REVIEWER IN GE ENG 1
In the 1990s, an Indian linguist, Braj Kachru,
UNIT 1 - CHAPTER 4
VARIETIES AND REGISTERS OF ENGLISH
Language Variety
Each of the languages all over the world
exhibits variation. For example, Hiligaynon,
the language of people living in Panay and
Negros Occidental, can be spoken in varying
intonations depending on where people live.
Moreover, it can also vary in vocabulary and
grammar depending on the context it is
used. Any language for that matter exhibits
variation as its users engage in a host of
communication activities every day.
In sociolinguistics, language variety or a lect
refers to the distinctive form of a
language. According to Tom McArthur
(1992), it can have two broad types: (1) user-
related varieties and use-related varieties (as
cited in Nordquist, 2017). The first type is
associated with the specific people who use
it and naturally with the places where they
live. So, English spoken by people in Australia
is often called Australian English and is an
example of a user-related variety. Most
people are aware that when the word
‘Today’ is said as “To die,” the speaker must
be an Australian. The second type is
associated with function such as literary
English (the language used in literary texts)
or business English (the language used in
business and corporate communication) and
many others.
Varieties of English
English is widely used in the world, and thus
it has gained the reputation of being an
international language. Its spread may have
been brought about by colonization,
migration, and globalization among others.
As such English has evolved into a language
with many varieties such as American
English, Korean English, Filipino English, etc.
developed a model to explain the spread of
English and introduced the idea of World
Englishes. As shown in his concentric model,
he categorized the speakers of English as
those belonging to the Inner Circle, the
Outer Circle, and the Expanding Circle.
English users in the Inner Circle are native
speakers of the language: British,
Americans, Australians, etc. Those in the
Outer Circle are mostly people whose
countries were colonized by the British or
the Americans. These include Filipinos,
Indians, Singaporeans to name a few.
Finally, many of the speakers of English in
the Expanding Circle belong to countries
which have not been subjugated by English-
speaking colonizers but have found the
language valuable for social and economic
mobility. Those who can afford English
lessons invest on learning the language
abroad or via the Internet. The Japanese,
Koreans, and Chinese are examples of
English speakers in the Expanding Circle. The
Swedish, Danish, Finnish in Europe
are also part of the expanding circle.
Filipino English and American English
As a former colony of the United States of
America, the Philippines belongs to the
outer circle of the World Englishes model. It
has continued to place a high premium on
English as it occupies a privileged position of
being one of the official languages of the
country as stated in the Philippine
Constitution. Although the country’s
language policies have prioritized the
strengthening of Filipino, the national
language and the preservation of other
Filipino languages, English is still an
important language which serves as an
alternative lingua franca among Filipinos
who speak different regional languages; as a
secondary language in the
educational system; and as a bridge
language for doing business with foreigners.
English has been used in the Philippines for
more than a hundred years, and it has
evolved into a variety which is uniquely
Filipino. For instance, spoken Filipino English
often disregards the ‘schwa' sound in the
word, ‘bicycle.' Thus, you will hear it said
either as ‘bysikel’ or ‘bysikool.' This can be
explained as resulting from the absence of
this particular sound in Filipino native
languages. However, surprisingly many
Filipinos can speak English with an
American or even British accent. It is not only
in pronunciation that makes Filipino English
distinct from other varieties. There are
English expressions that have come down to
this generation with a distinctive twist. For
instance, on the stairs, one sees the sign,
“Watch your Steps.” which the British and
Americans phrase as “Watch your Step.”
Today contact centers in the Philippines do
not only cater to American, but also to
British, Australian, and Canadian companies
among others. Also, more Filipino nurses and
other professionals now work in different
countries and former colonies of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain. Thus, it may be
helpful for Filipino students to be familiar
with both varieties of English.
Differences Between American and British
English
A popular anonymous quote says that
America and Britain “are two nations divided
by a common language.” However, if you
examine closely the two English varieties,
there are more similarities than differences.

The most noticeable difference between

American and British English is vocabulary.
Since the 1900s, the English taught to
For example, an American lives in an
Filipinos has been the variety that the United
apartment while a British lives in a flat. The
States of America has brought to the
American baby wears a diaper while the
country. Thus, the grammar, spelling, and
British wears a nappy. Americans eat
pronunciation of English by those who
eggplant which the British call aubergine. A
successfully learn the language approximate
list of these words is found in the Appendix.
the American English (AE) variety. However,
In addition to vocabulary, the spelling of
because of the interference of Filipino
certain words can reveal whether it is
languages, many Filipinos could not
American or British English. Americans
pronounce English approximating the AE
usually spell these words without a ‘u’ –
native speaker. The lack of qualified English
color, labor, favor, savor unlike the British
teachers also resulted to poor proficiency in
who spell them as colour, labour, favour,
both written and spoken English. The advent
savour. The British also prefers these spelling
of the contact center industry in the
for ‘judgement’ and ‘acknowledgement’
Philippines at the turn of the century greatly
which Americans spell as ‘judgment’ and
increased the demand for English-proficient
‘acknowledgment.’
workers which when met could translate to
economic growth. Thus, the alarming
deterioration of the English proficiency of
Definitely, there is a difference in the way
Filipinos has moved the Philippine
Americans and the British talk in English.
government, the business sector, and
Some people say British English is harder to
educational institutions to join forces to
understand than American English. This may
reverse the condition to attract more
be the case if one is more familiar with
companies to outsource customer care and
American English like most Filipinos.
other services through contact centers in the
However, Europeans who are more exposed
country.
to British English understand it more quickly
than American English. To better appreciate
the difference between the two English
varieties, watch videos on YouTube that On the other hand, informal language
feature their distinguishing features register is often the variety appropriate for
ordinary conversations, text messaging
between friends and similar situations. It
Language Register utilizes a contraction. In the case of bilinguals
like casual tone and usually abounds in most
The way you talk or write in a language can
Filipinos, it can be characterized by code-
often be influenced by the context or the
mixing or code-switching. A Hiligaynon
situation of the communication activity.
English bilingual can combine two languages
When you write a note to a friend, you must
in expressing an idea like in the question:
have used the complimentary close, “love,”
"Where kamo ma eat?” Sometimes a person
but it will be an inappropriate choice for a
can switch from English to another language.
letter written for the purpose of getting a
“Where are you eating lunch? Maupod ko
job. In verbal exchanges, you must have
tani sa imo.” The speaker expresses the first
pronounced your words more carefully and
idea in English, but the second sentence is in
said them loudly when delivering a public
Hiligaynon.
speech than when you were simply
conversing with friends. The varying ways by
which you use language to suit certain
Formal and Informal Language in Written
situations reflect what is known in linguistics
English
as language register.

Here are sentences that further show the

Language register is the style or level by
differences between formal and informal
which one communicates in a given context.
registers in writing. The contrastive
Also known as tone or tenor, it is the kind of
presentations demonstrate the appropriate
language for a specific situation. It uses
registers for contractions, phrasal verbs,
specialized words, phrases, and contractions
slang, colloquialism, and first-person
that may be exclusive only to one particular
pronouns particularly in the context of
social setting and may sound strange or off if
formal reports.
used in another.

Language register is determined by its use,
not by its users. Formal language register is
used mostly in written communication.
Business letters, research reports, and
professional emails call for the use of a
formal register. Certain writing conventions
are strictly followed. For example, formal
language avoids the use of colloquialisms,
contractions or first-person pronouns such
as ‘I' or ‘We.' Colloquialism means using
familiar or ordinary words or phrases mostly
in the context of a conversation. A
contraction is a shortened combination of
two words which uses an apostrophe in the
place of the letter or letters that are
removed such as isn't (is not), He'll (He will),
or We've (We have).
1. Contractions
Informal: The latest gadgets canʼt be
introduced due to funding restrictions.
Formal: The latest gadgets cannot be
introduced due to funding restrictions.
2. Phrasal or Two-Word Verbs
Informal: The balloon was blown up for
the experiment.
Formal: The balloon was inflated for the
experiment.
3. Slang/Colloquialism
Informal: Teachers still count on
students to use correct grammar in
essays.
Formal: Teachers expect students to
use correct grammar in essays.
4. First Person Pronouns
Informal: I considered various
theoretical frameworks for the study.
Formal: Various theoretical frameworks
were considered for the study.
Five Styles in Spoken Language
A popular model for the levels of spoken
English was introduced by Martin Joos in
the 1960s. These are frozen, formal,
consultative, casual, and intimate.
• Frozen
- This style is used when printed
unchanging language like Biblical
quotations or any text using
literary language are delivered in
situations like weddings, funerals
or formal public ceremonies. It is
also called static register and
often uses old language. Archaic
words or expressions are those
not used for everyday
conversation but sometimes
become part of present-day
communication to lend to it an
old-fashioned flavor. Some
examples are the words thy
(your) and art (are) as when
Christians recite the line “Our
Father who art in heaven,
Hallowed be thy Name.” from
The Lord’s Prayer.
• Formal
- This register can be described as
a one-way, uninterrupted
presentation which uses
technical vocabulary, complex
and divergent grammatical
structure, and careful and
standard speech. It is common
for plenary speakers of
conferences to use this tone.
• Consultative
- The most operational among the
five styles, it has two-way
participation as exemplified by a
regular conversation between a
teacher and a student or any two
persons working in the same
company. It is also the style used
in small group discussion. It is
spontaneous, so people tend to
repeat some unnecessary words
such as "uh huh," "I see,"
etc., or choose the wrong word or
even use slang or jargon. Slang is
an informal, non-standard
vocabulary (i.e., bestie for best
friend) while jargon is a
specialized or technical
vocabulary of a group or special
activity. The sentences used tend
to be shorter and usually
delivered in average speed.
• Casual
- This style is often used in
conversations with friends and
family in a social setting like a
picnic or a sports event.
Sentences are usually shortened,
and ellipsis and slang are
common. Ellipsis is a sudden leap
from one topic to another.
• Intimate
- This tone is used by close
members of a family or friends.
Intonation can be more
important than wording or
grammar. It can use private
vocabulary and many non-verbal
messages.
Choosing the Appropriate Language Variety culture where individuals, despite
and Language Style differences in genetics, education, cultures,
traditions, aspirations coexist, work, and
Living in a multicultural setting poses many
learn together. Sharing and networking are
challenges in communication. One may have
bywords of global people who intend to
to learn a second or a third language to avail
outgrow the tendency to subscribe to a
of opportunities for educational and
social construct that defines “to each their
economic advancement. In acquiring the
own” mentality. Today, people in many
second or third language, one must work
different countries share common cultural
really hard to reach the required proficiency
experiences and information vital to the
level for a particular job or educational
understanding of various events around the
pursuit. However, one must not discount
world. The global society paved the way
the value of one’s native or first language
toward intercultural communication. As
because it remains a vital tool for
discussed in Chapter 3, Intercultural
expressing ideas and emotions.
communication poses many challenges.
While there may be shared knowledge and
means of communication are available, it
Given this scenario, people who desire to be
cannot be denied that there are complexities
effective communicators must choose
in arriving at correct inferences and
the best language variety and register to
interpretation of meanings.
express their ideas in. They can do this by a
careful analysis of the place and the time of
the communication event; the people
Language and Culture Factors in
involved; its end or purpose; the sequence or
Communication
organization of the speech acts; the tone
appropriate for the event; the language, Purposively, human communication requires
whether written or spoken; the rules or an acceptable code to be understood. Since
norms to be met; and the kind of the English Language is the accepted global
communication activity. lingua franca, it is well noted that, officially,
it becomes he language for transacting
business. As a system, language has rules in
Selecting the most appropriate language
production of sounds, formation of words,
variety and register may not necessarily
construction of sentences, and expression of
result to complete success, but it can be the
meanings. These rules are learned and used
first step to its realization.
appropriately for communication purposes.

UNIT 1 - CHAPTER 5 Language code helps people understand

each other when they belong to the same
TEXT AND CONTEXT ANALYSIS FOR
speech community as they share a set of
PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION
rules in the language system and process.
They speak their mother tongue or first
language. They acquire this language in their
As global society evolves, the division of
community. As they recognize the need to
world citizens is slowly diminishing. What
deal with others outside their community,
used to be segmented by language,
they discover the use of other languages for
ethnicity, creed, or culture, the global
certain reasons. They learn their second
society has connected individuals through
language either formally when they go to
communication, knowledge, information,
school or informally on their own effort.
and network. Globalization aims to make it
Hence, language acquisition and learning are
possible for everyone to have a collaborative
significant processes in human make communication difficult when not
communication activities. properly understood.

When individuals visit another community The Complexity of Intercultural

barely visited by others from other Communication
communities, despite the use of a common
Individual differences brought about by race,
language, differences get in the way in
gender, age, faith, language, and culture
expressing the same concept, pronunciation,
make communication very complicated.
articulation, or even spelling of the same
Despite shared knowledge and world-wide
words. But with people’s strong desire to
transmission of information, having a
communicate, contact and interaction with
common interpretation of message may
others bring about language learning to the
seem impossible. There is always a
core. This makes communication possible
breakdown in communication when
because the effort of adapting allows
meanings are misinterpreted and
individuals to maximize the use of language
misunderstood. It is a challenge to speakers
to productively and effectively communicate
and writers to cut across a message that is
with others in a global society. It is also
well understood by listeners and readers
important to understand that to be able to
who use different languages. Some reasons
communicate effectively, speakers or
for miscommunication may be attributed to
writers need more than language rules.
the following:
Aside from knowledge of the language, its
rules on grammar, vocabulary used,
construction of sentence, meanings of
• Verbal utterances can cause
utterances are also interpreted in the
misunderstanding among people
context in which they are made.
in a multi-cultural setting. Terms
which are not appropriately used
The global world requires effective
may give ambiguous references
communication across cultures. Even
that could be interpreted in
professionals struggle to understand the
different ways. People coming
speech or interpret the behavior of speakers
from different region who speak
of other languages and those coming from
fast have the tendency to
other cultures. Different cultures have
mispronounce words.
various ways of assigning meanings to
Articulation may produce
words. Language is a reflection of this
different sounds of words that
culture. Behaviors also bring about
lead to misunderstanding of
miscommunication. Cultural differences are
terms used when given wrong
sometimes expressed in body language.
meaning.
Eye contact, gestures, and facial expressions
are examples of non-verbal communication
• Non-verbal cues also contribute
which may have different interpretation and
to misunderstanding.
meaning in different cultures. Personality
Misinterpretations of gestures
stereotyping give assumptions of
and body movements may lead
characteristics of individuals from a
to giving wrong meaning of the
particular cultural or social group. Some
message. It is necessary that
assumptions about personal characteristics
speakers and writers become
are negative and hostile which become a
aware of the racial identities and
barrier in cross-cultural communication.
differences in non-verbal codes
These are some cultural barriers that will
 of the individuals they are
communicating with.
• Cultural diversity is another
source of miscommunication.
People have different languages,
lifestyles, ways of thinking,
speaking, and behaving. These
differences are expressed in the
manner they communicate with
others. Understanding the
culture of other people will help
lessen miscommunication.
However, in today’s complex and pluralistic
society, communicating and decoding
meaning becomes more complicated as it is
colored by many factors. Communication is
now a challenge which is addressed by the
use of multimodal means.
The principle of education advocated by
Confucius in the above graphic is the
underlying need of using multimodal
communication. Multimodal communication
includes texts which, according to Roxanne
Doerr (n.d.), are texts which “communicate
their message using more than one channel
of communication.” This means
communication is not the simple verbal or
textual message of the bygone years. A
successful communication should involve
the elements of a WOVEN (Written, Oral,
Visual, Electronic and Nonverbal) process,
which according to Kathryn Hue Harrison, is
“in short, all forms of communication.” She
wrote that “when we communicate with
someone, be it through a formal
presentation, a job interview, or via email,
our audience derives meaning from more
than just our words.... (they) communicate
with their classmates, their peers notice not
only their words, but their body language,
facial expressions, vocal tone, physical
proximity to the people they’re speaking
with–all of these elements impact their
relationships with their peers.... in a job
interview, for instance, facial expressions,
pacing of speech, and vocal inflection will be
integral to keeping their listener’s active
attention; the content of the words they
speak only matter if other forms of
communication work effectively with their
words.”
Examples of these multimodal texts are
magazine articles, advertisements, oral
presentations, blogs or video conferences
with pictures, audio clips or with moving
images. These multimodal modes of
communication are, for the most part, more
interesting and are patronized by young
people exposed to a multimedia
environment. This makes pure lectures in
classrooms as boring as eating oatmeal every
day for a year, and might make
teachers in classroom lectures in the future,
a thing of the past.
The phenomenon of multimodal
communication has greatly challenged
educators, businessmen and advertisers to
sell their products or services and practically
everyone who wants to be understood well.
Educators need make their lectures more
interesting by using technology as part of
their teaching/learning tools. Businessmen
have to make convincing sales pitches with
presentations that will close deals.
Advertisers, too, must market products and
services that appeal to their target
customers. Even ordinary people need to
understand the intended meaning of a
certain message. Without that shared
meaning between the speaker and listeners,
communication blunders often happen.
Communication blunders happen when
multimodal texts take on new meanings or
connotations and are interpreted
differently. These are, oftentimes, caused by
differences in culture, race, language,
background and other reasons. Products
have been pulled out of shelves and
advertisements have failed due to
misinterpretations of their advertisements.
Others have offended a certain group of
people just because of a wrong
word or phrase, causing rifts and tensions.
From text messages, emails, advertisements
with subliminal content, today’s society is
constantly flooded with them. Behind those
messages are content which might be
misconstrued due to racial or cultural
diversity. These differences can twist or
change the meaning of the intended
message.
Keeping in mind how the process works,
consider the following suggestions in
organizing and analyzing multi-modal
communication to avoid future
communication blunders:
1. Plan the message carefully. This is
done by the source. Note the
following questions that will help the
sender figure out the efficiency and
effectiveness of the communication.
• Why are you communicating?
Determine your purpose,
objectives.
• With whom are you
communicating? Know your
audience.
• What do you want to say to
answer what the audience need
to know? Outline your content
or message.
• How are you sending your
message? Identify the ways and
means to connect with your
audience.
2. Create a clear and well-crafted
message by encoding a precise
message that considers not only the
complete content, but also the
perspective of the receiver, how the
message will be perceived and
received.
• Analyze what you want and need to
say.
• Anticipate the receiver’s reaction to
the message.
• Choose carefully the words, the
appropriateness of the language, and
the tone of the communication. For
oral communication, body language
is also considered. In written
communication, reviewing your
mechanics of style, avoiding the use
of jargon/slang, familiarizing with
company’s writing policies are a
must. Graphics, pictures, charts, etc.
may be necessary for clarity of
message. Understanding socio-
cultural context is a great help for
effective cross-cultural
communication.
3. Choose the right channel that gives
way to a more efficient way of
communicating as this considers the
following:
• Some subject matter has sensitivity
and emotional content.
• Minute details are easily
communicated.
• The receiver may have specific
preference.
• Eliminating time constraints as factor
in miscommunication
• There may a need for asking and
answering questions.
4. Receive and interpret the message by
decoding clearly the content of the
communication. In oral
communication, active listening is a
factor to avoid breakdown in
communication. Emphatic listening
also helps in decoding a message
accurately as this will make the
receiver understand the emotions
and feeling that the speaker is
expressing. Some useful tips are:
• Body language when properly
understood can be very useful in
deciphering the message.
• Distractions should be avoided.
• Acknowledge a well-understood
point by nodding or smiling.
• Process what the speaker is saying.
• Let the listener speak to clarify topic
of communication.
• Avoid interrupting the speaker at any
point of communication.
5. Identify the noise, also known as
interference, which can be either
internal or external. This is an
element that inhibits the message to
be conveyed effectively. Some
questions may be helpful to
determine that messages are sent
properly:
• Is the message accurately
conveyed?
• Is it received by the concerned or
proper authority?
• Does the receiver respond as
expected?
• Is the response appropriate to
the message?
6. Determine the context that refers to
the environment surrounding the
message. It includes things, places,
time, event and attitude of the
sender and receiver. Analyzing this
context, a communicator may
consider the following:
• Do a simple environmental scanning
(where the communication came
from, when it was sent, who sent it).
• Check personal/network contacts.
• Determine certain cultural factors
surrounding it.
7. Recognize the feedback that helps
determine if the message is well
understood. Body language is an
important source of clues to the
effectiveness of oral communication.
Being aware of the body language of
the receiver/listener gives the
speaker an opportunity to adjust the
message level of understanding of
the receiver for better
communication. Observing the facial
expressions, gestures, and posture of
the receiver of the communication,
the communicator can see the
following:
• level of confidence
• defensiveness
• agreement
• comprehension
• lack of interest
• lack of engagement with the
message
• truthfulness
In addition to the understanding of factors
affecting global communication, knowledge
of communication process and
enhancement of communication skills will
ensure successful exchange of messages.
Learning the language, understanding
culture, and the ability to process the
messages will help communicators make
sense of the ideas, feelings, and thoughts
conveyed from one individual to another.
Also, regardless of modes of communication
such as face- to-face interaction, video-audio
conference, and text–based communication,
human communication is interpersonal,
purposive and in this global society, it is
intercultural. Human communication is a
process.
Considering how the different elements of
communication such as source or
sender/encoder, medium, channel, receiver,
feedback, context, and noise inter-relate
with each other, a well-processed
communication leads to effective
interpretation of meanings of
different messages. Already discussed in the
previous Unit, the communication process
gives a procedural way of understanding the
text and the meaning it conveys.
Approaches to Intercultural
Communication
Since most of the global communication is
influenced by language and cultural factors,
the study of intercultural of communication
will be a great help in understanding the
exchange of messages across cultures. The
following approaches are taken from the
study of Martin and Nakayama (2010).
1. Functionalist approach is useful in
considering the role of behavior in
communication. This approach is
based on social sciences discipline,
particularly psychology. The
relationship between culture and
communication can be predicted
through observation. In this
approach analysis of context is not
considered but significant in
identifying cultural variations and
recognizing cultural differences in
communication.
2. Interpretative approach is founded
on sociolinguistics which aims to
describe behavior. The study
assumes that human behavior is
voluntary and creative. It
presupposes that culture is created
and maintained through
communication. This approach
emphasizes the study in context of
cultural differences in
communication.
3. Critical approach has
interdisciplinary foundation. It
focuses on the change of behavior
based on the assumption of reality
which is subjective and material. It
considers the changeable nature of
human behavior. It uses textual
analysis of communication media.
This approach is helpful in
understanding culture as a means of
power struggle. It recognizes
economic, social, and political forces
affecting culture and communication
with the assertion that all
intercultural interactions are
characterized by power.
Analyzing Intercultural Communication
Text Analysis
The importance of understanding the
different approaches to the study of the
intercultural communication is underscored
by the need to be aware or conscious of the
cultures of people. Besides, knowing the
cultural identities and background of other
people, the ability to analyze how they think
and what they say will help build bridges and
foster goodwill. The messages found in the
text of correspondence or important
documents should be carefully evaluated to
be able to respond effectively.
Texts refers to books, essays, discussions,
newspapers articles, historical documents,
speeches, advertisements, correspondence,
conventions or conference readings, literary
selections, or any other events of
communicative language. An evaluative
study of this communicative occurrence is
called content analysis. To do this, text is
coded and broken down into categories on a
variety of levels such as words, phrases,
sentences, or themes. Content analysis may
either be conceptual or relational. The text is
examined focusing on its content to
explore the linguistic, social, cultural,
affective and historical significance of the
message. The following are other possible
uses of content analysis:
• determining international
differences in communication
content
• recognizing the presence of
propaganda
• identifying intentions with focus on
communication trends of an
individual, group, or institution
 • describing attitudinal and behavioral
responses to communication
• determining psychological or
emotional state of persons or groups
Context Analysis
Since content analysis is a direct study of
communication through text or transcripts,
it focuses on the aspect of social interaction
as it provides insight into complex modes of
human thoughts and language use.
However, its limitation is on its disregard of
the context that produced the text as well as
the state of things after the text is produced.
The environment, which includes when the
text is produced, where it originated, and
how or why the communication existed, is an
important aspect in the analysis of the
message. The analysis of the background or
surrounding circumstances of the text is
known as contextual analysis. Gathering
information about the text helps understand
the influence of socio-cultural or even
historical factors in communication.
Intercultural communication, which
sometimes is either text explicit or implicit
requires assessment of the context to
understand better the text and give
appropriate interpretation of the meaning of
the message.
The following questions will be helpful in the
evaluation of the text reflecting different
cultures:
1. What is the source of the message?
2. Who is the sender?
3. What is the message?
4. What is the purpose of the message?
5. How is the message conveyed by the
text and/or image?
6. Who is the target recipient/reader of
the message?
7. What are the other means of the
presentation of the message?
In literary analysis, as C.S. Lewis puts it,
“literature adds to reality, it does not simply
describe. It enriches the necessary
competencies that daily life requires and
provides; in this respect, it irrigates the
deserts that our lives have already become.”
Analyzing literary text includes the study of
structure and style of selection. It is
concerned with the examination of
grammar, lexis, semantics, phonological
properties and discursive devices which is
also known as the stylistic properties of
literary arts. Stylistics in literature examines
oral and written text in
order to determine crucial characteristic of
linguistic properties, structures, and
patterns influencing perception or
interpretation of the texts. The analysis of
literary texts serves the following functions:
Interpersonal function is all about the
relationship that the text is establishing with
its recipients, the use of either personal or
impersonal tone, speech acts, and the mood
of the statement are analyzed.
Ideational function is concerned with the
means of representing the reality by the
text, the way the characters are represented
together with the arrangement or
organization of the information and meaning
the text is conveying.
Textual function is the reference of the
sentences which makes the text cohesive
and coherent. It serves the purpose of
studying the discursive devises such an
ellipsis, repetition, anaphora. Likewise, it
focuses on the effectiveness of the stylistic
properties of the texts to determine their
suitability to the perceived meaning and
contribution to overall interpretation.
Understanding literary selections involves
critical thinking, and it is significant to
examine how a text works, why, and what
message is conveyed, then communicating
that clearly makes up the whole of textual
analysis. The following can serve as a guide
to text analysis of literary arts:
Analyze the rhetorical context.
This studies the external factors or
circumstances surrounding the writing
situation which includes the purpose,
audience, and focus.
1. Identify the writer/ persona in the
text.
2. Give the role or position of the
writer/persona.
3. Identify intended reader/audience.
4. Clarify exigency of purpose of
writing.
Examine the textual features.
This includes the distinctive formal aspects
of utterance, text, or art work in any
medium.
1. Clarify concern or issue addressed in
the text.
2. Give the position taken by the writer.
3. Assess language used in the text.
4. Identify text specific features
supporting the issue or the writer’s
stand.
5. Evaluate suggestive level of
meanings found in the text.
Place the text in a new context.
This helps identify how the text relate to
other texts and how might another writer or
even you use the text. This includes the
contextuality and intertextuality of literary
readings.
1. Identify the influences of external
factors on the text (socio-political
and cultural context).
2. Asses the relationship of the text
with other text across culture.
3. Check the universality of the
meaning of the text.
Interpreting the meaning and
communicating this orally or in writing is
what the reader does in response to the text.
It is important to note that a text can be
meaningful to a reader who cannot express
this meaning in words. Literary
interpretation includes decoding meanings
hidden in the writing of the author or even
beyond the text itself. “What the text really
means” may express levels of understanding
of what imaginative writing is and how
literature works. In your literary reading, you
read in the context of your own world. What
you encounter is not just the world of the
author; you encounter the world of the text,
and you relate it to the world where
you alone do not exist. The meaning which
the text has for the reader emerges from the
interaction of the reader’s world with the
world of the text and the outside world
where the text has not existed but has
significant meaning. It is not unusual to find
meaning that does not reside in the text or
in the author’s intentions. More often than
not, the meaning happens as the text is read
and reflected upon.
Literary texts distinguish themselves from
other texts by the subtleties and intricacies
of their multi-level meanings and by the
common fact that the actual meaning of the
text is almost always hidden and implicit in
the fabric of the work’s devices. Meaning in
literature is; therefore, something that
needs to be determined not merely on the
basis of a face value understanding of the
words in it but through complete evaluation
of the signifying complexity of the rhetoric,
figures of speech, images, symbols, allusions,
connotations, suggestions and implication of
the entire text. The reading of literature is in
the perspective of building connections
among nations and culture.
UNIT 1 - CHAPTER 6
COMMUNICATION AIDS AND STRATEGIES
USING TOOLS OF TECHNOLOGY
The first thing in mind to a successful
presentation is good speaking skills and
visual aids to assist you. This can be refined
through creating effective presentations
with much practice and experience. The
purpose of this section is to provide you
basic information on tools to assist you in
creating effective presentations with much
emphasis on visual aids which are essential
in successful presentations.
Selecting Audio and Visual Aids
Communication tools are important as you
deliver your speech through a visual and/or
audio presentation. Choosing appropriate
tools to deliver a message to the audience is
essential such as the following:
• Visual aids - these include handouts,
PowerPoint, overhead
transparencies, slides, flip-charts,
blackboards, whiteboards, and other
forms of print media.
• Audio aids – these include digital
audio (MP3/4) players, compact
discs, and radio broadcast.
• Audiovisual aids – these include
computer multimedia, videotapes,
and films.
Major Steps
Planning. Do a quick rehearsal in the room
to use, prior to the actual presentation to
ensure everything will run smoothly. Include
the audio and visual aids during rehearsal,
and make sure that each audio/visual-aid aid
is appropriate for the size of the room and
can be seen by all participants.
Presenting. Use a variety of audio and visual
aids appropriate for the audience during the
presentation. A mix of aids during your
presentation helps maintain participants’
interest. See to it that you do not overuse
audio aids because the lack of visual stimuli
can be boring.
Delivering. Ensure that the use of the audio
and visual aids does not interrupt the flow of
the presentation. To prevent boredom, plan
group activities, ask questions and work in a
break, if appropriate. Use humor as it can not
only put the audience at ease, but it can
make you more relaxed as well.
Major Details
Time and Budget. Selection of audio and
visual aids should fit within the time and
budget frame. If time and budget are
insufficient, don’t use poorly prepared audio
or visual aid, but instead, use simple aids
such as whiteboard, black board, flip chart,
or handouts. You can consider professional
digital videos, digital audios, or computer
multi-media if large timeframe and budget
are available.
Audience Preference. See to it that the
audio-visual aids are preferred by the
audience or participants to maximize their
full attention.
Location and Size of Audience. The right
visual aid should depend on the size of your
audience.
✓ Determine the size of the audience
whether large or small, and how they
will be seated. For a smaller group of
10 to 20 participants, a flip chart is an
acceptable option if a PowerPoint
presentation and DLP projector are
unavailable. Computer multimedia is
best used for this number of
participants if it is available. A large
screen projector is better if it is also
available in the venue. A videotape
presented via a DLP projector is also
a good option for a group of twenty
or less.
✓ For the optimum group size of 100
people, a large screen and a technical
assistant are needed. Also, an
audience larger than 4 people likely
require a larger screen and a
 technical assistant to avoid delays
and technical troubles.
✓ Audio materials can be used
regardless of the size of the
audience; however, proper
amplification methods must be
carefully observed to ensure that all
participants can hear.
✓ Handouts are always useful for large
or small crowds. They are best
distributed before the actual the
actual presentation.
Facilities and Equipment. Check to be sure
that the necessary equipment is available
(e.g., DLP projector, or large screen
projector). Check the facilities to determine
if certain aids can be used such as the
availability of DLP projector, large screen
projector, and computer. Check the room
dimension, location of electrical outlets,
whiteboard, or blackboard to find out
whether the equipment is working well.
Power Point slides or a large screen projector
ideally requires the room to be darkened to
positively impact the successful delivery of
the intended message.
Audio and Visual Aids Preparation
General Guidelines
1. Keep your audio and visual aids
simple. Ideally, use one aid to convey
one concept and leave a lot of space
to make information more appealing.
2. Prepare visual aids in color, rather
than black and white, for it is
preferable as color is more effective
in getting the attention of the
audience.
3. Be conservative on the volume of
your materials. For example, too
many handouts or slides tend to be
overwhelming and less effective.
Text on Visual Aids
Text on visual aids should be written in point
form, not paragraph form. Use highlighting
tools such as bullets or arrows to emphasize
important ideas.
Prepare aids visible enough to all
participants. In general, one-inch lettering is
visible at 30 feet, two inches at sixty feet,
and so on. There should only be a maximum
of eight to ten lines in a PowerPoint slide.
Between lines, allow blank space of one and
one-half times the letter height.
Use three-inch lettering for a presentation
prepared on a flip chart. Leave a blank sheet
between pages, so the audience will not see
the next page before you are ready. Using
several colors will maintain interest and
separate points. Use water-based pens as
they leak through less than permanent
markers.
Diagrams and Charts on Visual Aids
Use charts and diagrams to graphically
represent complex ideas or issues. They aid
in better understanding of the descriptive or
narrative text written above or below it.
Use bar graphs or pie charts to represent
numerical or statistical data. Bar graphs are
effective to show trends over time, while pie
charts are effective when comparing parts to
the whole.
General Rules for Preparing AV Material
1. Always be conscious of the time limit
for your presentation. Presenting 10
to 15 slides is adequate for short
presentations (15 minutes).
2. All slides must be in landscape
format. Use color carefully; avoid
color combinations resulting in a low
contrast.
3. The first slide should contain the title
of your presentation and the
presenter or group members' names.
This should be the only page where a
university logo is permitted. You
 should also prepare the following
slides:
✓ A slide describing the
objectives or the basic idea of
your work
✓ A slide containing an outline
of your topic
✓ A slide containing the
conclusion of your topic
4. Keep your material simple and make
sure that the font size in your slides is
readable at a distance of 15 meters.
Avoid cluttering of words and graphs
to ensure readability of your text.
UNIT 2 – MODULE 1
ACADEMIC WRITING
According to Bowker (2017), a form of
writing that follows the traditional
conventions of punctuation, grammar, and
spelling.
It may be organized around a formal order or
structure to present and ensure that ideas or
concepts are supported by author citations.
Academic writing needs to be both objective
and persuasive.
It is like taking a journey where you need a
good tour guide who maps out the journey
in a logical order.
Academic Writing Style
Specific – it is concerned with facts rather
than vague assumptions
Example:
Vague: In certain university students are
expected to write academically.
Specific: At Central Philippine University,
students are expected to write using formal
language, and clear structure
Language - It uses formal language,
references and supporting evidence to
defend your argument.
Wordy: The reason why most people want to
travel is that they want to experience other
cultures.
Concise: Most people want to travel to
experience other cultures.
Cliché: Rebuilding Southern Leyte is easier
said than done.
Revised: According to Eduardo del Rosario,
head of the disaster response agency,
rebuilding Legazpi City involves prudence,
determination, and hard work
Clarity - It is clear and direct to the point.
Vague: The novel tells about the entire
bunch of stuff that changes many things in
the main character’s life. (Which “story”?
What “stuff”? What “things” change in the
character’s life?)
Clear: Ray Carver’s “Cathedral” describes the
transformation that occurs in the
protagonist’s life when he encounters a
disabled man who shows him how to
perceive other people in new and
empowering ways.
Vague: It is really amazing just how strange
the characters in “A Rose for Emily” are.
Clear: Faulkner creates mysterious and
complex characters in “A Rose for Emily”
Academic Writing Features
1. Refers to research, not opinion;
2. Makes statements as clearly as possible
without lots of extra words;
3. Builds on with examples;
4. Uses both large and small words because
they are the right words
Voice in Academic Writing
Academic voice is the expression used to
differentiate your thoughts and words, and
those of other authors.
In order to sound scholarly or academically,
one needs to include both the writer’s point
and proofs such as voices of scholars in the
field to support his or her argument.
Direct and Indirect Voice in Academic
Writing
The direct voice is either your own voice
(your own words) or the direct “cut + paste”
voice of another thinker or writer.
Direct Quotation
• The use of someone else’s ideas
• Use to emphasize or strengthen a point
• According to Brick (2009), it should be
used s sparingly and not as a substitute
for one’s own ideas written in one’s own
writer’s voice.
Indirect Voice
• Summarizing
• Paraphrasing
• Used to synthesize someone else’s idea
or to make general points
Paraphrasing - rewriting or ‘translating’
someone else’s ideas into your own words
Summarizing - Contains the main ideas of an
author or the essence of their argument(s)
and is always substantially shorter than the
length of the original text.
Techniques on How to Express your Own
1. Use hedging (a language which
safeguards your statements)
• Use words like: may, might or
could
• Intensifiers: certainly, definitely
or must
2. Substitute ‘according to’ with a variety of
adjectives and adverbs that show what
you think of the writer’s opinion.
3. Show your point by using exact verb
usage, modality, and another
evaluative language
• It is a MUST to include WHERE and
HOW you found a piece of
information
• Reference styles provide
guidelines on how to present the
information about the sources
• You should use the style your
university requires regardless of
what topic you are writing.
UNIT 2 – MODULE 2
CRITICAL ACADEMIC WRITING
One of the writing skills that students
(college) should develop is the ability to
write effective arguments.
This requires them to think and persuade
their target audience.
Good practice will improve writing capacity.
i.e. scrutinize magazine ads, journals, and
other article
Examples of critical academic writing:
• critique of a journal article
• political paper analysis
• literature review that identifies the
strengths and weaknesses of existing
research
Kinds of instructions of critical writing:
• Critique
• Debate
• Disagree
• Evaluate
Guidelines in Writing Critical Academic
Papers
1. Topic - “It is a subject of conversation or
discussion in order to provide a topic.”
(Sawyer, 2018)
Position Paper
• Discusses certain benefits or
negative aspects of existing laws.
• One does not have to get too
technical with legal position topics
• Research on the current laws about
your chosen topic.
• “The best topic is the one you know
well the literature.” (Coninx, 2017)
• Must have an interesting and original
position that you can defend or
argue.
• It has to be a topic you know well and
have thought a lot about (and
debated with) because if you miss
something, your main position will
not be very strong or interesting.
• Creative and original; bring your view
on the topic and explain why it is
both valid and interesting.
2. Purpose - An intention, an aim or a reason
for writing something or for allowing
something to happen.
If you do something on purpose, you do it
intentionally.
Its purpose is to generate support on an
issue.
It describes a position on an issue and the
rationale for that position.
Position paper is based on facts that provide
a solid foundation for your argument and it
should be relevant to what is happening in
your community.
It is also crucial to consider a target
audience (a specific group of people with
shared characteristics who are most
likely to be interested in your topic)
Example of target audience:
• Professionals
• Educators
• Students
3. Genre - A category that characterizes
similarities in form, style, or subject matter.
It could be:
• Letters
• Reports
• Position paper
• Essay
• Webpage, etc.
4. Stance - The position taken on an issue,
the beliefs held about something or the
way a person stands or holds them
Characteristics of stance:
• Scholarly
• To the point
• Objective
• Opinionated
5. Media - One of the means or channels of
general communication in society
Includes:
• Television
• Newspaper
• Radio
• Electronic media, etc.
6. Thesis Statement - Focuses on your ideas
into one or two sentences.
It presents the topic
Makes a comment about your position in
relation to the topic
Thesis statement tells about your topic
to your readers
• What is it all about
• Serve as a guide in your writing
Keep you argument in focused
(University of Illinois Urbana
Champaign, Center for Writing
Studies, 2013)
Three-pronged Thesis Statement – a
sentence that includes three reasons to
support the thesis
7. Method of Paragraph Development -
Methods that will clarify and support the
main point of the paragraph
Includes:

• Facts and Statistics

• Examples
• Of Illustrations
• Processes
• Comparison and Contrast
• Cause and Effect
• Classification and Analysis
• Definition
Analogy