainability - The required development to meet current human needs, whether
economic, social or environmental, without jeopardising the needs of future generations or
the health of the planet for all species depending on it for their existence.
Tradition - The body of cultural practices and beliefs that are passed down from generation
to generation, often by word of mouth and behaviour modelling, that are integral to the
socialisation process and that represent stability and continuity of the society or culture.
Beliefs - Anything someone holds to be true, either because the evidence points to it or,
sometimes, regardless of evidence
Values - system of ideas and philosophies
Empowerment - the ability to overcome adverse circumstance to achieve a positive
outcome.
Westernisation - The social process where the values, customs and practices of western
industrial capitalism are adopted to form the basis of cultural change.
Cooperation - Ability of individual members of a group to work together to achieve a
common goal.
Conflict – A perceived incompatibility of goals or actions.

The Nature Of Social And Cultural Continuity And Change

 The nature of continuity and change:
- Change is a complex process
- Social change is not a simple process because it often involves many facets and
contributing forces
- Nature and number of human interactions means that change is complex
- There is an argument that social Darwinism is responsible for change. Drawing on ‘survival
of the fittest’, Social Darwinists propose that stronger cultures, traits and practices endure
because they dominate the weaker aspects of culture. However, social and cultural selection
can often be due to a certain group’s beliefs about which culture should remain. That group
may assert its influence through military strength, religious might, political power, judicial
proceedings or occupational and locational emphasis.
- Change will almost always benefit one group involved more than another, creating different
power structures and levels of commitment to a cause.
- Different levels in society make change a complex process, for example the macro
level change may filter down to affect individual on a micro level
- Change is also complex because of added challenges, such as preserving heritage
in times of technological advancement and because of issues related to size and rate
of technological

 ‘evolutionary’ change
The process of structural change that creates a slow alteration in the institutions or social
roles of society that are then integrated into society. Can occur as a result of internal sources
such as cultural shifts or technological innovation, or external sources such as environmental
conditions, acculturation or cultural diffusion.
INSTITUTIONAL.
Structural differentiation – simple societies developing
Functional adaption – How societies accommodate themselves to the external environment.
Bureaucratisation refers to society growing and becoming more complex. Organisations such as
the government and other administrative bodies put in place systems and processes in an attempt to
manage a large population that they interact with. This may involve policies, forms and rules/laws.
Environmentalism advocates for the protection of the environment. They attempt to achieve a
balance between productive human activity and the earth’s natural cycles. This brought about the
concept of ‘sustainability’.
Demographic change refers to an ageing population, decreasing fertility rates, increased life
expectancy etc.

 ‘transformative’ change
Transformative change is often more dramatic and rapid than evolutionary change. It is often
triggered by technology, strong social movements, rebellions or revolutions (They can succeed in
instigating social change too). Each transformative change involves communities using resources and
engaging compliant people to oppose the current situation.
PROFOUND AND PERMANENT.
- Completely modifies existing structures
- Occurs on all three levels (m,m&m)

Social Movements: A social movement is an event that has a long-lasting impact on society. Social
movement is about empowered groups taking action to change their circumstances. An example of
this would be slutwalk, a protest against excusing rape due to the female clothing.
 resistance to change
Methods of resisting change are almost unlimited. They range from disagreements on a personal level
to strikes, boycotts, go-slows and human barricades on a meso or macro level. Individuals and groups
may resist social change for a variety of reasons including:
 The pace of innovation (e.g. frustration at the frequent release of snapchat updates)
 Differences in beliefs and values (e.g. the denial of legally recognised same-sex marriages)
  Vested interests (e.g. the loss of assets)
 Tradition (e.g. superstitions that prevent them from trying new things
 Fear of the future (e.g. the removal of monarchies, status depreciation or increased
complexity in life)
William Ogburn developed a theory of cultural lag. He suggests that even though the
development of technologies might indicate a certain direction for change in a society,
people’s values, attitudes and norms resist change. Therefore, it takes a long time for people
to catch up with technology.

 The influence that continuity and change have on the development of society at the
micro, meso and macro levels
Continuity provides a sense of security. If society experienced tumultuous change all the time, the
result would be chaos and conflict. Society needs macro-level elements such as government,
institutions, language, economic systems and settlement patterns to remain relatively stable over time.
Social structures are the most persistent elements in society and they thrive on continuity. The poverty
cycle presents issues associated with continuity because it is very difficult to break the cycle of low
levels of education, few resources, absence of support mechanisms and poor job aspects.
The impact of change at the micro level will vary depending on the individual, peer and
family contexts and the extent to which they adopt or resist change. Most researchers believe
technological change will have a profound impact on society. Raymond Kurzweil’s theory of
accelerating change suggests that whenever a barrier is presented, a new technology will be
developed to overcome that barrier and that this progress will become faster and faster, and as
Micro more problems are encountered, more technological innovations will take place. Another
potential impact at the micro level is that of ‘future shock’ and ‘information overload’.
Futurist Alvin Toffler argued that society would experience massive structural changes and
that technological advances would be so rapid that people would become overwhelmed and
feel disconnected from society. The amount of information available and the need to make
quick decisions would contribute to stress and shock about the future.
The effects of social change vary between communities. The process of localisation is a
response to globalisation, which is when a community tailors certain ideas and practices to
suit its local context. Often associated with popular culture and corporate influence, the
adaptation of goods and services occurs because globally standardised products might not be
attractive in every community in the world. McDonald’s adapts its menu to accommodate for
Meso
Hindu values in India. Revitalisation is another impact of social change on a community
level. Many communities around the world are directing their efforts towards the continuity
of their culture (largely common in indigenous communities). Communities attempt to
maintain their values and social practices while adopting and adapting certain aspects of
modernity.
Influences of continuity and change at a macro level are those that have affected collective
Macro
behaviour on a large scale. E.g. Government, Law, Media, Environment.

 The impact of modernisation and westernisation on social and cultural continuity

and change
MODERNISATION:
- Decline of traditional authority and practices, where a country would have first gone through the process of
industrialization. China modernises at a rapid rate, the pace can be attributed to cultural diffusion (the
spreading of ideas and adoption of learning from experiences and knowledge of other countries).
-
- Modern societies invest heavily in mass media, transport and communication as these industries enable
social mobility
- Most modern societies have the process of democratisation transition to a political system where
individuals have the right to vote and be heard
- Evidence of modernity can also be seen in rates of urbanization, technological developments and changing
social relationships
WESTERNISATION:
- Particular form of modernisation where methods and values of western industrial capitalism are the basis
of changes that are occurring
- Diffusion is accelerated by the process of globalisation and closer links between countries where culture is
spread rapidly through intergovernmental agreements that facilitate trade and tourism - Comes as a result of
transnational corporations seeking to access overseas markets in order to boost profit margins and increase
return for shareholders
- Ideas, values, language, fashion, technology, diet, religion, politics, law and lifestyle of the ‘west’ are
widespread
- Western cultural domination in some locations means a western lifestyle is highly sought after
- China has rapidly westernised since tourism was permitted from 1979, it is a world leader in production and has a
new internationally competitive policy emphasising innovation and creativity. Nevertheless, while globalisation and
international politics challenge China, it has so far retained elements of the traditional values of collectivism,
conformity and filial piety. Internet censorship remains contentious: Google and Facebook are blocked, along with
numerous other websites that allow access to external information, but China has developed its own interfaces that
serve the same purpose.

 Theories of social change as attempts to explain change, and resistance to change,

within societies and cultures in relation to:
 structural changes within society
Structural change can be defined as the process where changes occur within society, such as the
alteration of mechanisms within the social structure, characterised by changes in cultural symbols,
rules of behaviour, social organisations and value systems. Theories have been developed to help
explain massive structural changes in different societies such as;
→ Demographic shifts - e.g. the ageing population in China
→ Urbanisation - e.g. the mass movement of people from rural to urban areas in China

 the processes and agents of social change

STEEP is an acronym for the mega-trends, it can be used to explain the effect that the trend
has on certain aspects of the society (Socio-cultural, Technological, Economical, Political,
Environmental) all of which affects the world in which we live.

 the directions of change

Social change theories are also concerned with the directions and patterns of change.
Societies can and do pursue certain directions of change where characteristics of
Westernisation, modernisation or sustainability are actively integrated into policy.
Linear: Change in a straight line. It is cumulative, non-repetitive and involves the transition
from small, undifferentiated societies with a homogenous culture to large societies with a
high degree of structural differentiation and heterogeneous culture. (Evolutionary Theory)
Cyclical: Change is repetitive, which can explain the rise and fall of civilisations but also
political and economic cycles.

Dialectical: A combination of linear and cyclical. A spiral pattern where short-term repetitive
change and long term directional change is evident.

 key features of each of the following theories:

Karl Marx (Macro)
CONFLICT Assumptions:
THEORY  Change and conflict are normal in society
 Inequalities in power are built into all social structures
 Competition over scarce resources rather than consensus is part of
all social groups
 Human interaction results in conflict
 Abrupt and revolutionary change occurs as a result of conflict

Main points:
 Society is made up of individuals and groups who compete for
scarce resources and powers
 Competition is an inherent characteristic where there are inequalities
between social structures and organisation
 Classes exist in society: a wealthy ruling class and a working class
 Ruling class gains power and is self serving in its actions, with no
intentions if benefiting society or others. Working class lacks
resources and powers
 Struggle for power and control of resources reaches a breaking
point, at which time revolution will occur and working class will
overthrow ruling class
Criticisms:
 Portrays a negative view of society
 Neglects social stability
 Does not account for incremental change
 Does not address any changes in technology or familial structures
Notion of conflict broadens beyond class structures so that conflict can now
be observed around personal morality, religious beliefs, gender and age

EVOLUTIONARY - Auguste Comte (Macro)

THEORY Assumptions:
 Societies will reach newer and higher levels of development
over time
 Change is progress

Main points:
 Every society develops overtime and passes through same
linear processes of change that progress through these
phases:
- Hunting and gathering societies- considered very simple,
nomadic groups, move in search of food, gender, division of
labour
- Agricultural societies- more secure food supplies, subsistence
 living
- Industrial societies- mass production, rise of capitalism and
complexity
- Post-industrial societies- dominance of service sector,
importance of information technology
 Takes into account cultural differences between societies and
the fact that change occurs in many different forms, becoming
more multi linear in its nature
Criticisms:
 Assumes all societies follow the same path
 Believes that post-industrial societies are superior to ‘primitive’
societies
 Describes social change rather than explaining how and why it
occurs
 Adopts an ethnocentric view of the world
 Equates change with progress

FUNCTIONALIST - Emile Durkheim (Macro/Meso)

THEORY Assumptions:
 As societies develop, they become more complex and
interdependent
 Society functions more effectively when there is clear social
order and when individual parts of society work in harmony
with each other
Main points:
 Social norms and values that include beliefs, customs, rituals
and fashions are the rules that govern social life
 Society is held together by solidarity and agreement about
what is good and worthwhile
 Complex society accepts that there are differing institutions
such as education systems, businesses and governmental or
family structures and each institution works collaboratively
with others to maintain stability
 The interdependence of institutions means that if one
institution fails, the other parts of society must adapt to a new
form of stability.
 Social change is a hindrance to the development of any
society and is viewed as undesirable
Criticisms:
 Emphasis on social stability rather than social change
 Explains slow institutional change but cannot deal with rapid
change/ Does not deal well with economic or technological
change
 Does not acknowledge the major role of individuals and their
actions in social change
 Ignores conflict and negative functions (e.g. divorce in the
family institution) which is a naturally occurring feature in
society that can bring about change
 INTERACTIONALIST - George Mead (Micro)
THEORY Assumptions:
 People help shape the world
 Individuals act according to interpretation of their world
Main points:
 Societies consists of organised and patterned interactions
 People look for patterns of interaction between individuals
 People attach meaning to symbols
 People act towards things on basis of meaning they
ascribe to those things derived from social interaction
 People play many different roles when interacting and they
may change approach depending on situation
Criticisms:
 Over emphasis on the individual and not much focus on social
structures
 Does not attempt to explain macro-level social change, nor
changes to norms and culture
 Ignores the effects of social forces and institutions on individual
interactions
Charles Cooley coined the term ‘looking glass self’, where there
are three components:
● We imagine how we must appear to others
● We imagine judgement of that appearance
● We create our self image through judgement of others
Thus demonstrating how interactions determine self identity.

FOCUS STUDY: CHINA

Social and Cultural Continuity and Change in China
 Determine the nature of traditional society and culture
Before 1911, China was a largely rural society. A small percentage of the population lived in urban
areas. The rural peasants were poorer than their urban counterparts, even though they had more space
and opportunity for subsistence agriculture. China consisted of largely feudal states, where land was
allocated and managed by local rulers in return for produce.
Confucianism in China has meant long-standing adherence to certain ethical and moral codes
including:
- Filial Piety - the importance of family and respect for parents and ancestors. Youth hold the
elderly in high esteem
- Frugality - to live with minimal requirements, reduce waste and not indulge in unnecessary or
expensive items
- Modesty - to act and dress in a conservative manner, and demonstrate humility in
accomplishments
- Self-Restraint - to control reactions and emotions
Confucianism had a tendency to construct and promote elitism in social classes, which elevated the
roles of male and female nobility. People who held positions of scholars were considered superior.
Eldest males were highly valued because they kept the family name alive. They kept the land and
property within the family and they were also responsible for taking care of their family (parents and
grandparents). At one point, male representation in the family was of such high importance that
women would have many abortions if they found their gender of a baby to be female (during the one
child policy). Under Confucianism, women were often subordinated due to practices that reinforce
patriarchy. Strict gender roles were taught to ensure submission to male leadership, especially within
a family. Women were made to be economically and socially dependent on men.
 Analyse the nature of power and authority
The role of power and authority has changed greatly over time in China, particularly during the 20th
century. The Chinese Communist Party’s (CCP) victory in the civil war allowed the establishment of
the People’s Republic of China, an authoritarian communist dictatorship headed by Mao Zedong.
There are no free and fair elections, and secrecy is rife and linked to those holding power. It extends
to restricting freedom of speech and censorship at a micro level. Challenges to power and authority
are dealt with swiftly and harshly to prevent the deterioration and criticism of the 65 year reign of the
CCP. As the CCP maintains power through laws, police etc it also maintains the authority to enforce
their reinstatement every election and leaves no room for freedom of thought or societal change.

 Examine the impact of continuity and change upon the lives of individuals and groups in
the micro, meso and macro levels of society.
Economic developments: Open door policy (macro)  imports from western countries 
strengthening and stimulation of China’s economy with exponential growth in
GDP from 67.9 in 1952 to 18232.1 billion in 2005.

Women in the workforce (micro)  7% rise in female employment between 1978-1995  Modified
gender roles,
economic impact on families is positive, particularly in rural areas with an 89% reduction in poverty
since 1978.

Cultural diffusion: Cultural revolution 1966 (macro)  to preserve Chinese

communism by purging remnants of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society, and to
re-impose Mao Zedong Thought  crippled the economy, ruined millions of lives and thrust China
into 10 years of turmoil, bloodshed, hunger and stagnation.

Decline in Sino centrism (micro)  Changing concepts of beauty  Decline in the belief that China
is the centre of the world, Rise in plastic surgery, urban adolescence were more individualised with
beliefs in open-mindedness and egalitarianism

State social engineering: Media Control (macro  Tight control and manipulation of media and
political commentary with the government controlling what people hear, see and believe. E.g. 2008
China oppressed Tibetan protesters and blocked foreign broadcasters and websites showing footage
 Human rights abuses and imprisonment of political prisoners and journalists. Collective cultural
history is wiped.

The One-Child Policy (Macro)  To be parents are only allowed to birth one child  mass
sterilisation, abortions, also lead to the decline of Chinas population causing what is now called an
ageing population as the bulk of their population now is elderly people with fewer young people to
look after them.

 Beliefs, values and lifestyles

- Traditional Chinese society is based around the system of feudalism, the economy
was based in agriculture and majority of people lived a rural lifestyle
- Traditional Chinese society has absorbed several different belief systems such as
Confucianism, Daoism (Taoism) and Buddhism
- Yin and Yan was a common concept, with Yin representing femininity and darkness,
and Yang representing masculinity and lightness
- Lao Tzu, another significant Chinese philosopher during the Chou dynasty,
emphasised the importance of the frugal, simplistic lifestyle without government
 interference. His movement is referred to as Taoism, and places nature, or the
‘natural life’ as the way that life should be.
- Buddhism emphasized the importance of avoiding extremes of pain and pleasures,
promoting the middle ground for living. People lived their lives avoiding materialistic
and ambitious ideas and followed this as the Buddhist way

 Education
 Family life and population changes
 Gender roles and the status of men and women
 The legal system and political processes
 In relation to China:
 Is all change necessarily progress?
No, progress refers to improving the quality of life for all people, this is not occurring through
new and existing policies in place in China. Many different groups of people are not
benefitting from the one, two or three child policy, human rights violations are occurring,
censorship is inhibiting freedom of speech for those opposing the communist party etc.
 Which groups benefit from change? Which do not?
People Who Benefit from Change:
- Younger people benefit from change as they are more willing to embrace change. They are
accustomed to a rapidly changing world with exponential developments in technology,
efficient means of production, new growth industries and different forms of social interaction.
- Educated people, as they are able to better understand the need for change. They also have
a greater sense of awareness and capacity to grasp the rationale for change.
- Wealthy people, as they can afford change because money is associated with power. They
are able to pay higher taxes as well as pay for a higher education. They can also resist change
if they choose to.
- Urban people, as cities are where the most rapid changes occur. Cities usually are equipped
with better transport facilities, better entertainment and more overall choice.
 - Powerful people, because they can initiate and influence changes. They are most likely to
be in the ethnic majority and make decisions to benefit like minded people.
People Who Do Not Benefit from Change:
- Ethnic Minorities
- The Elderly
- Rural People
- The Unwealthy
As they do not have what it takes to overcome or adapt to change due to their circumstances, putting
them at a societal disadvantage. E.g. floating population
 How has access to technologies impacted on the rate and direction of change?
The Chinese government, which tightly controls the direction of change in China, is restrictive
regarding which information and communication technologies people can access. Thus, technology
may not have impacted China’s rate and direction of change as much as it potentially could, however,
China’s rebels are finding new and inventive ways to get around this censorship subsequently creating
awareness for the need for change.
Conflict theory in relation to China; appropriateness in explaining continuity
and change for China
Conflict Theory
 Conflict Theory can be applied to the 1949 Communist Revolution
 Marx’s ideas gave way to inequality between classes, class struggle with the
government, landlords and nobles against the peasants (led by Mao Zedong)
 It explains the uprising of the peasants and their challenging of the disagreed ideas
 Communist China rose from the conflict, after destroying the democratic government,
proving that change is not necessarily progress.
 The inequalities between the people of China sparked conflict, hence the relevance
to conflict theory.
 20 million Chinese died in uprising, death leads to change and action
 It created rapid change, as conflict caused the government and economic situation to
alter rapidly from the period of democracy to communism, creating the People’s
Republic of China.
 It created social change to all levels, micro to macro

The Near Future (5 To 10 Years)

 Determine current trends and suggest probable future directions for family life
and population changes in China
Although China continues to have the world’s largest population, current trends indicate that its
population will peak at approximately 1.5 Billion in the next 15-20 years. There will most likely be
further relaxation of the OCP, especially for people who are from generations of one child each. The
ageing population and individualistic youth may create tensions, even though filial piety has been
enshrined in law. Changing dependency ratios mean that there are fewer young people to look after
the growing elderly population and that smaller families and geographically mobile populations will
put pressure on the government to provide support.

 Evaluate the impact and implications for family life and population changes in
China
 likely changes
There has been a large push to abolish the Hukou system. It is discriminatory and restrictive and goes
against the mega-trend of urbanisation and the human right to freedom of movement. Pilot programs
have been carried out in more than 10 cities, including Shanghai, Shenzhen and Guangzhou, where
governments began to grant permanent residency and access to social welfare to non-locals working
and living in cities.
 probable continuities
The trend of urbanisation will continue in China and significant environment and social
problems will also continue. It is estimated that by 2025, 350 million rural Chinese residents
will have left their farms and moved to China’s cities. That will bring the urban population
from approximately 760 million to close to 1 billion, changing China into a country where
more than two-thirds of its people are city-dwellers.
Most Chinese will continue to consider that marriage is for life. Women are likely to have
children later in life as they will delay starting a family to complete higher levels of education
and enter the workforce.
There will be many opportunities for China to redress imbalances associated with human
rights, although some human rights will continue to be denied. Global intervention may take
place if human rights continue to be ignored in China. Creating a nation free from
discrimination is a key challenge for China at a macro, meso and micro level.
 Predict the importance of technologies to China
Technology will become a crucial tool for the government in controlling the population and
maintaining a stable environment in which the CCP can rule. Censorship is the norm in China so there
will continue to be digital boundaries to democratic thoughts, actions and influences. But
communication technologies will be harnessed by China’s millions and millions of social-media and
Internet users.
State-of-the-art technologies will become crucial in resolving China’s many environmental problems.
It is in China’s interest to focus on sustainability because issues such as traffic congestion,
atmospheric pollution and overall environmental quality directly affects people’s wellbeing

The Nature of Belief Systems and Ideologies

➔ Psychologist E. D Bono says, ‘Whether a religion focuses on god, such as Islam, on an absence of
god, such as Buddhism or on the total denial of a god, Atheism may not be of great importance.’,
rather it is the ability their belief systems and ideologies have to unite people and groups that is allows
them the importance

Glossary:
Values – Deeply held ideas and beliefs that guide our thinking, language and behaviour, can be part
of one’s culture and can be challenged
Beliefs – Anything someone holds to be true, either because the evidence points to it or,
sometimes, regardless of evidence
Symbols – Ability to culturally unify a group of people through representation and meaning
Customs – Established ways of acting or cultural practices that are unique groups in society, have
important links to heritage, values and traditions
Worldview – A perspective or ‘take’ on the world brought about by a set of beliefs or
ideologies.
Ritual – Series of action performed according to a prescribed order, they range in significance
Philosophy – Set of ideas that contains a way of thinking and having that makes up a broad field of
knowledge
Secularisation – A process whereby religion loses its influence over various sphere of social life.
Secular society has emerged from the modernisation process whereby the rise of scientific knowledge
and technological advancements have shaped ideas about spiritual thinking in society
Institutional power – Power institutions and how it is used to control aspects of society, include
family, school, law and government. They have the inherent ability to control our social realities

 Similarities and differences between belief systems and ideologies

Belief systems are a structured way of organising the beliefs of a whole community of people
at the meso or macro level. Whereas ideologies function at all three levels (micro, meso,
macro). They can be anything from strong, semi-organised belief systems to a point of view
or preference. They are derived from the word “idea”, e.g. environmentalism, feminism,
Confucianism. Can be based on evidence or not.
- Both arise from environment or era.
- Belief systems and ideologies tend to produce worldviews

 How belief systems and ideologies express values and beliefs and ways of
perceiving the world at a micro, meso and macro level
Micro E.g. Birthday Celebration - Singing birthday song (possibly in different language) - Birthday
cake
Meso E.g. Communal celebrations - School assembly - Religious celebration
Macro E.g. Nation wide celebrations - Anzac Day - Religious and non-religious festivals

 The Nature & Role of Shared Values

Shared beliefs, values and understanding provides the consolidation of the identity of its
adherents/members

 The nature and role of hierarchy and internal power structures within belief
systems and ideologies
Hierarchy: Ranking system based on values and involves establishment of power, status and
jurisdiction.
- Exist everywhere
- Help structure large and complex systems
- Maintain stability/structure of belief system or ideology
- Make decisions that reflect the culture of the belief system or ideology
- Maintain tradition and continuity of traditional values, rituals, practices etc.
- Make decisions that reflect the culture of the belief system or ideology
- Adapt to change/respond to modernisation in a way that maintains respect for traditions etc.
- With no hierarchy, subordinates no longer have a purpose or direction, causing anarchy
- Subordinates could resist to power as the belief system loses its power and authority

 The process of secularisation in the development and extent of belief systems

and ideologies within Aus
- Traditional religious affiliation is declining but also indicate new and different forms of religion are
flourishing
- Choice to follow a religious or nonreligious belief system is one aspect secularisation as experienced
in Australia
- Secularisation is not a belief system or ideology but a value that supports free choice
- 2020 Census shows that more than 45.5% declared to not believe in a god or have no interest in
religion

Reasons for Secularisation:

- Commercialism/ materialism (social changes, work hours, sport)
- Conflict of beliefs
- Educational awareness
- Less pressure to conform
- Technologies led to different lifestyle (e.g. Contraceptive pill)
 - Apparent failures of religious organisations in matters of justices and abuse have stretched people's
faith in these organisations and their beliefs

FOCUS STUDY: JUDAISM

 The philosophy of the belief system:
- Relationship between historical development and underlying principles

Judaism begin in the Middle East with the covenant established between God and Abraham 
Abraham is considered to be the father of the Jewish people. He symbolises trust in God as he always
believed God would guide him in the right way.

- Beliefs and values expressed and the impact on personal and collective identity

Jewish people believe there is only one god and that he created the world and knows all. That god
gave them a set of laws to live by so that they would know how to worship him and live peacefully
amongst other people. Jews believe that their special relationship with God will only continue so long
as they follow these laws.
Following these laws provides followers with a purpose, an obligation to something ‘bigger’ than
them, makes them feel closer to Jewish religion, a way to connect.

- The nature and extent of adherents in the world today

Changes have occurred between different reformed groups and locations of groups due to dissent.
This could be due to differences in values and/or the changing world around Jewish communities, the
advancement of modernisation and westernisation creating new pathways for Jewish people to follow.
Hence new forms of Judaism have come about such as reformed Jews, cultural Jews, Chassidic Jews,
Just Jewish, Modern orthodox and traditional Jew.

Different “types” of Judaism

Orthodox
Nature of
● maintenance of the
this
stream of traditional forms of worship
Judaism in Hebrew and of
observances as prescribed
by the Torah.
● Men and women sit
separately in
Orthodox synagogues,
women do not participate in
some of the rituals.
● literal interpretation of Bible
● doesn’t accommodate
modernity
● ●
Conservative
● Between the two groups
● fosters the practice of
traditional Judaism while
embracing modernity.
● Developed during the 20th
century in the USA, it comes
midway between Orthodoxy
and Reform
● intellectually liberal in
matters of belief
● conservative in matters of
religious practice
attempts to “combine a
positive attitude to modern
culture, acceptance of critical
secular scholarship regarding
Judaism’s sacred texts, and
also commitment to Jewish
observance”.
Reform
● new element entered the
Jewish world early 19th
century
● movement also described as:
Progressive, Reform or
Liberal Judaism.
● not literal interpretation of
Bible
● very tied into modernity and
how it functions, as society
evolves so should Judaism
● English is used in parts of the
services
● Men and women sit together
in the Progressive Temple,
both participate in all aspects
of the service, and women
rabbis may officiate.
Perspecti
● Ultra-Orthodox: the Jews’ ● cannot know the mind of ● Jewish culture has history of
ves of
this own fault God, so it is all a mystery questioning God;
stream of - they tried to take God’s will
● we can question where he was
Judaism into their own hands by
seeking the Promised during Holocaust or what
about the
Land/Israel for themselves meaning there is for us
Shoah
from a (Zionism) ● OR if God was omnipotent,
theologic ● Orthodox: sustain them – he would have saved us – he
al didn’t, so there is no God
- God is present even in midst of
perspecti
tragedy
ve
- covenant still exists and God
will continue to look after his
people
- Holocaust is not God’s fault,
but man’s – He gave us free
will, and it was the free will of
some men to do evil that
caused Holocaust

 Traditions and culture in belief system:

- Important places, texts, and unique language and their significance
Jewish people worship at a synagogue, they contain many symbols and significant texts, it is a place
to interact with other Jews, read the Torah, speak in Jewish tongue etc. Teachers of Jewish faith are
called Rabbis (traditionally a man). The Torah is one of the most holy Jewish texts, it is written in
Hebrew and tells the story of the Jewish people and their relationship with God. E.g. Moses and the
ten commandments, the genesis story of creation.
Place Text Language Significance
- Synagogue - Torah scroll - Aramaic/Semitic Significant as they are
- Western Wall - Midrash language what link Jewish
- Jerusalem - Mitzvah (intro to - Hebrew followers to God, their
- Israel commandments - Yiddish connection stems from
600+) their ability to follow
Gods rules and Jewish
traditions

- Role of symbols, rituals and customs

Rituals  Torah scroll is only written by scribes (sofer) who handwrite the text and use skin from a
kosher animal. Bar/bat Mitzvah, Shabbat – Jewish day of rest, Prayer
Allows believers to express and reaffirm their belief systems, performing the ritual links them to the
larger religious tradition.

Customs  Kashrut – set of dietary laws, Tzniut – clothing is always modest, Sheitel – wig worn by
married women
Reinforces values such as freedom, faith, integrity, a good education, personal responsibility, a strong
work ethic, and the value of being selfless

Symbols  Star of David, Kippah, Menorah – seven lamp lampstand

Used to convey concepts concerned with humanity's relationship to the sacred or holy and also to the
social and material world.

- Importance of myths and stories

Provides us with a glimpse into human behaviour, morals, key lessons and a loose explanation in the
general world around us. In Judaism we have various sources of “storytelling” that assist in allowing
the modern-day Jew make sense of traditional sacred texts and scriptures and apply them to the ever-
changing world around them. Jewish mythology is a major literary element of the body of myths
found in the sacred texts and in traditional narratives that help explain and symbolize Jewish culture
and Judaism. E.g. Broadly speaking, Midrash attempts to secure the Torah’s centrality amidst
shifting social and intellectual circumstances and views.

- How the belief system defines gender and gender roles

- Level of prayer between males and females; females traditionally sit at top of synagogue while
males sit on ground level and take part in the service
- Females traditionally cannot be Rabbis
- Jewish law, or halacha, recognises gender ambiguity, and has done so throughout Jewish history.
Orthodox Judaism is based on gendered understandings of Jewish practice, that there are
different roles for men and women in religious life. This reflects the view that everyone is created
unique (not equal). Emphasising the view that everyone is created with a specialized, unique role in
the world.

 Internal structure in the belief system:

- Role of important people and power structures
Hierarchies in religious and secular institutions play and important role by reinforcing authority and
providing a clear chain of communication and set the agenda, tone and teachings of an organisations.
Judaism may have leading rabbis in particular countries or regions e.g. (a chief Rabbi) who teach the
Jewish faith and provide guidance. In Judaism the relationship with God is not separated and thus is
more direct and personal, therefore, there is less of a power structure between the person and God.

- Role and impact of dissent

It is important to emphasise that dissent comes in many forms. This is usually forced by the process of
secularisation. “Religious dissent is the insistence that everyone be allowed to worship according to
the dictates of conscience and not according to the rules of an established religion” (Dissent: The
History of an American Idea, Ralph Young)
Dissent was important for promoting either the capacity of individuals to examine their lives in
relation to others or a collective capacity for public reasoning.

- Nature and impact of change and resistance to change

However, dissent and change may be perceived as a challenge to authority which can be seen as
deeply problematic for those who hold the power and agree with those in power. This can have
negative or sever impacts for dissenters.
- The resistance occurring within the situation of the Israeli prime minister of 12 years (Netanyahu)
being voted out of power is an example of the people fighting back over the change present.

- Impact of technologies and globalisation on continuity and change

→ Technology is being used as a source to incite hate and violence and extreme discourse against
politicians.
- twitter blocking outgoing PM Benjamin Netanyahu sharing “right wing” criticisms correct course of
action or impeding on freedom of speech?
- One of Us Documentary (Netflix) Characters using mobile phones and exploring the internet
Change:
- Israel has a new political party that has been described as “politically diverse”
- This change in power affects Judaism through the recent Israel and Palestine crisis.
- Societal and political change is occurring
Continuity:
- Netanyahu has held power since 2009
- Judaism is a 3,000 year old religion

 The relationship of the belief system to wider society:

- Acceptance and rejection of the philosophy at the micro, meso, macro level

Micro Meso Macro

- Differing values - Unaccepting community
- Similar values - Diverse or accepting
community
- Influence of modernisation,
westernisation, technologies,
globalisation, opposing gov
- Promotion of diversity and
freedom of religion

- Relationship of the belief system to ethical issues in society

Zionism – Palestine and Israeli conflict as Jewish communities don’t have a place to reside/believe
Canaan is their rightful land. Israel, Gaza Strip, West Bank combine and form one democratic
country. Israel is against this because the Arabs would outnumber the Jews therefore removing
Israel’s identity as a Jewish state.

- Relationship of the belief system to peace and conflict in the world

o Changing nature of influence of Zionism
o Issue of women’s rights
o Jewish members of LGBTQI experiences, rights
o Changes in level of adherence over time
o Impact of Israeli-Palestinian issues impacting the rest of Jewish Diaspora
In The Near Future:
 Determine current trends and suggest probable future directions for belief system
- Chabad is growing and may become one of the strongest Jewish streams in America. There
are 959 Chabad Centres in America while only 595 Conservative synagogues and a little over
800 Reform Temples. And, Chabad Centres are a worldwide phenomenon, serving Jews
globally, a claim that no other stream can make.
- Recently, the idea that someone “looks Jewish” has essentially disappeared. There are a
variety of reasons for that — conversion, adoption, intermarriage, the coming of Sephardic
and Mizrachi Jews from Israel, and more.

 Evaluate impact and implications for the belief system of likely:

- Changes
Palestine and Israel conflict will resolve, new government will come into power, Jews and Arabs will
slowly begin to become more accepting of each other.
- Continuities
Dissent will continue to occur so as to allow for the continuity of a centuries long religion.

 Predict the importance of the belief system to society in the near future
 Jewish
Year
Population

1900 10,600,000

1925 14,800,000

1939 16,728,000

1950 11,297,000

1960 12,079,000

1970 12,585,000

2000 12,900,000

2010 13,428,300

2017 14,511,100

Judaism will maintain its significance as a new importance of culture and religion will come
about in the Western world.

POPULAR CULTURE
Glossary:
Commercialisation – The process of adding value to an idea, product or commodity with the
aim of selling it and making a profit. Commercialisation is about preparing the item for sale
and making money from it.
Consumption – The process of selecting and using a product. Consumption involves a
conscious decision to engage with a commodity
Commodification – A social process by which an item is assigned a commercial value in
readiness to be traded. The process relies on marketing strategies with the aim of producing
a perceived value in the item.
Ideology – An organised collection or body of ideas that reflects the beliefs, values and
interests of a group, system, institution or nation.
Change – The alteration or modification of cultural elements in a society. Change to society
can occur at the micro, meso and macro levels.
Institutional power – The power that exists in institutions and how it is used to control
aspects of society.
Continuity – The persistence or consistent existence of cultural elements in a society across
time. Continuity can also be referred to as the maintenance of the traditions and social
structures that bring stability to a society.
Conflict – A perceived incompatibility of goals or actions. Conflict can occur at all levels in
society and its resolution can involve modification to what was previously in place.
Values – Deeply held ideas and beliefs that guide our thinking, language and behaviour.
The Nature of Popular culture:
Popular culture is a term thought to have been used in the early 19th century to describe the ‘culture
of people’, the ‘people’ being the lower classes of society who were largely uneducated and made up
the majority of society. There was a distinction between folk culture, high culture and popular culture.
It is a shared set of practices and beliefs that have attained global acceptance

Popular culture:
- Has a broad mass appeal – is accessible to the majority of society – is constantly changing to suit the
values that society deems important – relies on mass communication technologies – driven by profit
– is socially mobile

Widespread access beyond just western countries is a key indicator of a popular culture, in
order to achieve this the popular culture will be adapted by the corporation to suit a variety of
societies to meet the needs of a global audience.

 “Popular culture is produced and sold for mass consumption on a global scale by
businesses and corporations that are motivated by profit.”
 Culture is becoming more of a commodity as communications technologies enable greater
access.

COMMODITY: An economic good, something that is valuable or useful, that can be sold for
a profit.

 Associated with commercial products and paraphernalia:

- Demand develops and expands due to media, marketing and dissemination processes:
- Also linked to the emergence of capitalism as the dominant global economic system which promotes
consumption ideology as one of the most important values in the 20th century

 Develops from a local to a global level:

- experiences global acceptance with the progression and integration of technologies
- It coincides with the emergence of youth culture and therefore has the ability to globally construct
and reflect identity
- Must maintain global levels of consumption and influence over time in order to be considered a Pop
Culture and not a ‘fad’
- Often Pop Cultures will shift and adapt to global needs in order to assure success however, loses
local ‘flavour’?
Technologies that have aided in the expansion of popular cultures:
 Social media e.g. facebook, youtube, twitter, Instagram
 MTV, music awards, music videos
 Communication technologies e.g. the radio, TV, social media
 Transnational corporations

 Achieves widespread consumer access:

- broad access is assisted by media and communication technologies e.g. the internet makes it easy for
consumers to purchase concert tickets
- Your understanding of popular culture needs to centre around it being controlled and influenced by
multinational corporations
- Visibility, affordability and accessibility differentiates Pop Culture from High Culture
Globalisation  means increased trade, migration and tourism between countries. The expanded
contact has resulted in a spread of western values and of the English language. Especially values
related to consumption e.g. individualism and materialism, which have laid the foundations for the
expansion of popular cultures around the world.
 Is constantly changing and evolving:
- experiences continuity and change  influences society while simultaneously society influences the
popular culture
- All Popular Cultures must change and evolve to stay relevant and maintain global consumption
patterns.

FOCUS STUDY: HIP HOP

 the creation and development of the popular culture:
 the origins of the popular culture
Hip hop is a popular culture that began in the South Bronx area of New York City, U.S.A in the
1970s. Hip hop encompasses graffiti, music (rapping) and dance (break-dancing). The origins of hip
hop have developed hip hop into a popular culture through ensuring that people from across the globe
can connect to lyrics and have the opportunity to purchase CDs etc. Characterized by its diversity,
quality, innovation and influence.
“Along with focusing on black nationalism, hip-hop artists often talked about urban poverty. This
brought a great deal of listeners to the genre who were struggling with poverty and were coping with
the scourge of alcohol, drugs, and gangs in their communities.” (Historyofthehiphop.com 2021)
“Hip hop is more than music; it’s a cultural movement that incorporates different elements of art. Four
foundational elements characterize hip hop culture. The original four main pillars of hip hop include
DJing/turntablism, MCing/rapping, B-boying/breaking, and visual/graffiti art”
(Historyofthehiphop.com 2021)
Coke La Rock dropped the line “There’s not a man that can’t be thrown, not a horse that can’t be
rode, a bull that can’t be stopped, there’s not a disco that I Coke La Rock can’t rock.” Many consider
this verse as the first rap lyrics and Coke La Rock as the first MC of hip hop. (Rory, PQ. 2019)
“Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five had several influential songs. However, their most
prominent song was “The Message.” This critical hit further solidified rap as a genre and put rappers
at the forefront for the first time. The powerful lyrics also detailed the grim realities of life in the
ghetto, which was a significant shift from the traditional rhythmic chants of early hip hop. ‘Don’t
push me cuz I’m close to the edge, I’m trying not to loose my head, ah huh huh huhuh ha, it’s like a
jungle sometimes it makes me wonder how I keep from going under’” (Rory, PQ. 2019)

1970s - Spoken word collective The Last Poets release their debut recording. Mixing politically
conscious poetry with music, it later is lauded as an early progenitor of hip-hop.
1973 - Known as the father of hip-hop, DJ Kool Herc was the first to experiment with breakbeats,
manipulating the instrumental breaks of old funk, R&B and soul tracks to form the basis of hip-hop.
1974 - Influenced by Kool Herc, hip-hop pioneers Afrika Bambaataa, Grandmaster Flash and
Grandmaster Caz start DJing at house and street parties across the Bronx.
1975 - Grandmaster Flash starts mixing, a new DJing method that connects bits of two different songs
during the breaks.
1979 - Record label owner Sylvia Robinson assembles the Sugar Hill Gang, who record the first
commercial rap recording, “Rapper’s Delight.” Written by Grandmaster Caz and featuring a sample
from the disco act Chic, it exposes many Americans to hip-hop for the first time.
1982 - Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five release their turntable masterpiece The Adventures of
Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel, which contains the popular and socially conscious track
“The Message.” The first international hip-hop concert tour goes to Europe, marking the start of hip-
hop’s worldwide reach.
1992 - Protests and riots ensue in Los Angeles after the police officers who beat Rodney King are
acquitted. Ice-T and Public Enemy’s Chuck D are asked to comment to the media as hip-hop artists
become, for better or worse, spokespeople for African American communities.
1997 - The so-called East-versus-West Coast feud is stepped up on March 9, when Notorious B.I.G. is
shot and killed in a drive-by shooting after leaving a party for the Soul Train Music Awards in L.A.
Days after his death, the Notorious B.I.G.’s album Life After Death is released and becomes the best-
selling hip-hop album of all time.
2003 - The hip-hop generation’s consumer reach is fully realized as stars such as Nelly, 50 Cent, Jay-
Z and Snoop Dogg market for companies such as Nike, Reebok and AOL.
People Kool Herc, Afrika Bambaata, Grandmaster flash
Places South Bronx, New York City, the “ghetto”
Dates 1970s, 1973 – block party
Events Kool Herc and his sister Cindy’s block party

 the development of the popular culture from a local to a global level

Us cable channel MTV (1981) revolutionised the music industry as it became the prime promotional
tool used by record companies. The transformation from records to cassette tapes to CDs has ensured
that many people can get a hold of hip hop music and connect to the message being sent, paving the
way for hip hop’s emergence as a global phenomenon. Media corporations have been driven by the
profit motive have capitalised on social-networking sites to push the commercial products associated
with hip hop. They have helped promote the message of hip hop globally. → Globalisation has also
seen development of ‘local’ hip-hop with communities adapting the culture to suit their own
community.
“generated a cultural revolution that rapidly spread across the globe. The global influence of hip hop
culture has shaped music styles, fashion, technology, art, entertainment, language, dance, education,
politics, media, and more.” (Rory, PQ. 2019)
“During the mid 1980s and early 1990s, hip hop spread across the country in full force. It brought an
era that significantly transformed hip hop culture. This new era became known as “the golden age of
hip hop.” Characterised by mainstream access.” (Rory, PQ. 2019)
“There was also a wave of new school rappers who were pivotal in bringing hip hop to the
mainstream. At the forefront was RUN DMC, a hip hop trio who fused rap with hard rock. They took
rap into the Top Ten when they collaborated with Aerosmith on a rap remake of “Walk This Way.”
The single conquered the radio and MTV, catapulting rap even further into the mainstream” Rory,
PQ. 2019)
“It wasn’t just the music propelling hip hop culture. Hip hop fashion also hit the mainstream. Various
clothes, shoes, accessories, and hairstyles became a form of expression. Street slang, later known as
Ebonics, also crossed over into the mainstream. For example, the words “bling” and “fo’ shizzle”
have been added to the Oxford English Dictionary.” Rory, PQ. 2019)

 the process of commodification for the popular culture

Hip Hop is a part of a billion dollar industry. Early rap lyrics centred around what life was like for
young people living in the Bronx and how they ere let down by institutions such as the government,
legal system, and schools and subject to prejudice and racial stereotyping. Rap lyrics were a
politically charged voice for the disenfranchised youth of the ghetto. E.g. Public Enemy produce a
song called ‘fight the power’ about speak up for what you believe in and fighting ‘the powers that be’
for freedom of speech. For Hip Hop to then become a commodity, artists needed to create a product
that was marketable to a growing white audience. The decision by MTW in 1989 to feature rap artists
meant that music videos became an important part of hip cop culture to portray an image of what hip
hop culture was all about. Record companies were involved in creating an image that would be
representative of hip hop and could be sold as part of the overall hip-hop package. Hip hop is
commodified for money making purposes, CDs are produced, T-Shirts are made, slogans are
published and other items are established to assist in making money of hip hop as a culture. Shops
allow artists to make their own version of shoes or hats, promoting the artist but also allowing a
higher sale for the brand. It can be argued that this commodification process is what caused hip hop to
lose its original message and voice of the Bronx.
“By the early 1990s, hip-hop breaks into the mainstream when major music labels start picking it up
because of it's appeal to the youth demographic (a coveted and lucrative audience). The use of hip-
hop music and aesthetics actually turns hip-hop culture into a commodity. To really understand the
social, culture and political economic implications of this, we must address the fact that white culture
has historically (up to this point) been responsible for aggravating, reproducing and maintaining the
systemic conditions of oppression that early hip-hop artists were speaking out against.” (Kathleen
Kuehn 2010)
 the role of mythology in the creation and perpetuation of the popular culture
Mythology contains stories and events that were significant to the creation and perpetuation
of the popular culture. The legend of Tupac and heros such as Kool Kerc personify a
worldview that supports the identity of Hip Hop and resonated with people as a story of
triumph over adversity. The ‘story’ of hip hops creation is symbolic and provides a
connection to its heritage. HIP HOP IS A FORM OF STORYTELLING. Also alike to the
legend Afrika Bambaata who rose from being a gang leader to the leader of an inclusive rap
group called Zulu Nation.
→ Hip Hop: born in The Bronx at DJ Herc’s block party, triumph over adversity, the ghetto
can become a place where heroes and legends are born
→ Notion of Founding Fathers: The Furious Five, Grandmaster Flash, Afrika Bambaataa
→ Heroes are part of the mythology that helps to give any popular culture its identity and
longevity. They serve to provide a connection to the past and a role model for fans.
→ As hip hop began as a voice against power, myths and heroes have played an integral role
in giving consumers ‘something to believe in
→Perpetuation of the myth about Tupac still being alive  Simulation of Tupac at Coachella
2012
→ The Don Killuminati: The Seven Day Theory, the 1996 album that fuelled widespread
belief that he had somehow survived the Las Vegas shooting due to his album name closely
resembling “The Seven Day Theory,” which is modelled on Machiavelli’s claim that he faked
death for seven days; Shakur was pronounced dead six days after being shot. Coincidence or
not?
 continuities and changes to the popular culture

Three eras: Old school, the golden age and the modern era.
 the consumption of the popular culture:
 the consumers of the popular culture and the nature of its consumption
o “White men — specifically young, suburban white men — consume 80% of hip hop music.
This became a recognized industry fact in 1991, and since then, the music industry has crafted
mainstream hip-hop culture to appeal to that demographic.” (Tom Barnes 2014)
o The trend of describing hip-hop as "black" or "white" stems from this cultural disconnect, and
it's an entirely useless means of comparison. It normalizes negative stereotypes that black
people have been fighting since Jim Crow. These are the stereotypes that help white people
dismiss the violence and poverty in black communities as if it's black people's own fault; they
cause kids to equate articulate styles of speech as "white" rather than as signs of
"intelligence."
 o The internet and communication technologies have enabled access to groups that would
otherwise have not been exposed to hip hop.

Nature of its consumption:

Diverse, providing a medium through which participants can engage in + consume hip hop

Language slang is commonly used eg ‘bling’ + ‘dope’ + ‘swag’

Apparel  artists are involved in selling commercial products (using a product name
in their lyrics, wearing particular shoes, headphones etc)
 hip hop fashion has become increasingly popular (baggy pants, oversized
clothing, baseball caps, chunky chains etc)

Paraphernalia hip hop artists sell their own products for profit eg Jay Z has his own clothing label,
Puff Daddy has his own fragrance line + 50 Cent has his own shoe line

Art Graffiti is one of the key aspects of the culture of hip hop

Mass media commercialisation has changed the nature of its consumption as its exposure
through commercial ventures has increased its access to the broader community
(hip hop is consumed daily through variety of forms eg print media, online
magazines, tv commercials, movies, sitcoms etc)

 the relationship of heroes and mythology to media and consumption

Rivalries between artists or other feuds contributed to mythology in Hip Hop. E.g. Iggy Azalea and
Azealia Banks, Nicki Minaj and Cardi B.
+ Tupac and Biggie can play out their rivalry with accusations of responsibility and evidence for each
other’s death, why their music was better (use quotes from their lyrics), the impact of the media on
this rivalry and therefore the perpetuation of their mythic hero status.
+ Fans can support this with evidence of their loyalty to either artist, linking this to the role of
mythology and heroes in the perpetuation of hip hop, as well the media and consumption

 how globalisation and technologies have influenced consumption

o Spotify found that hip-hop is the world's top genre, showing up on playlists more than all
others, regardless of geography or language. Possibly due to many factors but with its lyrical
acquisition and global reach being one of the largest. (Spotify 2014)
o Cloud technologies, celebrity followings, tv shows

 the relationship of access and consumption to age, class, ethnicity, gender,

location, sexuality
Factors affecting access: Age – social media may be difficult for older people to navigate. Class –
people from a lower socioeconomic area may not be able to afford access e.g. concert tickets or a
radio/CD player. Ethnicity - Language or cultural barriers can interfere with the spread of a popular
culture. Location – communities that are geographically isolated may not have the infrastructure or
be able to access the communication technologies as effectively. Institutional power – some
governments place restrictions on the type of music and videos allowed to be played e.g. china does
not condemn gangsta rap as it goes against their strict political views and ‘promotes violence.’

 how consumption and ownership of paraphernalia influence a sense of identity

Owning paraphernalia associated with hip hop enables consumers to form an identity with the
pop culture.
 the control of the popular culture:
  the ownership of the popular culture and the tensions between consumers and
producers
Tensions have often arisen between the producers and consumers of hip hop as business corporations
profit motives can take away from the authenticity of the pop culture. Producers have given
consumers a glamorised version of reality by promoting the wrong image or falsehoods.
“…the results indicated that large numbers of young, white consumers (whose consumption drove the
pop charts) wanted to hear gangsta-oriented rap music and would support it heartily. This encouraged
an increase in record-label investment in hip-hop production, distribution and promotion on the radio”
Tricia Rose (textbook p.196)

“…when hip hop culture got discarded for the money to be made into rap product, we went wrong
right there” M Hess (textbook p.198)

“…hip hop’s multiple dimensions of politics, religion, comedy, social commentary, urban storytelling
and social critique have become underrepresented in mass media, as the commodities of gangster,
ghetto, violence, drug dealer and misogyny were thought to attract a wealthy, suburban, white,
teenage audience” W.E. Hart (textbook p.201)

“…the industry has shaped the images and messages of hip hop music to fit what they believe Whites
will accept and purchase as an authentic representation of the Black culture” W.E. Hart (textbook
p.201)
 the stakeholders and how they influence the popular culture – family, peer
groups, media, marketers, governments, global groups
 the role and impact of official and unofficial censorship
Stakeholders such as religious groups, politicians and the media can ban or censor lyrics etc. that do
not align with their values or likes. They are blaming hip hop for the increase in youth violence as
even though profanity, sex, drugs and violence are censored it can be easily found without censorship
online.

+ On ‘Shutdown’, Skepta raps “God knows I don’t wanna go prison”. Skepta is arguably the biggest
rapper from London. A substantial amount of his fans are impressionable youth who would benefit
infinitely more from hearing him say that he doesn’t want to end up in prison than hearing nothing at
all. In the next bar of the song he says “me and my Gs ain’t scared of police” which is also censored
on the words G’s and police. This is one of a few examples of slang getting lost in translation over
time. When it first started being used in Hip-Hop, calling someone a G was actually short for calling
them a God, not a gangsta. Are we dismissing negative words and messages or are we fearfully
cleaning things up to an extent that we oversimplify and are ignorant of the rebellious roots which
have been so fundamental in Hip-Hop? CONTEXT IS VITAL to the legitimate censoring of music.

Artists, especially Tupac, use rap lyrics as a narrative to demonstrate the social injustices, immoral
acts, and, social issues the government and media aimed to shield from sheltered communities.
Ultimately he used his voice in Hip-Hop to encourage and produce Black Power. This pissed a lot of
older white people off.

While many appreciated Tupac’s song ‘Brenda’s got a baby’, the United States government and law
enforcement officials found his messages controversial for associating power with violence.
+ In April 1992, a nineteen-year-old alleged crack dealer, Ronald Howard, shot a Texas trooper.
When officers found “2pacalypse Now” in his tape deck, his attorney claimed the album incited him
to do it. [3] After several different cases like this, the government made their opinion public when,
Vice President Dan Quayle attacked Tupac’s music stating, “2pacalypse Now” has no place in our
society”.
 the influence of power and authority at the micro, meso and macro levels
POWER – hip hop was a culture formed out of an oppressed community that resulted from a
combination of micro (family, friends) and macro influences (gov, police).
AUTHORITY – Laws made by governments in regard to censorship and vandalism have restricted
the freedom hip hop artists hold to express themselves.
 the different perceptions of the popular culture:
 groups that accept and reject the popular culture
Rejection of Hip Hop  Lack of acceptance by parents due to language, dress, etc., lack of
authenticity: not ‘real’ hip hop, based on societal beliefs/values, say it causes violence,
objectifies women and glorifies gang culture
Acceptance of Hip Hop  Social/political/personal message, labelled as the artistic response
to oppression.

Iggy Azalea as a case study: rejection of her music on the basis that it is not ‘authentic. E.g.
in her song ‘D.R.U.G.S’ a lyric states “when the relay starts I’m a runaway slave…Master,
shitting on the past gotta spit it like a pastor.” Many people took offence to the lyric including
Azealia Banks’ with her comment: “how can you endorse a white woman who called herself
a “runaway slave master.”
 changing perceptions and the value of the popular culture to groups in society
Hip hop has developed into a highly influential movement. However, there have been
changing perceptions about the value of hip hop. Some groups credit hip hop with the
destruction of the black community, gang and drug related violence, the suppression of
women and the overall destruction of traditional societal values. However, other groups see
hip hop as a powerful source in the lives of young people that offers an avenue for social
critique.

There is an incredible and constant focus on your image as an artist, but the willingness
Akala had to remove an image of perfection and replace it with one of stark reality
immediately respect from many people.
‘Find No Enemy’ by Akala - “I got a heart like yours that pumps blood and oxygen
And insecurities, a whole lot of ‘em,
I’m scared like you deep down,
I really do care that the world’s not fair like you,
But I don’t even believe my own prayers like you,
Chasing a career going nowhere like you, lost in a fog of my own insecurity I hold myself up
as an image of purity”

 how the popular culture constructs or deconstructs gender

Songs like WAP or Anaconda - artists like Cardi B, Nicki Minaj, Megan Thee Stallion and Queen
Latifah challenge gender construction/perceptions of women in Hip Hop.

Many people think that hip hop perpetuates the stereotype of a woman only existing to please the
man. There is also a disproportionate number of female artists, women rappers existed but tended to
be on the periphery and treated like novelties. However, some women rappers have risen to success
but many wonder if it is at the expense of perpetuating these sexist ideals – that sex sells. Hip hop and
feminism are generally seen as two opposing forces, considering the misogynistic language, treatment
of women and homophobia generally found in the lyrics and videos. Artists such as Queen Latifa and
Eve have challenged this identity as they aim to empower women in their lyrics.
 the contribution of the popular culture to social change:
 how the popular culture expresses contemporary social values
“Know you've been on my mind like Kaepernick kneelin'
Or police killings, or Trump sayin' slick s**t
Manipulatin' poor white folks because they're ignant
Blind to the struggles of the ones that got the pigment
Lately I've been stressin' 'cause it seems so malignant” – Come thru and chill by Miguel

“I'm tired of being poor and, even worse, I'm black

My stomach hurts so I'm looking for a purse to snatch
Cops give a damn about a negro
Pull the trigger, kill a nigga, he's a hero”
…”Give 'em guns, step back, watch 'em kill
each other” – Changes by Tupac

“All the pain inside amplified by the

Fact that I can't get by with my nine to
Five and I can't provide the right type of
Life for my family” – Lose Yourself by Eminem
 the positive and negative impact of the popular culture on wider society
Some argue that hip hop has adapted to allow localised versions with a key underlying continuity –
that it represents the community to ‘keep it real’, specifically a minority or marginalised community.
In Australia many Aboriginal hip hop groups have embraced it as a way of engaging Aboriginal
youth. Indigenous HipHop Projects (IHHP) is a team of performers that use the power of the popular
culture to influence a positive change within the lives of the youth.

Kid Cudi’s Pursuit of Happiness:

 provides a voice for those struggling with mental health issues + institutional change on the
macro level
 highlights a conflict that many in our micro worlds wouldn't understand personal mental health
struggles
 commercialisation that is geared in a positive way to change ideas of mental health
 changes the social environment to be more accepting
 fits in with the idea that hip hop is providing a voice to people who cannot articulate their
struggles

 the ways in which the popular culture has contributed to social change.
+ Hip Hop has become a vehicle through which people can tell their stories while critiquing
the society they live in, simultaneously. E.g. Grandmaster Flash’s ‘the message.’

+ Effect of the song ‘young, wild and free’ by Whiz Kalifa and Snoop Dogg enabled youth to
enjoy themselves by experimenting with illegal substances and may have contributed to the
increasing anxiety and controlling of parents.

+ English rapper Stormzy had opened up about his mental health struggles, his revelation
could help reduce the stigma around mental illness and may encourage more people to seek
help – black men especially. Challenging the nature and extent that popular culture can
influence and contribute to social change.
Lyrics with meaning:
“Your postcode don’t make you a gangster / You’re not bad, your area is” – Not That Deep
by Stormzy. He has the ability to share is truth through music, especially to young black men,
encouraging them to choose the life they want not get sucked into their ‘areas’ culture.
  hip hop has helped to reduce gang violence by creating a different type of ‘crew’ that gave
youth a sense of belonging for younger generations
 High profile Hip Hop figures donating money to social causes
 e.g. Jay Z donated $1.5 million to the BLM movement in 2016
 Zulu Nation organised cultural events for youth, combining dance + music
 Childish Gambino’s This is America touches on gun violence, the precarious state of black
bodies in the US + the use of entertainment as a distraction from pervasive cultural + political
problems → upbeat music, lyrics + dancing in the music video juxtaposes the explicit, abrupt
shooting of black people in order to portray a critical message: “This is America”
 Contributed to changing individual perceptions of gun control

The near future (5 to 10 years)

 determine current trends and suggest probable future directions for the
popular culture
 evaluate the impact and implications for the popular culture of:
 likely changes
o Technology specifically streaming and social media.

“Recorded music revenues grew globally for the sixth consecutive year, driven by
subscription streaming. As record companies continue to expand their geographical footprint
and cultural reach, music has become more globally connected today, than ever before and
this growth has spread across all regions around the globe” (International Federation of the
Phonographic Industry 2021)

o Implications reduced power of traditional gate keepers and institutional powers etc.
o The movement towards an access over ownership consumption model
o the influence of gender and the rise of more empowered female MCs challenging
misogynistic elements of the culture to reflect broader social movements.
o Consumption of Hip Hop - Read the following report on likely changes

 probable continuities
o The role of hip hop as a tool for empowerment for excluded groups.
o hyper-masculine mythologies. Despite female empowerment this will continue as it is
ingrained and "sex sells"
o Connection between artist and fans
o while there is a society with an oppressed population, hip hop will always provide them with
a voice
Key factors that will continue to have an influence:
- Deveopment of new technologies and music markets
- Corporate consolidation of media industries
- Changing social values for what is morally acceptable
- The ‘hustler’ image
- Rapper fueds
- Sexualisation of women
- Degradation of POC and struggling communities
 predict the importance of the popular culture to society in the near future.
Youth will continue to see hip hop as a form of escapism from the realities of urban
life.