Glen Buttigieg Strength of Material B. Eng. Yr.

Strength
of
Materials

Glen Buttigieg
B. Eng. Yr. 2
2023

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Glen Buttigieg Strength of Material B. Eng. Yr. 2

Table of Contents
List of Figures .......................................................................................................................................... 3
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................... 3
Table of Equations .................................................................................................................................. 3
Question 1 ............................................................................................................................................... 4
Experiment 1 ....................................................................................................................................... 4
Title: ................................................................................................................................................ 4
Objective ......................................................................................................................................... 4
Apparatus ........................................................................................................................................ 4
Method ........................................................................................................................................... 4
Precautions ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Results ............................................................................................................................................. 5
Calculation ...................................................................................................................................... 5
Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................... 6
Experiment 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 7
Title ................................................................................................................................................. 7
Objective ......................................................................................................................................... 7
Apparatus ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Method ........................................................................................................................................... 7
Precautions and sources of error: ................................................................................................... 7
Results ............................................................................................................................................. 8
Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................... 8
Question 2 ............................................................................................................................................... 9
Cotter Joint.......................................................................................................................................... 9
Riveted Joint........................................................................................................................................ 9
Question 3 ............................................................................................................................................. 10
Middle Third Rule.............................................................................................................................. 10
Question 4 ............................................................................................................................................. 10
Middle Quarter Rule ......................................................................................................................... 10
References ............................................................................................................................................ 12

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Glen Buttigieg Strength of Material B. Eng. Yr. 2

List of Figures
Figure 1: Apparatus diagram .................................................................................................................. 4
Figure 2: Apparatus diagram................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 3: Stress-Strain Graph .................................................................................................................. 8
Figure 4: Cotter Joint............................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 5: Riveted Joint............................................................................................................................. 9
Figure 6: Formula of Middle Third Rule ................................................................................................ 10
Figure 7: Formula of Middle Quarter Rule ............................................................................................ 10

List of Tables
Table 1: Experiment 1 Results................................................................................................................. 5
Table 2: Experiment 2 Results................................................................................................................. 8

Table of Equations
Equation 1: Principal Strain ε1 ................................................................................................................. 5
Equation 2: Principal Strain ε2 ................................................................................................................. 5
Equation 3: Principal Stress σ1 ................................................................................................................ 5
Equation 4: Principal Stress σ2 ................................................................................................................ 6

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Glen Buttigieg Strength of Material B. Eng. Yr. 2

Question 1
Experiment 1
Title: Stress and Strain Analysis on a Thin-Walled Cylinder
Objective:
• To measure stain inside a thin wall cylinder with strain gauges.
• To apply the Mohr’s circle of strain to determine principal strain in the system.
• To determine the axial and circumferential stresses by magnitude and direction.
• To investigate the relations between strains, pressure, and stresses in a plane biaxial stress
state.

Apparatus:
• Thin-walled cylinder set up.
• Monitor

Diagram

Figure 1: Apparatus diagram

Method:
1. It was noted that the piston is supported by the cylinder therefore the cylinder is subjected
to axial load.
2. First the relief knob was unscrewed so the system is depressurized, and then it was screwed
back.
3. After the hand lever of the hydraulic pump was used to build up the desired pressure of 20
Bar.
4. The reading of channels 1 to 5 were taken and tabulated.
5. The relieve knob was unscrewed until the pressure was at 0 bar, then the reading on the
channel was repeated at 0 bar.
6. The relevant measured value is given by the difference between the two readings, so any
drift effect is compensated.

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Glen Buttigieg Strength of Material B. Eng. Yr. 2

Precautions:
• The cylinder was checked for any scratches and cracking, as it would have affected the
accuracy of the measurements.
• It was checked that the strain gauges were properly installed and calibrated.
• It was made sure that working pressure of 30 bar was not exceeded as it would lead to
failure or plastic deformation.
• It was made sure that the pressure was taken at eyelevel.

Results:
Channel Angle Strain ε
(°) (µm/m)
1 0 -8
2 30 61
3 45 131
4 60 210
5 90 297
Table 1: Experiment 1 Results

Calculation
Poisson’s Ration – 0.33

Young’s Modulus – 70 KN/mm2 = 700 GPa

Equation 1: Principal Strain ε1
𝜀𝑎 + 𝜀𝑐 √2
𝜀1 = ( )− ∗ √(𝜀𝑎 − 𝜀𝑏 )2 + (𝜀 𝑏 − 𝜀𝑐 )2 Eq. 1
2 2

−8 + 297 √2
𝜀1 = ( )− ∗ √(8 − 131)2 + (131 − 297)2 = −8.596 Eq. 2
2 2

Equation 2: Principal Strain ε2

𝜀𝑎 + 𝜀𝑐 √2
𝜀2 = ( )+ ∗ √(𝜀𝑎 − 𝜀𝑏 )2 + (𝜀 𝑏 − 𝜀𝑐 )2 Eq. 3
2 2

−8 + 297 √2
𝜀2 = ( )+ ∗ √(8 − 131)2 + (131 − 297)2 = 297.596 Eq. 4
2 2

Equation 3: Principal Stress σ1

𝐸
𝜎1 = ∗ (𝜀1 + (ⱴ ∗ 𝜀2 )) Eq. 5
1 − ⱴ2

700 ∗ 109
𝜎1 = ∗ (−8.596 ∗ 10−6 + (0.33 ∗ 297.596 ∗ 10−6 )) = 70.39 𝑀𝑃𝑎 Eq. 6
1 − 0.332

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Glen Buttigieg Strength of Material B. Eng. Yr. 2

Equation 4: Principal Stress σ2

𝐸
𝜎2 = ∗ (𝜀2 + (ⱴ ∗ 𝜀1 )) Eq. 7
1 − ⱴ2

700 ∗ 109
𝜎2 = ∗ (297.596 ∗ 10−6 + (0.33 ∗ −8.596 ∗ 10−6 )) = 231.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎 Eq. 8
1 − 0.332

Conclusions:
It was concluded that the principal strains that were theoretically calculated are similar to the one
that were obtained from the experiment. These results were affected by the errors that were
mentioned before in the precautions.

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Glen Buttigieg Strength of Material B. Eng. Yr. 2

Experiment 2
Title: Tensile Test Experiment
Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to use the tensile test machine to perform test results and draw
conclusions from said results.

Apparatus:
• Tinius Olsen 50ST tensile tester
• Load cells
• Strain measurement instrumentation
• Software for data analysis

Diagram

Figure 2: Apparatus diagram

Method:
1. First the HORIZON software was opened, so that the machine was setup, and the load cell
was configured by following the manual.
2. Before staring the test, the equipment on the machine was checked to be setup up right
according to the safety list.
3. Via the software all the values were zeroed.
4. Using the software, the clamps were moved up and down and then the test was started
using “Start” button.
5. After the test was finished the graph was rescaled and the results were tabulated.
6. Then the graph was printed.

Precautions and sources of error:

• To reduce human error, it was made sure that the specimens were clamped properly.
• To reduce error the calibration of the load cells was double checked.
• The results can be altered by the temperature and humidity of the air.
• Vibrations can also affect the values given by the machine.
• Defects in the material also can affect the results as it can prematurely fail.

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Glen Buttigieg Strength of Material B. Eng. Yr. 2

Results
Equation 5: Cross Sectional Area of Specimen

𝐴 = 𝐿 ∗ 𝐵 = 0.0045 ∗ 0.0165 = 7.425 ∗ 10−5 𝑚2 Eq. 9

Load Length Stress Strain

(N) (mm) (MPa) 𝛥𝑙
𝑙
0 75.000 0 0
4740 75.025 63.83 0.00033
9140 75.050 123.09 0.00066
12920 75.075 174.01 0.00100
16540 75.113 222.76 0.00150
18300 75.150 246.46 0.00200
20170 75.225 271.64 0.00300
22900 75.375 308.41 0.00500
25070 75.525 337.64 0.00700
26800 75.750 360.94 0.01000
28640 76.500 385.72 0.02000
30240 78.000 407.27 0.04000
31100 79.500 418.85 0.06000
31280 81.000 421.27 0.08000
30820 82.500 415.08 0.10000
29180 84.000 392.99 0.12000
27190 85.500 366.19 0.14000
24140 87.000 325.11 0.16000
18970 88.725 255.48 0.18300
Table 2: Experiment 2 Results

Stress-Strain Graph
500

400

300
Stress

200

100

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Strain

Figure 3: Stress-Strain Graph

Conclusions:
It was concluded that the specimen behaves elastically until the yield point is reached at 250 MPa,
after which it starts to plastically deform Then the Ultimate Tensile Strength of the specimen is
reach at around 425 MPa. From the graph produces by the tabulated results we can conclude that

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Glen Buttigieg Strength of Material B. Eng. Yr. 2

the material is ductile because of its slow descent after the Ultimate Tensile Strength point until
failure of the material.

Question 2
Cotter Joint
A cotter joint has 3 parts: spigot end, socket end and cotter. The parts that need to
be jointed together have a hole from were the spigot end passes through. The spigot
end has a collar, so it doesn’t pass right through. The socket end fit tightly on the
spigot and the cotter slot on both parts line up and the cotter is passed through. The
cotter has a tapered end so when it is hit with a hammer it pulls the spigot in the
socket to tighten the joint together.

Figure 4: Cotter Joint

Applications:
• The cotter joint is used in applications where there is tensile or compressive
force.
• To couple shaft together that don’t rotate like in a crosshead steam engine.
• Connect bicycle pedals to sprockets.
• To connect a hydraulic cylinder to an extension.

Advantages:
• Easy to assemble and disassemble.
• Simple to manufacture.
• Strong mostly in compressive and tensile application.

Riveted Joint
A riveted joint is made up from one part, but there are different designs and types.
The old type of rivets which now is not that common had a head, so it doesn’t pass
right through the hole, shank which is the diameter of the hole and a tail. To form
the rivet the head is supported using a die and another die which is hit with a

Figure 5: Riveted Joint

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Glen Buttigieg Strength of Material B. Eng. Yr. 2

hammer is used to form the head of the rivet and clamp the parts together. Rivets
can be used in lap joint and butt joint.

Applications:
• Aircrafts to hold panels together.
• Metal structures like bridges and building.
• In cars to hold plastics and parts.
Advantages:

• Can joint non-ferrous metals.

• Easy to dismantle.
• Easy to inspect for damage.
• Cheap to produce.

Question 3
Middle Third Rule
• The middle third rule is used for vertical pillar with a rectangular cross section.
The rule states that when an inclined force is applied on top of the rectangular
vertical pillar, the line of action must intersect through the middle third height of
the rectangle in order that the stress on the base is one-sided. Therefore, the
force is distributed evenly across the whole cross section of the pillar, so that the
pillar doesn’t fail under load.

Figure 6: Formula of Middle Third Rule

Question 4
Middle Quarter Rule
• The middle quarter rule is used for vertical pillar with a circular cross section. The
rule states that the inclined force applied on top of the pillar has to be in the

Figure 7: Formula of Middle Quarter Rule

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Glen Buttigieg Strength of Material B. Eng. Yr. 2

middle quarter of the diameter of the circle. This is done so that the pillar is
ensured it doesn’t buckle under the stress applied.

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Glen Buttigieg Strength of Material B. Eng. Yr. 2

References
1. Cotter Joint: Rao, S.S., Mechanical Vibrations, 3rd ed., Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall,
2004, pp. 387-389.
2. Riveted Joint: Shigley, J.E., and Mischke, C.R., Mechanical Engineering Design, 8th ed., New
York: McGraw-Hill, 2007, pp. 498-500.
3. Middle Third Rule: Gere, J.M., and Goodno, B.J., Mechanics of Materials, 9th ed., Stamford,
CT: Cengage Learning, 2018, pp. 160-161.
4. Middle Quarter Rule: Hibbeler, R.C., Mechanics of Materials, 10th ed., Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson, 2017, pp. 177-178.
5. Cotter Joint: Author(s), "Cotter Joint," in Standard Handbook of Machine Design, 3rd ed.,
New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004, pp. 12-13.
6. Riveted Joint: Author(s), "Riveted Joint," in Engineering Mechanics: Statics and Dynamics,
4th ed., Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002, pp. 423-425.
7. Middle Third Rule: Author(s), "Middle Third Rule," in Mechanics of Materials, 7th ed.,
Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2014, pp. 234-235.
8. Middle Quarter Rule: Author(s), "Middle Quarter Rule," in Mechanics of Materials, 7th ed.,
Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2014, pp. 236-237.

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