Copyright © Emmy Arsonval Maniriho 2022

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eISBN 979-8-88833-398-3

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 Contents

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

List of Figures
List of Tables
Chapter 1. Introduction to Aviation
Introduction
1.1. History of Aviation
1.2. Aviation Organizations And Government Agencies In
Aviation Safety - CAAS, FAA, JAA, EASA, ICAO AND IATA
1.3. Aviation Terminology
1.4. Aviation Geography
1.5. Greenwich Mean Time (Gmt) and Time Zones, Time
Calculation, International Date Line
1.6. Aircraft Familiarization: Aircraft Layout
1.7. World Airport Codes and Airline Codes
1.8. Airlines Code/Airline Designators
1.9. Airport Familiarization
1.10. Travel Documents,Customs & Currencies
Chapter 2. Cabin Crew
2.1. Introduction to The Cabin Crew Profession
2.2. History and Origin of Cabin Crew
2.3. The Lifestyle of Cabin Crew
2.4. Benefits and Challenges of The Cabin Crew Profession
2.5. Crew Member Training
2.6. Duties of Cabin Crew
Passenger Handling
In-Flight Procedures & Emergencies
 Passengers with Special Needs
Food Service and Duty Free
Chapter 3. Air Ticketing & Reservations
3.1. Ticket Policies and Procedures
Booking Policy
Ticketing Policy
3.2. Luggage and Personal Effects
3.3. Computer Reservation System
3.4. Fare Rules & Construction
3.5. Passports & Visa
3.6. Health Regulations
3.7. Customs and Immigration for Air Travel
Chapter 4. First Aid
Introduction
Training of Crew Members In The Application Of First-Aid
4.2. First aid for Burns
Chapter 5. Introduction to Dangerous Goods
Introduction
5.2. Regulations and standards for the safe transportation of
Dangerous Goods
Classification of Dangerous Goods
5.4. Dangerous Goods or Hazard Class Definitions
5.5. Precautionary Measures - Enforcement and Reporting
Chapter 6. Hospitality-Airline Catering and Food Service
Introduction
6.1. Front office operations
THE RESERVATION OFFICE
6.2. Food & Beverage management, F&B Service
 Airline Menu
TYPES OF MENU
Types of Food Caterers
6.3. Flight catering operations
6.4. Customer care service.
Chapter 7. Personality Development
Introduction
Definition of Personality development
7.1. Communication
The Importance of Communication
Barriers to Effective Organizational Communication
7.2. Confidence
7.3. Leadership
Sources of Leader Influence on Followers
Current Issues in Leadership
Leadership as Mutual Influence
Subordinate Behaviour
7.4. Group Discussions
Importance of Group Discussions
7.5. Presentations
Structuring
7.6. Personal Hygiene & Grooming standards, Hair & Skin Care
7.7. Motivation
7.8. Effective Interview Techniques
7.9. Resume writing
References
 List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

ACI : Airports Council International

ACM : Agency Credit Memo
ADM : Agency Debit Memo
ADO : Airports District Office
ADSP : Advice Disposition of Space
AICs : Aeronautical Information Circulars
AIP : Airport Improvement Program
AIS : The Aeronautical Information Service
ALP : Airport Layout Plan
AMC : Airport Maintenance Complex
AOPA : Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association
ARC : Airport Reference Code
ARFF : Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting
ARP : Airport Reference Point
ASAs : Air Service Agreements
ASDA : Accelerate Stop Distance Available
ASOS : Automated Surface Observation System
ATC : Air Traffic Control
ATM : Air Traffic Management
ATO : Air Traffic Organization
ASV : Annual Service Volume
AVGAS : Gasoline used in airplanes with piston engines
AVS : Availability Status
AWOS : Automated Weather Observation System
BSP : Billing and Settlement Plan
CAA : Civil Aviation Authority
CRM : Crew Resource Management
CRS : Computer Reservation System
CTAF : Common Traffic Advisory Frequency
DGD : Dangerous Goods Document
DGR : Dangerous Goods
DH : Decision Height
DNL : Day-night sound levels
DOT : Department of Transportation
DST : Daylight Saving Time
EASA : European Aviation Safety Agency
EC : European Council
ECOSOC : United Nations Economic and Social Council
EMD : Electronic Miscellaneous Document
EOVM : Emergency Obstruction Video Map
ETOPS : Extended-range Twin-engine Operational Performance
Standards
FAA : Federal Aviation Administration
FAF : Final Approach Fix
FAP : Final Approach Point
FAR : Federal Aviation Regulations
FBO : Fixed Base Operator
FSS : Flight Service Station
GA : General Aviation
GDS : Global Distribution System
GMT : Greenwich Mean Time
GPS : Global Positioning System
GS : Glide Slope
HAA : Height Above Airport
Helipad : Helicopter Landing Pad
HIRL : High Intensity Runway Lights
IATA : International Air Transport Association
IAP : Instrument Approach Procedure
ICAO : International Civil Aviation Organization
IDL : International Date Line
IFE : In-flight Entertainment systems
IFR : Instrument Flight Rules
IIMC : Inadvertent Instrument Meteorological Condition
ILS : Instrument Landing System
IMC : Instrument Meteorological Conditions
IOSA : IATA Operational safety Audit
IROE : IATA Rates of Exchange
JAA : Joint Aviation Authorities
LAAS : Local Area Augmentation System
LDA : Landing Distance Available
LPV : Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance
NDB : Non-directional Beacon
NOS : National Ocean Service
NOTAMs : Notification for Airmen
NPI : Non-Precision Instrument
NPIAS : National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems
NTSB : National Transportation Safety Board
Navaid : Navigational Aid
MAP : Missed Approach Point
MCT : Minimum Connecting Times
MDA : Minimum Descent Altitude
MLS : Microwave Landing Systems
MALSR : Medium-intensity Approach Lighting System with Runway
MEA : Minimum en Route Altitude
MIRL : Medium Intensity Runway Lights
MOCA : Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude
MVA : Minimum Vectoring Altitude
OAT : Outside Air Temperature
OC : Obstruction Chart
OCA : Obstacle Clearance Approach
OCS : Obstacle Clearance Surface
O&D : Origin and Destination
OFA : Runway Object Free Area
OFZ : Obstacle Free Zone
OAG : Official Airline Guides
PAPI : Precision Approach Path Indicator
PBE : Portable Breathing Equipment
PEDs : Personal Electronic Devices
PFC : Passenger Facility Charge
PIR : Precision Instrument Runway
PNR : Passenger Name Record
PRMs : Passengers of Reduced Mobility
PT : Procedure Turn
RADAR : Radio Detection and Range
REILs : Runway End Identifier Lights
RPZ : Runway Protection Zone
RSA : Runway Safety Area
SA : Situational Awareness
SAR : Search and Rescue
SARPs : Standards and Recommended Practices
SATNAV : Satellite navigation
SCCM : Senior cabin crew member
SCPs : Special Categories of Passengers
STAR : Standard Terminal Arrival Route
TAF : Forecast Conditions
TAT : Transcontinental Air Transport
TODA : Take off Distance Available
TORA : Take off Run Available
TWA : Transcontinental and Western Air
UNAMs : Unaccompanied Minors
UTC : Universal Time Coordinated
VASI : Visual Approach Slope Indicator
VFR : Visual Flight Rules
VGI : Visual guidance indicators
VLTA : Very Large Transport Aircraft
VMC : Visual Meteorological Conditions
VNAV : Vertical Navigation
VSI : vertical speed indicator
WHO : World Health Organization
WL : Wait listing
 List of Figures

Figure 1: World zones

Figure 2: The globe indicating IDL and GMT
Figure 3: World clock
Figure 4: aircraft familiarization and aircraft layout
Figure 5: Aircraft layout
Figure 6: On board oxygen system
Figure 7: Danger Areas
Figure 8: Runway designators
Figure 9: The segmented circle shown indicates a left pattern for
runway 27 and a right pattern for runway 9.
Figure 10: Wind/active runway indicators
Figure 11: Closed runway marking
Figure 12: Displaced threshold
Figure 13: Taxiway markings (yellow)
Figure 14 : Hold short marking. You must hold short when
approaching from the side of the solid lines.
Figure 15: Chevrons indicate pavement that should not be used for
taxiing, takeoff, or landing.
Figure 16: Taxiway Signs
Figure 17: Cabin crew’s lifestyle
Figure 18: Crew members
Figure 19: Baggage Claim Area
Figure 20: Non-Alcoholic Beverages
Figure 21: Alcoholic Beverages
Figure 22: Evolution from CRS to GDS
Figure 23: Global Distribution Systems – GDS
Figure 24: Travel Agent before GDSs
Figure 25: Sabre
Figure 26: Illustration of International Booking search
Figure 27: Amadeus
Figure 28: Estimated air market share gain (2000-2012)
Figure 29: First aid for Bleeding and Wounds
Figure 30: First aid for Burns
Figure 31: Some symbols of Dangerous goods
Figure 32: Marking and Labeling
Figure 33: Major Stakeholders of in-flight catering industry
Figure 34: Maslow’s Pyramid of Needs
 List of Tables

Table 1: Codes of some airlines

Table 2: Currencies of countries
Table 3: International Phonetic Alphabet
 Chapter 1
Introduction to Aviation

INTRODUCTION
Aviation is defined as the design, manufacture, use or operation of
aircraft in which the term aircraft refers to any vehicle capable of
flying. Aircraft can either be heavier-than-air or lighter-than-air.
Lighter-than-air aircrafts include balloons and airships, and
heavier-than-air aircrafts include airplanes, autogiros, gliders,
helicopters, and ornithopters.
For centuries in the history man has dreamed to soar with the birds.
Famous inventors such as Leonardo da Vinci, John Stringfellow, and
Lawrence Hargrave have conjured up ideas of how to get some of
the strangest machines to fly long before the Wright brothers’
famous first flight at Kitty Hawk.

1.1. HISTORY OF AVIATION

1. First Flights
On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright capped four
years of research and design efforts with a 120-foot, 12-second
flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina - the first powered flight in a
heavier-than-air machine. Prior to that, people had flown only in
balloons and gliders.
The first person to fly as a passenger was Leon Delagrange, who
rode with French pilot Henri Farman from a meadow outside of Paris
in 1908. Charles Furnas became the first American airplane
passenger when he flew with Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk later that
year.
The first scheduled air service began in Florida on January 1, 1914.
Glenn Curtiss had designed a plane that could take off and land on
water and thus could be built larger than any plane to date,
because it did not need the heavy undercarriage required for
landing on hard ground. Thomas Benoist, an auto parts maker,
decided to build such a flying boat, or seaplane, for a service across
Tampa Bay called the St. Petersburg - Tampa Air Boat Line. His first
passenger was ex-St. Petersburg Mayor A.C. Pheil, who made the
18-mile trip in 23 minutes, a considerable improvement over the
two-hour trip by boat. The single-plane service accommodated one
passenger at a time, and the company charged a one-way fare of
$5. After operating two flights a day for four months, the company
folded with the end of the winter tourist season.
2. World War I
These and other early flights were headline events, but commercial
aviation was very slow to catch on with the general public, most of
whom were afraid to ride in the new flying machines. Improvements
in aircraft design also were slow. However, with the advent of World
War I, the military value of aircraft was quickly recognized and
production increased significantly to meet the soaring demand for
planes from governments on both sides of the Atlantic. Most
significant was the development of more powerful motors, enabling
aircraft to reach speeds of up to 130 miles per hour, more than
twice the speed of pre-war aircraft. Increased power also made
larger aircraft possible.
At the same time, the war was bad for commercial aviation in
several respects. It focused all design and production efforts on
building military aircraft. In the public’s mind, flying became
associated with bombing runs, surveillance and aerial dogfights. In
addition, there was such a large surplus of planes at the end of the
war that the demand for new production was almost non-existent
for several years - and many aircraft builders went bankrupt. Some
European countries, such as Great Britain and France, nurtured
commercial aviation by starting air service over the English
Channel. However, nothing similar occurred in the United States,
where there were no such natural obstacles isolating major cities
and where railroads could transport people almost as fast as an
airplane, and in considerably more comfort. The salvation of the
U.S. commercial aviation industry following World War I was a
government program, but one that had nothing to do with the
transportation of people.
3. Airmail
By 1917, the U.S. government felt enough progress had been made
in the development of planes to warrant something totally new in
transport of mail by air. That year, Congress appropriated
$100,000 for an experimental airmail service to be conducted
jointly by the Army and the Post Office between Washington and
New York, with an intermediate stop in Philadelphia. The first flight
left Belmont Park, Long Island for Philadelphia on May 14, 1918
and the next day continued on to Washington, where it was met by
President Woodrow Wilson.
With a large number of war-surplus aircrafts in hand, the Post
Office set its sights on a far more ambitious goal - transcontinental
air service. It opened the first segment, between Chicago and
Cleveland, on May 15, 1919 and completed the air route on
September 8, 1920, when the most difficult part of the route, the
Rocky Mountains, was spanned. Airplanes still could not fly at night
when the service first began, so the mail was handed off to trains at
the end of each day. Nonetheless, by using airplanes the Post Office
was able to shave 22 hours off coast-to-coast mail deliveries.
4. Beacons
In 1921, the Army deployed rotating beacons in a line between
Columbus and Dayton, Ohio, a distance of about 80 miles. The
beacons, visible to pilots at 10-second intervals, made it possible to
fly the route at night.
The Post Office took over the operation of the guidance system the
following year, and by the end of 1923, constructed similar beacons
between Chicago and Cheyenne, Wyoming, a line later extended
coast-to-coast at a cost of $550,000. Mail then could be delivered
across the continent in as little as 29 hours eastbound and 34
hours westbound - prevailing winds from west to east accounted for
the difference which was at least two days less than it took by train.
5. The Contract Air Mail Act of 1925
By the mid-1920s, the Post Office mail fleet was flying 2.5 million
miles and delivering 14 million letters annually. However, the
government had no intention of continuing airmail service on its
own. Traditionally, the Post Office had used private companies for
the transportation of mail. So, once the feasibility of airmail was
firmly established and airline facilities were in place, the
government moved to transfer airmail service to the private sector,
by way of competitive bids. The legislative authority for the move
was the Contract Air Mail Act of 1925, commonly referred to as the
Kelly Act after its chief sponsor, Rep. Clyde Kelly of Pennsylvania.
This was the first major step toward the creation of a private U.S.
airline industry. Winners of the initial five contracts were National
Air Transport owned by the Curtiss Aeroplane Co, Varney Air Lines,
Western Air Express, Colonial Air Transport and Robertson Aircraft
Corporation. National and Varney would later become important
parts of United Air Lines originally was a joint venture of the Boeing
Airplane Company and Pratt & Whitney. Western would merge with
Transcontinental Air Transport (TAT), another Curtiss subsidiary, to
form Transcontinental and Western Air (TWA). Robertson would
become part of the Universal Aviation Corporation, which in turn
would merge with Colonial, Southern Air Transport and others, to
form American Airways, predecessor of American Airlines. Juan
Trippe, one of the original partners in Colonial, later pioneered
international air travel with Pan Am - a carrier he founded in 1927
to transport mail between Key West, Florida, and Havana, Cuba.
Pitcairn Aviation, yet another Curtiss subsidiary that got its start
transporting mail, would become Eastern Air Transport,
predecessor of Eastern Air Lines.
6. The Morrow Board
The same year Congress passed the Contract Air Mail Act, President
Calvin Coolidge appointed a board to recommend a national
aviation policy as much-sought-after goal of then Secretary of
Commerce Herbert Hoover. Dwight Morrow, a senior partner in J.P.
Morgan’s bank, and later the father-in-law of Charles Lindbergh,
was named chairman. The board heard testimony from 99 people,
and on November 30, 1925, submitted its report to President
Coolidge. The report was wide-ranging, but its key recommendation
was that the government should set standards for civil aviation and
that the standards should be set outside of the military.
7. The Air Commerce Act of 1926
Congress adopted the recommendations of the Morrow Board
almost to the letter in the Air Commerce Act of 1926. The
legislation authorized the Secretary of Commerce to designate air
routes, to develop air navigation systems, to license pilots and
aircraft, and to investigate accidents. The act brought the
government into commercial aviation as regulator of the private
airlines spawned by the Kelly Act of the previous year.
Congress also adopted the board’s recommendation for airmail
contracting, by amending the Kelly Act to change the method of
compensation for airmail services. Instead of paying carriers a
percentage of the postage paid, the government would pay them
according to the weight of the mail. This simplified payments, and
proved highly advantageous to the carriers, which collected $48
million from the government for the carriage of mail between 1926
and 1931.
8. Ford’s Tin Goose
Henry Ford, the automobile manufacturer, was also among the early
successful bidders for airmail contracts, winning the right, in 1925,
to carry mail from Chicago to Detroit and Cleveland aboard planes
his company already was using to transport spare parts for his
automobile assembly plants. More importantly, he jumped into
aircraft manufacturing, and in 1927, produced the Ford Trimotor,
commonly referred to as the Tin Goose. It was one of the first all-
metal planes, made of a new material, duralumin, which was almost
as light as aluminum but twice as strong. It also was the first plane
designed primarily to carry passengers rather than mail. The Ford
Trimotor had 12 passenger seats; a cabin high enough for a
passenger to walk down the aisle without stooping; and room for a
“stewardess,” or flight attendant, the first of whom were nurses,
hired by United in 1930 to serve meals and assist airsick
passengers. The Tin Goose’s three engines made it possible to fly
higher and faster up to 130 miles per hour, and its sturdy
appearance, combined with the Ford name, had a reassuring effect
on the public’s perception of flying. However, it was another event,
in 1927 that brought unprecedented public attention to aviation
and helped secure the industry’s future as a major mode of
transportation.
9. Charles Lindbergh
At 7:52 a.m. on May 20, 1927, a young pilot named Charles
Lindbergh set out on an historic flight across the Atlantic Ocean,
from New York to Paris. It was the first trans-Atlantic non-stop
flight in an airplane, and its effect on both Lindbergh and aviation
was enormous. Lindbergh became an instant American hero.
Aviation became a more established industry, attracting millions of
private investment dollars almost overnight, as well as the support
of millions of Americans.
The pilot who sparked all of this attention had dropped out of
engineering school at the University of Wisconsin to learn how to
fly. He became a barnstormer, doing aerial shows across the
country, and eventually joined the Robertson Aircraft Corporation,
to transport mail between St. Louis and Chicago.
In planning his trans-Atlantic voyage, Lindbergh daringly decided to
fly by himself, without a navigator, so he could carry more fuel. His
plane, the Spirit of St. Louis, was slightly less than 28 feet in length,
with a wingspan of 46 feet. It carried 450 gallons of gasoline, which
comprised half its take-off weight. There was too little room in the
cramped cockpit for navigating by the stars, so Lindbergh flew by
dead reckoning. He divided maps from his local library into thirty-
three 100-mile segments, noting the heading he would follow as he
flew each segment. When he first sighted the coast of Ireland, he
was almost exactly on the route he had plotted, and he landed
several hours later, with 80 gallons of fuel to spare.
Lindbergh’s greatest enemy on his journey was fatigue. The trip
took an exhausting 33 hours, 29 minutes and 30 seconds, but he
managed to keep awake by sticking his head out the window to
inhale cold air, by holding his eyelids open, and by constantly
reminding himself that if he fell asleep he would perish. In addition,
he had a slight instability built into his airplane that helped keep
him focused and awake.
Lindbergh landed at Le Bourget Field, outside of Paris, at 10:24
p.m. Paris time on May 21. Word of his flight preceded him and a
large crowd of Parisians rushed out to the airfield to see him and
his little plane. There was no question about the magnitude of what
he had accomplished. The Air Age had arrived.
10. The Watres Act and the Spoils Conference
In 1930, Postmaster General Walter Brown pushed for legislation
that would have another major impact on the development of
commercial aviation. Known as the Watres Act after one of its chief
sponsors, Rep. Laurence H. Watres of Pennsylvania, it authorized
the Post Office to enter into longer-term contracts for airmail, with
rates based on space or volume, rather than weight. In addition,
the act authorized the Post Office to consolidate airmail routes,
where it was in the national interest to do so. Brown believed the
changes would promote larger, stronger airlines, as well as more
coast-to-coast and night time service.
Immediately after Congress approved the act, Brown held a series
of meetings in Washington to discuss the new contracts. The
meetings were later dubbed the Spoils Conference because Brown
gave them little publicity and directly invited only a handful of
people from the larger airlines. He designated three
transcontinental mail routes and made it clear that he wanted only
one company operating each service rather than a number of small
airlines handing the mail off to one another. His actions brought
political trouble that resulted in major changes to the system two
years later.
11. Scandal and the Air Mail Act of 1934
Following the Democratic landslide in the election of 1932, some of
the smaller airlines began complaining to news reporters and
politicians that they had been unfairly denied airmail contracts by
Brown. One reporter discovered that a major contract had been
awarded to an airline whose bid was three times higher than a rival
bid from a smaller airline. Congressional hearings followed, chaired
by Sen. Hugo Black of Alabama, and by 1934 the scandal had
reached such proportions as to prompt President Franklin Roosevelt
to cancel all mail contracts and turn mail deliveries over to the
Army.
The decision was a mistake. The Army pilots were unfamiliar with
the mail routes, and the weather at the time they took over the
deliveries, February 1934, was terrible. There were a number of
accidents as the pilots flew practice runs and began carrying the
mail, leading to newspaper headlines that forced President
Roosevelt to retreat from his plan only a month after he had turned
the mail over to the Army.
By means of the Air Mail Act of 1934, the government once again
returned airmail transportation to the private sector, but it did so
under a new set of rules that would have a significant impact on the
industry. Bidding was structured to be more competitive, and
former contract holders were not allowed to bid at all, so many
companies were reorganized. The result was a more even
distribution of the government’s mail business and lower mail rates
that forced airlines and aircraft manufacturers to pay more
attention to the development of the passenger side of the business.
In another major change, the government forced the dismantling of
the vertical holding companies common up to that time in the
industry, sending aircraft manufacturers and airline operators most
notably Boeing, Pratt & Whitney, and United Air Lines their separate
ways. The entire industry was now reorganized and refocused.
12. Aircraft Innovations
For the airlines to attract passengers away from the railroads, they
needed both larger and faster airplanes. They also needed safer
airplanes. Accidents, such as the one in 1931 that killed Notre
Dame Football Coach Knute Rockne along with six others, kept
people from flying Aircraft and manufacturers responded to the
challenge. There were so many an improvement to aircraft in the
1930s that many believe it was the most innovative period in
aviation history. Air-cooled engines replaced water-cooled engines,
reducing weight and making larger and faster planes possible.
Cockpit instruments also improved, with better altimeters, airspeed
indicators, rate-of-climb indicators, compasses, and the
introduction of artificial horizon, which showed pilots the attitude of
the aircraft relative to the ground - important for flying in reduced
visibility.
13. Radio
Another development of enormous importance to aviation was
radio. Aviation and radio developed almost in lock step. Marconi
sent his first message across the Atlantic on the airwaves just two
years before the Wright Brothers, first flight at Kitty Hawk. By World
War I, some pilots were taking radios up in the air with them so
they could communicate with people on the ground. The airlines
followed suit after the war, using radio to transmit weather
information from the ground to their pilots, so they could avoid
storms. An even more significant development, however, was the
realization that radio could be used as an aid to navigation when
visibility was poor and visual navigation aids, such as beacons,
were useless.
Once technical problems were worked out, the Department of
Commerce constructed 83 radio beacons across the country. They
became fully operational in 1932, automatically transmitting
directional beams, or tracks, that pilots could follow to their
destination. Marker beacons came next, allowing pilots to locate
airports in poor visibility. The first air traffic control tower was
established in 1935 at what is now Newark International Airport in
New Jersey.
14. The First Modern Airliners
Boeing built what generally is considered the first modern
passenger airliner, the Boeing 247. It was unveiled in 1933, and
United Airlines promptly bought 60 of them. Based on a low-wing,
twin-engine bomber with retractable landing gear built for the
military, the 247 accommodated 10 passengers and cruised at 155
miles per hour. Its cabin was insulated, to reduce engine noise
levels inside the plane, and it featured such amenities as
upholstered seats and a hot water heater to make flying more
comfortable to passengers. Eventually, Boeing also gave the 247
variable-pitch propellers that reduced take-off distances, increased
the rate of climb, and boosted cruising speeds.
Not to be outdone by United, Transcontinental and Western Air
(TWA) went searching for an alternative to the 247 and eventually
found what it wanted from the Douglas Aircraft Company. Its DC-1
incorporated Boeing’s innovations and improved upon many of
them. The DC-1 had a more powerful engine and accommodations
for two more passengers than did the 247. More importantly, the
airframe was designed so that the skin of the aircraft bore most of
the stress on the plane during flight. There was no interior skeleton
of metal spars, thus giving passengers more room than they had in
the 247. The DC-1 also was easier to fly. It was equipped with the
first automatic pilot and the first efficient wing flaps, for added lift
during take-off. However, for all its advancements, only one DC-1
was ever built. Douglas decided almost immediately to alter its
design, adding 18 inches to its length so it could accommodate two
more passengers. The new, longer version was called the DC-2 and
it was a big success, but the best was still to come.
15. The DC-3 aircraft
Called the plane that changed the world, the DC-3 was the first
aircraft to enable airlines to make money carrying passengers. As a
result, it quickly became the dominant aircraft in the United States,
following its debut in 1936 with American Airlines which played a
key role in its design.
The DC-3 had 50 percent greater passenger capacity than the DC-2
(21 seats versus 14), yet cost only ten percent more to operate. It
also was considered a safer plane, built of an aluminum alloy
stronger than materials previously used in aircraft construction. It
had more powerful engines (1,000 horsepower versus 710
horsepower for the DC-2), and it could travel coast to coast in only
16 hours - a fast trip for that time.
Another important improvement was the use of a hydraulic pump to
lower and raise the landing gear. This freed pilots from having to
crank the gear up and down during take-offs and landings. For
greater passenger comfort, the DC-3 had a noise-deadening plastic
insulation, and seats set in rubber to minimize vibrations. It was a
fantastically popular airplane, and it helped attract many new
travellers to flying.
16. Pressurized Cabins
Although planes such as the Boeing 247 and the DC-3 represented
significant advances in aircraft design, they had a major drawback.
They could fly no higher than 10,000 feet, because people became
dizzy and even fainted, due to the reduced levels of oxygen at
higher altitudes.
The airlines wanted to fly higher, to get above the air turbulence
and storms common at lower altitudes. Motion sickness was a
problem for many airline passengers, and an inhibiting factor to the
industry’s growth.
The breakthrough came at Boeing with the Stratoliner, a derivation
of the B-17 bomber introduced in 1940 and first flown by TWA. It
was the first pressurized aircraft, meaning that air was pumped into
the aircraft as it gained altitude to maintain an atmosphere inside
the cabin similar to the atmosphere that occurs naturally at lower
altitudes. With its regulated air compressor, the 33-seat Stratoliner
could fly as high as 20,000 feet and reach speeds of 200 miles per
hour.
17. The Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938
Government decisions continued to prove as important to aviation’s
future as technological breakthroughs, and one of the most
important aviation bills ever enacted by Congress was the Civil
Aeronautics Act of 1938. Until that time, numerous government
agencies and departments had a hand in aviation policy. Airlines
sometimes were pushed and pulled in several directions, and there
was no central agency working for the long-term development of
the industry. All the airlines had been losing money, since the
postal reforms in 1934 significantly reduced the amount they were
paid for carrying the mail.
The airlines wanted more rationalized government regulation,
through an independent agency, and the Civil Aeronautics Act gave
them what they needed. It created the Civil Aeronautics Authority
(CAA) and gave the new agency power to regulate airline fares,
airmail rates, and interline agreements, mergers and routes. Its
mission was to preserve order in the industry, holding rates to
reasonable levels while, at the same time nurturing the still
financially-shaky airline industry, thereby encouraging the
development of commercial air transportation.
Congress created a separate agency - the Air Safety Board - to
investigate accidents. In 1940, however, President Roosevelt
convinced Congress to transfer the accident investigation function
to the Civil AA, which was then renamed the Civil Aeronautics Board
(CAB). These moves, coupled with the tremendous progress made
on the technological side, put the industry on the road to success.
18. World War II
Aviation had an enormous impact on the course of World War II and
the war had just as significant an impact on aviation. There were
fewer than 300 air transport aircrafts in the United States when
Hitler marched into Poland in 1939. By the end of the war, U.S.
aircraft manufacturers were producing 50,000 planes a year.
Most of the planes, of course, were fighters and bombers, but the
importance of air transports to the war effort quickly became
apparent as well. Throughout the war, the airlines provided much
needed airlift to keep troops and supplies moving, to the front and
throughout the production chain back home. For the first time in
their history, the airlines had far more business - for passengers as
well as freight - than they could handle. Many of them also had
opportunities to pioneer new routes, gaining an exposure that
would give them a decidedly broader outlook at war’s end.
While there were numerous advances in U.S. aircraft design during
the war, that enabled planes to go faster, higher, and farther than
ever before, mass production was the chief goal of the United
States. The major innovations of the wartime period - radar and jet
engines - occurred in Europe.
19. The Jet Engine
Isaac Newton was the first to theorize, in the 18th century, that a
rearward-channeled explosion could propel a machine forward at a
great rate of speed. However, no one found a practical application
for the theory until Frank Whittle, a British pilot, designed the first
jet engine in 1930. Even then, widespread skepticism about the
commercial viability of a jet prevented Whittle’s design from being
tested for several years.
The Germans were the first to build and test a jet aircraft. Based on
a design by Hans von Ohain, a student whose work was
independent of Whittle’s, it flew in 1939, although not as well as the
Germans had hoped. It would take another five years for German
scientists to perfect the design, by which time it was, fortunately,
too late to affect the outcome of the war.
Whittle also improved his jet engine during the war, and in 1942 he
shipped an engine prototype to General Electric in the United
States. America’s first jet plane - the Bell P-59 - was built the
following year.
20. Radar
Radio Detection and Range (RADAR) is another technological
development with a much greater impact on the war’s outcome and
later on commercial aviation was radar. British scientists had been
working on a device that could give them early warning of
approaching enemy aircraft even before the war began, and by
1940 Britain had a line of radar transceivers along its east coast
that could detect German aircraft the moment they took off from
the Continent. British scientists also perfected the cathode ray
oscilloscope, which produced map-type outlines of surrounding
countryside and showed aircraft as a pulsing light. Americans,
meanwhile, found a way to distinguish between enemy aircraft and
allied aircraft by installing transponders aboard the latter that
signalled their identity to radar operators.
21. Dawn of the Jet Age
Aviation was poised to advance rapidly following the war, in large
part because of the development of jets, but there still were
significant problems to overcome. In 1952, a 36-seat British-made
jet, the Comet, flew from London to Johannesburg, South Africa, at
speeds as high as 500 miles per hour. Two years later, the Comet’s
career ended abruptly following two back-to-back accidents in
which the fuselage burst apart during flight - the result of metal
fatigue.
The Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States,
following World War II, helped secure the funding needed to solve
such problems and advance the jet’s development. Most of the
breakthroughs related to military aircraft that later were applied to
the commercial sector. For example, Boeing employed a swept-back
wing design for its B-47 and B-52 bombers to reduce drag and
increase speed. Later, the design was incorporated into commercial
jets, making them faster and thus more attractive to passengers.
The best example of military civilian technology transfer was the jet
tanker Boeing designed for the Air Force to refuel bombers in flight.
The tanker, the KC-135, was a huge success as a military plane, but
even more successful when revamped and introduced, in 1958, as
the first U.S. passenger jet, the Boeing 707. With a length of 125
feet and four engines with 17,000 pounds of thrust each, the 707
could carry up to 181 passengers and travel at speeds of 550 miles
per hour. Its engines proved more reliable than piston-driven
engines - producing less vibration, putting less stress on the
plane’s airframe and reducing maintenance expenses. They also
burned kerosene, which cost half as much as the high-octane
gasoline used in more traditional planes. With the 707, first ordered
and operated by Pan Am, all questions about the commercial
feasibility of jets were answered. The Jet Age had arrived, and other
airlines soon were lining up to buy the new aircraft.
22. The Federal Aviation Act of 1958
Following World War II, air travel soared, but with the industry’s
growth came new problems. In 1956 two aircraft collided over the
Grand Canyon, killing 128 people. The skies were getting too
crowded for existing systems of aircraft separation, and Congress
responded by passing the Federal Aviation Act of 1958.
The legislation created a new safety regulatory agency, the Federal
Aviation Agency, later called the Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) when Congress created the Department of Transportation
(DOT) in 1967. The agency was charged with establishing and
running a broad air traffic control system, to maintain safe
separation of all commercial aircraft through all phases of flight. In
addition, it assumed jurisdiction over all other aviation safety
matters, such as the certification of aircraft designs, and airline
training and maintenance programs. The Civil Aeronautics Board
retained jurisdiction over economic matters, such as airline routes
and rates.
23. Wide-bodies and Supersonics
In 1969 marked the debut of another revolutionary aircraft, the
Boeing 747, which, again, Pan Am was the first to purchase and fly
in commercial service. It was the first wide-body jet, with two
aisles, a distinctive upper deck over the front section of the
fuselage, and four engines. With seating for as many as 450
passengers, it was twice as big as any other Boeing jet and 80
percent bigger than the largest jet up until that time, the DC-8.
Recognizing the economies of scale to be gained from larger jets,
other aircraft manufacturers quickly followed suit. Douglas built its
first wide-body, the DC-10, in 1970, and only a month later,
Lockheed flew its contender in the wide-body market, the L-1011.
Both of these jets had three engines and were smaller than the
747, seating about 250 passengers.
During the same period of time, efforts were underway in both the
United States and Europe to build a supersonic commercial aircraft.
The Soviet Union was the first to succeed, testing the Tupolev 144
in December of 1968. A consortium of West European aircraft
manufacturers first flew the Concorde two months later and
eventually produced a number of those fast, but small, jets for
commercial service. U.S. efforts to produce a supersonic passenger
jet, on the other hand, stalled in 1971 due to public concern about
its expense and the sonic boom produced by such aircraft.

1.2. AVIATION ORGANIZATIONS AND GOVERNMENT

AGENCIES IN AVIATION SAFETY - CAAS, FAA, JAA, EASA,
ICAO AND IATA
1. CAA is the Civil Aviation Authority. This is a generic term used in
many countries, notably the UK China, and many African Countries.
A Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) is a national regulatory body
responsible for aviation. The CAA implements the ICAO SARPs in
national legislation and is responsible for regulatory oversight.
2. Federal Aviation Administration
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is the national aviation
authority of the United States. As an agency of the United States
Department of Transportation, it has authority to regulate and
oversee all aspects of American civil aviation, Primary
Responsibilities, The responsibilities of the FAA include:
Regulating civil aviation to promote safety within the U.S. and
abroad;
Encouraging and developing civil aeronautics, including new
aviation technology;
Developing and operating a system of air traffic control and
navigation for both civil and military aircraft;
Researching and developing the National Airspace System and civil
aeronautics;
Developing and carrying out programs to control aircraft noise and
other environmental effects of civil aviation;
Regulating U.S. commercial space transportation. The FAA licenses
commercial space launch facilities and private launches of space
payloads on expendable launch vehicles.
Investigation of aviation incidents, accidents and disasters is
conducted by the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), an
independent US government agency.
Along with the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) the FAA is
one of the two main agencies world-wide responsible for the
certification of aircraft.
Organization of the FAA
FAA is managed by an Administrator, assisted by a Deputy
Administrator. Five Associate Administrators report to the
Administrator and direct the line-of-business organizations that
carry out the agency’s principle functions. The Chief Counsel and
nine Assistant Administrators also report to the Administrator. The
Assistant Administrators oversee other key programs such as
Human Resources, Budget, and System Safety. FAA also has nine
geographical regions and two major centers, the Mike Monroney
Aeronautical Centre and the William J. Hughes Technical Center.
Key Activities
The FAA’s key activities may be summarized as:
i) Safety Regulation
Issuing and enforcing regulations and minimum standards covering
manufacturing, operating, and maintaining aircraft; Certification of
airmen and airports that serve air carriers.
ii) Airspace and Air Traffic Management
The safe and efficient use of navigable airspace is one of the FAA’s
primary objectives. The Administration operates a network of
airport towers, air route traffic control centers, and flight service
stations, as well as developing air traffic rules, assignment of the
use of airspace, and the control of air traffic.
iii) Air Navigation Facilities
The FAA builds or installs visual and electronic aids to air
navigation, maintains, operates and assures the quality of these
facilities as well as sustains other systems to support air navigation
and air traffic control, including voice and data communications
equipment, radar facilities, computer systems, and visual display
equipment at flight service stations.
iv) Civil Aviation Abroad
The FAA promotes aviation safety and encourages civil aviation
abroad. It exchanges aeronautical information with foreign
authorities, certifies foreign repair shops, airmen, and mechanics,
provides technical aid and training, negotiates bilateral
airworthiness agreements with other countries and takes part in
international conferences.
v) Commercial Space Transportation
The FAA regulates and encourages the U.S. commercial space
transportation industry, including licensing commercial space
launch facilities and private launches of space payloads on
expendable launch vehicles.
vi) Research, Engineering, and Development
The FAA undertakes research on, and development of, the systems
and procedures needed for a safe and efficient system of air
navigation and air traffic control. The Administration helps develop
better aircraft, engines, and equipment and tests or evaluates
aviation systems, devices, materials, and procedures. It also
undertakes aero medical research.
The FAA’s Role in Air Traffic Management
The FAA has a complex set of responsibilities in the Air Traffic
Management (ATM). It provides the vast majority of tower-based
ATM, including all major airport facilities. It is the sole provider of
en-route ATM services in the US. The FAA’s service-provision tasks
are undertaken by the Air Traffic Organization (ATO), which has
been established as a functionally separate entity within the FAA’s
organizational structure. At the same time, the FAA is responsible
for the safety regulation of all US aviation activities, including ATM.
For this purpose, an ATM Safety Oversight organization has been
established within the regulatory division of the FAA with
responsibility for oversight of the safety of the ATO’s operations and
activities.
3. JAA were the Joint Aviation Authorities, a co-operation of most
European (EU and non-EU) civil aviation regulatory authorities. It
was not a regulatory body itself, the member authorities were
responsible for the regulation.
Originally started as the Joint Airworthiness Authorities in 1970 its
objectives were to produce common certification standards for
large aircraft and aircraft engines to facilitate a European aviation
manufacturing industry (Airbus). Over time, the scope was
extended to included aircraft operations, maintenance, licensing
and certification/design standards for all classes of aircraft.
With the creation of EASA (see below) in 2002, the EU members
transferred the airworthiness regulations away from the JAA. Over
time, EASA became responsible for operations and licensing as
well. In 2009 the JAA system was disbanded. Only the training
organisation (JAA-TO) remains, it mainly provides courses for CAA
staff of European countries.
4. European Aviation Safety Agency
The European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) is an agency of the
European Union established in 2002 by Regulation (EC) No
216/2008 of the European parliament and the Council in order to
ensure a high and uniform level of safety in civil aviation, by the
implementation of common safety rules and measures.
EASA has taken over the responsibilities of the former Joint Aviation
Authorities (JAA) system which ceased on 30 June 2009. However,
it is not a successor agency in legal terms since it functions directly
under EU statute. The main difference between EASA and the JAA is
that EASA is Regulatory Authority which uses NAAs to implement
its Regulations whereas the JAA relied upon the participating NAAs
to apply its harmonized codes without having any force of law at
source. Since it is self-evidently impossible to create a new
Regulatory System ‘overnight’ EASA has had to accept large parts
of the JAA system as its own whilst it develops the new harmonized
system required under EU statute.
Mission: EASA states that their mission is to promote the highest
common standards of safety and environmental protection in civil
aviation.
Remit: The agency’s responsibilities are being acquired
progressively. In 2008, through the implementation of a new EASA
Regulation (EC) No 216/2008, EASA’s role was extended beyond its
previous scope to cover Flight Operations and Flight Crew
Licensing.
In autumn 2009, as part of an aviation package also including the
second package of measures for Single European Sky (SES II), the
European Community adopted Regulation (EC) No 1108/2009
amending Regulation (EC) No 216/2008 and extending EASA’s
remit to encompass the field of aerodromes, air traffic management
and air navigation services. As previously, however, aircraft used for
military, customs and police services, and persons and
organizations involved in such activities, remain outside the remit of
EASA.
Responsibilities
The agency’s responsibilities include:
I) Expert advice to the EU on the drafting new legislation;
II) Developing, implementing and monitoring safety rules,
including inspections in the Member States;
III) Type-certification of aircraft and components, as well as the
approval of organizations involved in the design, manufacture
and maintenance of aeronautical products;
IV) Certification of personnel and organizations involved in the
operation of aircraft;
V) Certification of organizations providing pan-European
ATM/ANS services;
VI) Certification of organizations located outside the territory
subject to the EC law and responsible for providing ATM/ANS
services or ATCO training in the Member States where EC law
applies;
VII) Authorization of third-country or non EU operators;
 VIII) Safety analysis and research including publication of an
Annual Safety Review.
The Agency’s tasks are to
I) Help the Community legislature draw up common standards to
ensure the highest possible levels of safety and environmental
protection;
II) Ensure that they are applied uniformly in Europe and that any
necessary safeguard measures are implemented;
III) Promote the spread of standards worldwide.
The Agency may adopt various types of act: It may take binding
individual decisions by granting aircraft type certificates and by
conducting inspections and investigations; Issue non-binding
documents containing certification specifications, acceptable
means of compliance and guidance material for use in the
certification process and present opinions to the European
Commission on the essential requirements and implementing rules
to be adopted.
Structure and Governance: EASA became operational on 28
September 2003 as an independent body of the European
Community with its own legal personality. In 2004 the Agency set
up its permanent headquarters in Cologne, Germany. It may, with
the consent of the Member State concerned, establish local offices
in any Member State.
EASA is represented by its Executive Director. The Executive
Director alone is empowered to take decisions and adopt acts
concerning safety and environmental protection. He decides on
inspections and investigations and is the manager of the Agency
and, as such, is responsible for preparing and implementing the
budget and work programme and for all questions relating to
personnel. Since these decisions directly affect people and
organizations, the EASA Regulation creates an independent Board
of Appeal whose role is to check that the Executive Director has
correctly applied European legislation in this field. The Executive
Director is appointed by the Agency’s Management Board. The
Board is responsible for the definition of the Agency’s priorities, the
establishment of the budget and for monitoring the Agency’s
operation. It adopts EASA annual report and work programme after
approval by the European Commission and the working procedures
to be followed by the Agency. The Management Board is composed
of one representative of each Member State and one representative
of the Commission. The Management Board elects a Chairperson
and a Deputy Chairperson from among its members. The term of
office is three years and is renewable.
The EASA Advisory Board assists the Management Board in its
work. It comprises organizations representing aviation personnel,
manufacturers, commercial and general aviation operators,
maintenance industry, training organizations and air sports.
The Agency’s already employs some 400 professionals from across
Europe assigned to several directorates. The core safety related
tasks are carried out by the “Rulemaking”, “Certification” and
“Approvals & Standardization” directorates.
The Agency’s budget is financed by a contribution from the
European Community, fees paid for certificates issued by the
Agency and charges for publications and training provided by the
Agency.
5. International Air Transport Association (IATA)
IATA is effectively a powerful lobbying body for international air
carriers, while ICAO is an inter-governmental organisation which
deals with regulatory aspects of national civil aviation oversight.
ICAO makes recommendations and sets standards although it has
no enforcement powers which are generally followed by national
civil aviation authorities.
International Air Transport Association (IATA) was founded on 19th
April 1945, and it is headquartered at Montreal, Canada. The
Purpose of IATA is to represent, lead and serve the Airline Industry.
It has 240 Airlines as its members in the world. Director General
and CEO of IATA is currently Tony Tyler.
The chronological events to the creation of IATA
1919 The world’s First International scheduled services started.
It has got 57 members from 31 countries in 1945
Today 243 Member Airlines from 126 nations in every part of the
world.
IATA MISSION
To Represent, Lead and serve the Airline Industry
IATA duties and responsibilities
All the Airline Rules and regulations are defined by IATA.
To provide safe, reliable and secure transportation to the
Passengers
Price setting
Price setting body for international airfares
1978 US deregulated the domestic market or open sky Policy
IATA assigns a 3- letter IATA-Airport code. Eg: KGL,DXB,LON
2 letter Airline designators. For example, AI, BA, KU
IATA assigns delay codes for Airlines
IATA administrates worldwide BSP (billing and settlement plan)
IATA handles Cargo Accounts Settlement Systems
IATA regulates the shipping of Dangerous Goods by Air
IATA publishes the Dangerous Goods (DGR) Manual every year
IATA Publishes the standards for use in the Airline Industry
Bar code boarding cards introduced by IATA
IATA Rates of Exchange (IROE) published four times in a year
NUC is used for construction of international fares
IATA Operational safety Audit (IOSA) was launched by IATA with the
aim to serve as a standard and worldwide recognized certification
of airlines operational management.
Moreover, as per the Articles of Association of IATA, the main
objectives are:
i) To promote safe, regular and economical air transport for the
benefit of the people of the world, to foster air commerce and,
to study the problems connected therewith;
ii) To provide means for collaboration among the air transport
enterprises engaged directly or indirectly in international air
transport services;
iii) To cooperate with the International Civil Aviation Organization
and other international organizations;
iv) To provide a common platform for travel agencies/tour
operators
 v) To promote and develop international tourism.
6. ICAO: International Civil Aviation Organization
In 1944, 32 countries in US signed an agreement to form IACO as a
means to secure international co-operation for highest possible
degree of uniformity in regulations and standards, procedures and
organization regarding civil aviation matters.
Also they signed an agreement on International Service transit
Agreement and international Air Transport Agreement. The Chicago
Convention laid a foundation for a common set of rules and
regulations regarding air navigation safety and paved the way for a
common air navigation system throughout the world.
a. The main aim of ICAO
The aim of International Civil Aviation Organization is the following:
i) Insuring the safe orderly growth of international civil aviation
throughout the world
ii) Encouraging the arts of aircraft design and operation for
peaceful purpose.
iii) Encouraging the development of airways, airports and air
navigational facilities for international civil aviation organization.
iv) Meeting the needs of the people of the world for safe, regular,
efficient and economical air transportation.
v) Preventing economical waste caused due to unreasonable
competition
vi) Insuring that the rights of the contracting states are fully
respected and that every contracting state has fair opportunity
to operate international airlines.
vii) Avoiding discrimination between contracting states.
 viii) Promoting safety of flight in international air navigation.
ix) Promoting development of international civil aeronautics.
x) Standardizing international practices in aviation,
xi) Establishing international standards, recommended Practices
and Procedures covering the technical field of aviation.
xii) Licensing of Personnel
xiii) Establishing Rules of the Air
xiv) Aeronautical meteorology
xv) Aeronautical charts, Units of measurement
xvi) Operation of aircrafts
xvii) Nationality and registration marks.
xviii) Airworthiness,
xix) Aeronautical telecommunications
xx) Air traffic services
xxi) Aircraft noise and engine emissions
xxii) Search and rescue operations
xxiii) Aircraft accident investigation, aerodromes
xxiv) Aeronautical information services
xxv) Security and the safe transportation of Dangerous goods.
xxvi) Communication navigational surveillance.
ICAO recent achievement is the development of satellite based
system concept to meet the future communications, navigation and
surveillance.
b. Activities of ICAO
Regional Planning
ICAO recognizes nine geographical regions for planning the
provision of air navigation facilities and services required on the
ground by the aircraft flying in these regions.
Facilitation
ICAO has tried to persuade its contracting states to reduce red tape
and international standards on facilitation by providing adequate
terminal building for passengers, baggage and air cargo with
related facilities and services.
Economics
ICAO requires international services to be established on the basis
of equality of opportunity and operated soundly and economically
to assist states in planning their air transport, ICAO publishes world
aviation statistical data, produces manuals for the guidance of the
states such as statistics of air traffic forecasting, air navigational
facility tariffs and economic regulation of air transport and airfares
and rates.
c. Technical and Co-Operation for Development
ICAO pays special attention to promoting civil aviation in
developing countries with aerodromes, air traffic control towers,
communication and meteorological services.
In response to alarming incidents in recent years of acts of unlawful
interference against aircraft and airports, ICAO provides assistance
to states in order to improve their aviation security facilities and
procedures.
d. Law
International recognition of property rights in aircrafts, damage
done by the aircrafts to third party on the surface, liability of the air
carriers to its passengers, crimes committed on board the air craft,
the marking of plastic explosives for detection and unlawful
interference with civil aviation.
e. ICAO’s strategic planning
Globalization and trans-nationalisation of markets and operations
Emergence of regional and sub-regional trading and regulatory
blocks
Commercialization of government service providers
Liberalization of Economic regulation
Potential evasion of safety regulation
Blurring of sectorial boundaries and responsibilities of related
authorities.
f. ICAO Annexes
There are normally two Acts which govern civil aviation industry
under ICAO namely:
Aircraft Act, 1934: this Act as of 19th August 1934 makes better
provision for the control of the manufacture, possession, use
operation, sale, import and export of aircraft
The Aircraft rules, 1937
Apart from those two acts, there are also important international
conventions to regulate civil air transportation as below:
i) Chicago Convention: The Convention on International Civil
Aviation, also known as the Chicago Convention, established the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a specialized
agency of the United Nations charged with coordinating and
regulating international air travel. The Convention establishes rules
of airspace, aircraft registration and safety, and details the rights of
the signatories in relation to air travel. The Convention also
exempts commercial air fuels from tax.
The document was signed on December 7, 1944 in Chicago, U.S.,
by 52 signatory states. It received the requisite 26th ratification on
March 5, 1947 and went into effect on April 4, 1947, the same date
that ICAO came into being. In October of the same year, ICAO
became a specialized agency of the United Nations Economic and
Social Council (ECOSOC). The Convention has since been revised
eight times (in 1959, 1963, 1969, 1975, 1980, 1997, 2000 and
2006). As of 2013, the Chicago Convention has 191 state parties,
which includes all member states of the United Nations except
Dominica, Liechtenstein, and Tuvalu plus the Cook Islands
ii) The Warsaw Convention: The Convention for the Unification of
certain rules relating to international carriage by air, commonly
known as the Warsaw Convention, is an international convention
which regulates liability for international carriage of persons,
luggage, or goods performed by aircraft for reward.
Originally signed in 1929 in Warsaw hence the name, it was
amended in 1955 at The Hague, Netherlands, and in 1971 in
Guatemala City, Guatemala. United States courts have held that, at
least for some purposes, the Warsaw Convention is a different
instrument from the Warsaw Convention as amended by the Hague
Protocol.
iii) Montreal convention: The Montreal Convention is formally
known as the Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules for
International Carriage by Air as a multilateral treaty adopted by a
diplomatic meeting of ICAO member states in 1999. It amended
important provisions of the Warsaw Convention’s regime
concerning compensation for the victims of air disasters. The
Convention attempts to re-establish uniformity and predictability of
rules relating to the international carriage of passengers, baggage
and cargo. Whilst maintaining the core provisions which have
served the international air transport community for several
decades i.e., the Warsaw regime, the new treaty achieves
modernization in a number of key areas. It protects passengers by
introducing a two-tier liability system that eliminates the previous
requirement of proving willful neglect by the air carrier to obtain
more than US$75,000 in damages, which should eliminate or
reduce protracted litigation.
ICAO has thus 18 annexes to describe and help the functions and
standard norms of particular providing air services towards safety
and security of Airports, Airlines, Air traffic control, and facilitation
even environmental issues. Those annexes are as below:
Annex 1: Personnel Licensing
Annex 2: Rules of the Air
Annex 3: Meteorological service and international navigation.
Annex 4: Aeronautical charts
Annex 5: Units of measurements to be used in Air and ground
operations
Annex 6: Operation of Aircraft
Annex 7: Aircraft nationality and Registration Marks
Annex 8: Airworthiness of Aircraft
Annex 9: Facilitation
Annex 10: Aeronautical telecommunication
Annex 11: Air traffic Services
Annex 12: Rescue and search operations
Annex 13: Aircraft accident and incident investigation.
Annex 14: Aerodromes
Annex 15: Aeronautical information services
Annex 16: Environmental Protection
Annex 17: Security safeguarding international civil aviation against
Acts of Unlawful interferences.
Annex 18: The safe transport of Dangerous goods by Air.
Freedom of Air and Chicago Convention
In 1944, delegates from 52 nations met in Chicago to develop a
multilateral treaty securing each nation’s rights over its airspace.
These “freedoms of the sky” are the fundamental building blocks of
air transportation regulation and each subject to specific
conditions, such as establishing the frequency of flights or airport
usage. There are five basic freedoms that are recognized by
virtually all countries. Freedoms 5 and 7 are less common, and
typically only negotiated between stalwart trading partners.
Freedoms 8 and 9 are only now entering into Air Service
Agreements (ASAs), but they are still rare.
The following are the 9 freedoms of Air
1st freedom: The right to fly over another nation’s territory without
landing (over flight)
2nd freedom: The right to land in a foreign country for non- traffic
reasons, such as maintenance or refueling, without picking up or
setting down revenue traffic
3rd freedom: The right to carry traffic (people or cargo) from own
State A to treaty partner State B
4th freedom: The right to carry traffic (people or cargo) from treaty
partner State B to own State A
5th freedom: The right to carry traffic between two foreign countries
with services starting or ending in own State A (i.e. “beyond
rights”)
6th freedom: The right to carry traffic between two foreign countries
via State A. Combines two sets of 3rd and 4th freedom rights as so it
is rarely specified explicitly in Air Service Agreements
7th freedom: The right to operate stand-alone services between two
foreign states which lie entirely outside A
8th freedom: The right to carry traffic between two points within a
foreign state on a service originating or terminating in State A (i.e.
consecutive or fill-up sabotage). Example: Alitalia picks up
passengers in Atlanta and drops them off in
Boston en route to Milan (currently not allowed).
9th freedom: The right to carry traffic between two points within a
foreign state with no requirement to originate or terminate in State
A (i.e. pure or full sabotage). Example: German-based Air Berlin
flies nonstop between London and Manchester without any
connection to Germany

1.3. AVIATION TERMINOLOGY

Aviation industry has many terminologies as below:
• Accelerate Stop Distance Available (ASDA): The length of the
takeoff run available plus the length of a stopway, when
available.
• Agricultural Aviation: The use of fixed-wing or rotor-wing
aircraft in the aerial application of agricultural products i.e.,
 fertilizers, pesticides, etc.
• Air Cargo: All commercial air express and air freight with the
exception of airmail and parcel post.
• Air Carrier/Airline: All regularly scheduled airline activity
performed by airlines certificated in accordance with Federal
Aviation Regulations (FAR Part 121).
• Air Taxi: Operations of aircraft "for hire" for specific trips,
commonly referred to an aircraft available for charter (FAR Part
135).
• Aircraft Approach Category: A grouping of aircraft based how
fast they come in for landing. As a rule of thumb, slower
approach speeds mean smaller airport dimensions and faster
speeds mean larger dimensions from runway widths to the
separation between runways and taxiways.
The aircraft approach categories are: Category A - Speed less than
91 knots;
Category B - Speed 91 knots or more but less than 121 knots
Category C - Speed 121 knots or more but less than 141 knots
Category D - Speed 141 knots or more but less than 166 knots
Category E - Speed 166 knots or more
• Aircraft Operation: A landing or takeoff is one operation. An
aircraft that takes off and then lands creates two aircraft
operations.
• Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA): International
aviation organization.
• Aircraft Holding Area: An area typically located adjacent to a
taxiway and runway end designed to accommodate aircraft
 prior to departure for pre–takeoff engine checks, instrument
flight plan clearances, etc.). Per FAA design standards, aircraft
holding areas should be located outside the runway safety area
(RSA) and obstacle free zone (OFZ) and aircraft located in the
holding area should not interfere with normal taxiway use i.e.
taxiway object free area..
• Airplane Design Group: A grouping of airplanes based on
wingspan. As with Approach Category, the wider the wingspan,
the bigger the aircraft is, the more room it takes up for
operating on an airport.
• The Airplane Design Groups are:
Group I: Up to, but not including 49 feet
Group II: 49 feet up to, but not including 79 feet
Group III: 79 feet up to, but not including 118 feet
Group IV:118 feet up to, but not including 171 feet
Group V: 171 feet up to, but not including 214 feet
Group VI: 214 feet up to, but not including 262 feet
• Airport: A landing area regularly used by aircraft for receiving
or discharging passengers or cargo, including heliports and
seaplane bases.
• Airport Improvement Program (AIP): The funding program
administered by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) with
user fees which are dedicated to improvement of the national
airport system. This program currently provides 95% of
funding for eligible airport improvement projects. The local
sponsor of the project (i.e., airport owner) provides the
remaining 5% known as the "match."
 • Airport Layout Plan (ALP): The FAA approved drawing which
shows the existing and anticipated layout of an airport for the
next 20 years or so. An ALP is prepared using FAA design
standards.
Airport Reference Code (ARC): An FAA airport coding system. The
system looks at the types of aircraft which use an airport most
often and then based upon the characteristics of those airplanes
(approach speed and wing span), assigns a code. The code is then
used to determine how the airport is designed and what design
standards are used. An airport designed for a Piper Cub, an aircraft
in the A-I approach or design group would take less room than a
Boeing 747 which is an aircraft in the D-V approach/design group.
• Airport Reference Point (ARP): The approximate mid-point of
an airfield that is designated as the official airport location.
• Airports District Office (ADO): The "local" office of the FAA that
coordinates planning and construction projects. Staff in the
ADO is typically assigned to a particular state, i.e., Oregon,
Idaho, or Washington. The ADO for Oregon, Washington and
Idaho is located in Renton, Washington.
• Airspace: The area above the ground in which aircraft travel. It
is divided into corridors, routes, and restricted zones for the
control and safety of traffic.
• Alternate Airport: An airport that is available for landing when
the intended airport becomes unavailable. It is required for
instrument flight planning in the event that weather conditions
at destination airport fall below approach minimums, cloud
ceiling or visibility.
• Annual Service Volume (ASV): An estimate of how many
airplanes and airport can handle based upon the number and
types of runways, the aircraft mix (large vs. small, etc), and
weather.
• Approach End of Runway: It is the end of the runway used for
landing. Pilots generally land into the wind and choose a
runway end that best aligns with the wind.
• Approach Surface - Also FAR Part 77 Approach or Obstacle
Clearance Approach: It is an imaginary or invisible surface
which rises off the ends of a runway which must be kept clear
to provide airspace for an airplane to land or take off in. The
size of the approach surface will vary depending upon how big
and how fast the airplanes are, and whether or not the runway
has an instrument approach for landing in bad weather.
• Apron: An area on an airport designated for the parking,
loading, fueling, or servicing of aircraft also referred to as
tarmac and ramp.
• ARFF: Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting, i.e., an on airport
response required for certificated commercial service airports (
FAR Part 139).
• Automated Surface Observation System (ASOS) and
Automated Weather Observation System (AWOS): Automated
observation systems providing continuous on-site weather
data, designed to support aviation activities and weather
forecasting.
• AVGAS: Gasoline used in airplanes with piston engines.
• Avigation Easement: A form of limited property right purchase
that establishes legal land use control prohibiting incompatible
 development of areas required for airports or airport-related
purposes.
• Back-Taxiing: The practice of aircraft taxiing on a runway
before takeoff or after landing. Normally taxiing is generally
required on runways without taxiway access to both runway
ends.
• Based Aircraft: Aircraft stationed at an airport on an annual
basis. Used as a measure of activity at an airport.
• Capacity: A measure of the maximum number of aircraft
operations that can be accommodated on the runways of an
airport in an hour.
• Ceiling: The height above the ground or water to base of the
lowest cloud layers covering more than 50 percent of the sky.
• Charter: Operations of aircraft "for hire" for specific trips,
commonly referred to an aircraft available for charter.
• Circle to Land or Circling Approach: An instrument approach
procedure that allows pilots to land on any authorized runway
once visual contact with the runway environment is established
and maintained throughout the procedure.
• Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF): A frequency used
by pilots to communicate and obtain airport advisories at an
uncontrolled airport.
• Conical Surface: One of the "FAR Part 77 "Imaginary" Surfaces.
The conical surface extends outward and upward from the
edge of the horizontal surface at a slope of 20:1 to a horizontal
distance of 4,000 feet.
• Critical Aircraft: Aircraft which controls one or more design
items based on wingspan, approach speed and/or maximum
certificated take-off weight. The same aircraft may not be
critical to all design items.
• Crosswind: When used concerning wind conditions, the word
means a wind not parallel to the runway or the path of an
aircraft. Sometimes used in reference to a runway as in
"Runway 7/25 is the crosswind runway" meaning that it is not
the runway normally used for the prevailing wind condition. As
an aeronautical term, a direct crosswind is exactly 90-degrees
opposite the direction of flight; more acute crosswind angles
are known as quartering headwinds or tailwinds. From an
airport planning perspective, crosswind runways are generally
justified when a primary runway accommodates less than 95
percent of documented wind conditions (see wind rose).
• Crosswind Runway: A secondary runway that is oriented to
allow aircraft to safely take off or land when wind conditions do
not favor the primary runway.
• Decision Height (DH): For precision instrument approaches, the
height typically in feet or meters above runway end touchdown
zone elevation at which a decision to land or execute a missed
approach must be made by the pilot.
• Departure Surface: A surface that extends upward from the
departure end of an instrument runway that should be free of
any obstacle penetrations. For instrument runways other than
air carrier, the slope is 40:1, extending 10,200 feet from the
runway end. Air carrier runways have a similar surface
designed for one-engine inoperative conditions with a slope of
62.5: 1.
• Displaced Threshold: A landing threshold that is located at a
point other than the runway end. Usually provided to mitigate
close-in obstructions to runway approaches for landing
aircraft.
• DNL: Day-night sound levels, a method of measuring noise
exposure.
• Easement: An agreement that provides use or access of land or
airspace in exchange for compensation.
• Enplanements: Domestic, territorial, and international revenue
passengers who board an aircraft in the states in scheduled
and non-scheduled service of aircraft in intrastate, interstate,
and foreign commerce and includes intransit passengers i.e.
passengers on board international flights that transit an airport
in the US for non-traffic purposes.
• Entitlements: Distribution of Airport Improvement Plan (AIP)
funds from the Airport & Airways Trust Fund to commercial
service airport sponsors based on enplanements or cargo
landed weights. Also, Non-Primary General Aviation
Entitlements now incorporated in AIP funding for general
aviation airports.
• Federal Aviation Administration (FAA): The FAA is the branch
of the U.S. Department of Transportation that is responsible for
the development of airports and air navigation systems.
• FAR Part 77: Federal Aviation Regulations which establish
standards for determining obstructions in navigable airspace.
FAR stands for Federal Aviation Regulations, Part 77 refers to
the section in the regulations, i.e., #77. FAR Part 77 is
commonly used to refer to imaginary surfaces, the primary,
 transitional, horizontal, conical, and approach surfaces. These
surfaces vary with the size and type of airport.
• FAR Part 139: Federal Aviation Regulations which establish
standards for airports with scheduled passenger commercial
air service. Airports that are not certified under Part 139 may
accommodate scheduled commercial passenger service with
aircraft having 9 passenger seats or less.
• Final Approach Fix (FAF): The fix or location from which the
final instrument approach to an airport is executed; also
identifies beginning of final approach segment.
• Final Approach Point (FAP): For non-precision instrument
approaches, the point at which an aircraft is established
inbound for the approach and where the final descent may
begin.
• Fixed Base Operator (FBO): An individual or company located at
an airport providing aviation services. Sometimes further
defined as a "full service" FBO or a limited service. Full service
FBOs typically provide a broad range of services such as flight
instruction, aircraft rental, charter, fueling, repair, etc where a
limited service FBO provides only one or two services such as
fueling, flight instruction or repair.
• Fixed Wing: A plane with one or more "fixed wings," as opposed
to a helicopter that utilizes a rotary wing.
• Flexible Pavement: Typically constructed with an asphalt
surface course and one or more layers of base and subbase
courses that rest on a subgrade layer.
• Flight Service Station (FSS): An office where a pilot can call,on
the ground or in the air, to get weather and airport information.
 Flight plans are also filed with the FSS.
• General Aviation (GA): All civil non-military aviation operations
other than scheduled air services and non-scheduled air
transport operations for hire.
• Glide Slope (GS): For precision instrument approaches, such as
an instrument landing system (ILS), the component that
provides electronic vertical guidance to aircraft. Visual
guidance indicators (VGI) define a glide slope or glide path
through a series of colored lights that are visible to pilots when
approaching a runway end for landing.
• Global Positioning System (GPS): GPS is a system of navigating
which uses satellites (SATNAV) to establish the location and
altitude of an aircraft. GPS supports both enroute flight and
instrument approach procedures.
• Helicopter Landing Pad (Helipad): A designated landing area
for rotor wing aircraft. Requires protected FAR Part 77
imaginary surfaces, as defined for heliports (FAR Part 77.29).
• Helicopter Parking Area: A designated area for rotor wing
aircraft parking that is typically accessed via hover-taxi or
ground taxiing from a designated landing area (e.g., helipad or
runway-taxiway system). If not used as a designated landing
area, helicopter parking pads do not require dedicated FAR
Part 77 imaginary surfaces.
• Heliport: A designated helicopter landing facility (as defined by
FAR Part 77).
• Height Above Airport (HAA): The height of the published
minimum descent altitude (MDA) above the published airport
 elevation. This is normally published in conjunction with
circling minimums.
• High Intensity Runway Lights (HIRL) : High intensity (i.e., very
bright) lights are used on instrument runways where landings
are made in foggy weather. The bright runway lights help pilots
to see the runway when visibility is poor.
• High Speed of Taxiway Exit: An acute-angled exit taxiway
extending from a runway to an adjacent parallel taxiway which
allows landing aircraft to exit the runway at a higher rate of
speed than is possible with standard (90-degree) exit taxiways.
• Hold/Holding Procedure: A defined maneuver in controlled
airspace that allows aircraft to circle above a fixed point often
over a navigational aid or GPS waypoint and altitude while
awaiting further clearance from air traffic control.
• Home Built Aircraft: An aircraft built by an amateur; not an FAA
Certified factory built aircraft.
• Horizontal Surface: One of the FAR Part 77 Imaginary Surfaces.
The horizontal surface is an imaginary flat surface 150 feet
above the established airport elevation. Its perimeter is
constructed by swinging arcs or circles with a radius of 5,000
feet for all runways designated as utility or general; and
10,000 feet for all other runways from the center of each end
of the primary surface and connecting the adjacent arc by
straight lines. The resulting shape looks like a football stadium.
It could also be described as a rectangle with half circles on
each end with the runway in the middle.
• Initial Approach Point of Fix (IAP/IAF): For instrument
approaches, a designated point where an aircraft may begin
 the approach procedure.
• Instrument Approach Procedure (IAP): A series of defined
maneuvers designed to enable the safe transition between
enroute instrument flight and landing under instrument flight
conditions at a particular airport or heliport. IAPs define
specific requirements for aircraft altitude, course, and missed
approach procedures. See precision or nonprecision
instrument approach.
• Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) - IFR refers to the set of rules
pilots must follow when they are flying in bad weather. Pilots
are required to follow these rules when operating in controlled
airspace with visibility of less than three miles and/or ceiling, a
layer of clouds lower than 1,000 feet.
• Instrument Landing System (ILS): An ILS is a system used to
guide a plane in for a landing in bad weather. Sometimes
referred to as a precision instrument approach, it is m designed
to provide an exact approach path for alignment and descent
of aircraft. Generally consists of a localizer, glide slope, outer
marker, middle marker, and approach lights. This type of
precision instrument system is being replaced by Microwave
Landing Systems (MLS).
• Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC): Meteorological
conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from
clouds, and ceiling less than minima specified for visual
meteorological conditions.
• Instrument Runway: A runway equipped with electronic and
visual navigational aids that has been designated for a
straight-in precision or non-precision instrument approach.
• Itinerant Operation: All aircraft operations at an airport other
than local, i.e., flights that come in from another airport.
• Jet Fuel: Highly refined grade of kerosene used by turbine
engine aircraft. Jet-A is currently the common commercial
grade of jet fuel.
• Landing Area: That part of the movement area intended for the
landing and takeoff of aircraft.
• Landing Distance Available (LDA): The length of runway which
is available and suitable for the ground run of an airplane
landing.
• Left Traffic: A term used to describe which side of a runway the
airport traffic pattern is located.
• Large Aircraft: An aircraft that weighs more than 12,500 lbs.
• Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS): GPS-based
instrument approach that utilizes ground- based systems to
augment satellite coverage to provide vertical and horizontal
guidance. LAAS approaches have the technical capabilities to
provide approach minimums comparable to a Category I and II
instrument landing system (ILS). The FAA indicates that a LAAS
system can support approaches to multiple runways and
potentially multiple airports within a range of approximately 30
nautical miles.
• Local Operation: Aircraft operation in the traffic pattern or
within sight of the tower, or aircraft known to be departing or
arriving from flight in local practice areas, or aircraft executing
practice instrument approaches at the airport.
• Localizer: For precision instrument approaches, such as an
instrument landing system (ILS), the component that provides
 electronic lateral (course) guidance to aircraft.
• LORAN C: A navigation system using land based radio signals,
which indicates position and ground speed, but not elevation.
• Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance (LPV): Satellite
navigation (SATNAV) based GPS approach capabilities with
course and vertical guidance LPV approaches are expected to
eventually replace traditional step- down, VOR and NDB
procedures by providing a constant, ILS glideslope-like descent
path. LPV approaches use high- accuracy WAAS signals which
allow narrower glideslope and approach centerline obstacle
clearance areas, safely providing decision altitudes as low as
250 feet, compared with 200 feet for ILS.
• Magnetic Declination: Also called magnetic variation, is the
angle between magnetic north and true north. Declination is
considered positive east of true north and negative when west.
Magnetic declination changes over time and with location.
Runway end numbers, which reflect the magnetic
heading/alignment (within 5 degrees +/-) occasionally require
change due to declination.
• MALSR: Medium-intensity Approach Lighting System with
Runway alignment indicator lights. An airport lighting facility
which provides visual guidance to landing aircraft.
• Medevac: Fixed wing or rotor-wing aircraft used to transport
critical medical patients. These aircraft are equipped to provide
life support during transport.
• Medium Intensity Runway Lights (MIRL): Runway lights which
are not as intense as high intensity runway lights (HIRLs).
 Typical at medium and smaller airports which do not have
sophisticated instrument landing systems.
• Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA): The lowest altitude in a non-
precision instrument approach that an aircraft may descend
without establishing visual contact with the runway or airport
environment.
• Minimums: Weather condition requirements established for a
particular operation or type of operation.
• Missed Approach: A maneuver conducted by a pilot when an
instrument approach cannot be completed to a landing.
• Missed Approach Point (MAP): The defined location in a non-
precision instrument approach where the procedure must be
terminated if the pilot has not visually established the runway
or airport environment.
• Movement Area: The runways, taxiways and other areas of the
airport used for taxiing, takeoff and landing of aircraft, i.e., for
aircraft movement.
• MSL: Elevation above Mean Sea Level.
• National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems (NPIAS): The
NPIAS is the federal airport classification eligible to receive
FAA funding for airport projects.
• Navigational Aid (Navaid): Any visual or electronic device that
helps a pilot navigate. Can be for use to land at an airport or
for traveling from point A to point B.
• Noise Contours: Continuous lines of equal noise level usually
drawn around a noise source, such as runway, highway or
railway. The lines are generally plotted in 5-decibel increments,
 with higher noise levels located nearer the noise source, and
lesser exposure levels extending away from the source.
• Non-directional Beacon (NDB):Non-Directional Beacon which
transmits a signal on which a pilot may "home" using
equipment installed in the aircraft.
• Non-Precision Instrument (NPI) Approach: A non-precision
instrument approach provides guidance to pilots following a
continuous glide path. The pilot is responsible for maintaining
altitude control between approach segments since no "vertical"
guidance is provided.
• Obstacle Clearance Surface (OCS): As defined by FAA, an
approach surface that is used in conjunction with alternative
threshold siting/clearing criteria to mitigate obstructions
within runway approach surfaces. Dimensions, slope and
placement depend on runway type and approach capabilities.
Also known as Obstacle Clearance Approach (OCA).
• Obstruction: An object such as a tree, house, road, phone pole,
etc that penetrates an imaginary surface described in FAR Part
77.
• Obstruction Chart (OC): A chart that depicts surveyed
obstructions that penetrate an FAR Part 77 imaginary surface
surrounding an airport. OC charts are developed by the
National Ocean Service (NOS) based on a comprehensive
survey that provides detailed location (latitude/longitude
coordinates) and elevation data in addition to critical airfield
data.
• Parallel Taxiway: A taxiway that is aligned parallel to a runway,
with connecting taxiways to allow efficient movement of
 aircraft between the runway and taxiway. The parallel taxiway
effectively separates taxiing aircraft from arriving and
departing aircraft located on the runway. Used to increase
runway capacity and improve safety.
• Passenger Facility Charge (PFC): A user fee charged by public
agencies controlling a commercial service airport can charge
enplaning passengers a fee facility charge. Public agencies
must apply to the FAA and meet certain requirements in order
to impose a PFC.
• Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI): A system of lights
located by the approach end of a runway that provides visual
approach slope guidance to aircraft during approach to
landing. The lights typically show green if a pilot is on the
correct flight path, and turn red of a pilot is too low.
• Precision Instrument Runway (PIR): A runway served by a
"precision" instrument approach landing system. The precision
landing systems allows property equipped airplanes and
trained pilots to land in bad weather.
• Precision Instrument Approach: A precision instrument
approach is a system which helps guide pilots in for a landing
in thick fog and provides "precise" guidance as opposed to a
non-precision approach that is less precise.
• Primary Runway: That runway which provides the best wind
coverage, etc., and receives the most usage at the airport.
• Primary Surface : One of the FAR Part 77 Imaginary Surfaces,
the primary surface is centered on top of the runway and
extends 200 feet beyond each end. The width is from 250' to
 1,000' wide depending upon the type of airplanes using the
runway.
• Procedure Turn (PT): A maneuver in which a turn is made away
from a designated track followed by a turn in an opposite
direction to permit an aircraft to intercept the track in the
opposite direction usually inbound.
• Relocated Threshold: A runway threshold or takeoff and
landing point that is located at a point other than the runway
end. Usually provided to mitigate nonstandard runway safety
area (RSA) dimensions beyond the end of a runway.
• Rigid Pavement: Typically constructed of Portland cement
concrete (PCC), consisting of a slab placed on a prepared layer
of imported materials.
• Rotorcraft: A helicopter.
• Runway: A defined area intended to accommodate aircraft
takeoff and landing. Runways may be paved with asphalt and
concrete or unpaved depending on use. Water runways are
defined takeoff and landing areas for use by seaplanes.
• Runway End Identifier Lights (REILs): These are distinctive
flashing lights that help a pilot identify the runway.
• Runway Object Free Area (OFA): A defined area surrounding a
runway that should be free of any obstructions that could in
interfere with aircraft operations. The dimensions for the OFA
increase for runways accommodating larger or faster aircraft.
• Runway Protection Zone (RPZ): An area off the end of the
runway that is intended to be clear in case an aircraft lands
short of the runway. The size is small for airports serving only
small airplanes and gets bigger for airports serving large
 airplanes. The RPZ used to be known as a clear zone which was
a good descriptive term because you wanted to keep it clear.
• Runway Safety Area (RSA): A prepared ground area
surrounding a runway that is intended to accommodate
inadvertent aircraft passage without causing damage. The
dimensions for the RSA increase for runways accommodating
larger or faster aircraft.
• Segmented Circle: A system of visual indicators designed to
show a pilot in the air the direction of the traffic pattern at that
airport.
• Small Aircraft: An aircraft that weighs less than 12,500 lbs.
• Straight-In Approach: An instrument approach that directs
aircraft to a specific runway end.
• Stop and Go: An aircraft operation where the aircraft lands and
comes to a full stop on the runway before takeoff is initiated.
• T-Hangar: A rectangular aircraft storage hangar with several
interlocking "T" units that minimizes building per storage unit.
Usually two-sided with either bi-fold or sliding doors.
• Takeoff Distance Available (TODA): The length of the take-off
run available plus the length of clearway, if available.
• Takeoff Run Available (TORA): The length of runway available
and suitable for the ground run of aircraft when taking off.
• Threshold :The beginning of that portion of a runway that is
useable for landing.
• Tiedown: A place where an aircraft is parked and "tied down."
Surface can be grass, gravel or paved.
• Touch and Go: An aircraft operation involving a landing followed
by a takeoff without the aircraft coming to a full stop or exiting
the runway.
• Traffic Pattern: The flow of traffic that is prescribed for aircraft
landing and taking off from an airport. Traffic patterns are
typically rectangular in shape, with upwind, crosswind, base
and downwind legs and a final approach surrounding a runway.
• Transitional Surfaces: One of the FAR Part 77 Imaginary
Surfaces, the transitional surface extend outward and upward
at right angles to the runway centerline and the extended
runway centerline at a slope of 7:1 from the sides of the
primary surface and from the sides of the approach surfaces.
• Transport Airport: An airport designed and constructed to
serve large commercial airliners. Portland International and
SEATAC are good examples of transport airports.
• Utility Airport: An airport designed and constructed to serve
small planes. Aurora State Airport in Oregon, Nampa Airport in
Idaho, or Arlington Airport in Washington are examples of
utility airports.
• Vertical Navigation (VNAV): Vertical navigation descent data or
descent path, typically associated with published GPS
instrument approaches. The use of any VNAV approach
technique requires operator approval, certified VNAV-capable
avionics, and flight crew training.
• Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI): A system of lights
located by the approach end of a runway which provides visual
approach slope guidance to aircraft during approach to
landing. The lights typically show some combination of green
 and white if a pilot is on the correct flight path, and turn red of
a pilot is too low.
• Visual Flight Rules (VFR): Rules that govern the procedures to
conducting flight under visual conditions. The term is also used
in the US to indicate weather conditions that are equal to or
greater than minimum VFR requirements. In addition, it is used
by pilots and controllers to indicate type of flight plan.
• Visual Guidance Indicator (VGI): Equipment designed to
provide visual guidance for pilots for landing through the use
of different color light beams. Visual Approach Slope Indicators
(VASI) and Precision Approach Path Indicators (PAPI) defined
above are examples.
• Waypoint: A specified geographical location used to define an
area navigation route or the flight path of an aircraft employing
area navigation.
• Wind Rose: A diagram indicating the prevalence of winds from
various directions in relation to existing or proposed runway
alignments.

1.4. AVIATION GEOGRAPHY

Any person wishing to work in the aviation industry needs to
develop knowledge of the location of major destinations and
airports around the world. This unit will enable learners to expand
their knowledge in relation to countries, capitals, hubs, gateways
and air travel destinations and to recognise air travel routes
through different hemispheres, International Air Transport
Association (IATA) areas and sub-areas via different global
indicators.
Learners will be introduced to the basic aviation language used
throughout the industry by referring to three letter codes, airline
codes, phonetic alphabet and other frequently used terminology.
Learners will be assessed on their ability to provide accurate and
sufficient information relating to flights including airport
information, aircraft configuration, class of service, type of fare,
rules, conditions of travel, entry and exit requirements and elapsed
flying times. Learners will have an opportunity to learn about health
issues related to air travel, health,
climate and entry and exit requirements of global destinations.
They can further investigate the effects of air travel for passengers
and crew.
1. Know worldwide geography in relation to airline
routeing
Worldwide features across airline routes:
a. major international routes across the three IATA areas and
their sub-areas
b. global features continents, hemispheres, significance of lines
of latitude and longitude, time zones, oceans
c. global indicators, e.g. routeing and impact on mileage and fare,
potential stopovers
d. political features on maps including boundaries, countries,
capital cities, hubs and major airports
e. physical features on maps i.e mountain ranges, deserts,
tundra, ice caps, major forests, seas, rivers, lakes)
2. Understand the importance of providing accurate and
relevant air travel information
 i) using aviation terminology
ii) Flying times using reference sources, e.g. atlas, Official Airline
Guides (OAG):
a. 24-hour clock
b. local time
c. time zones and international date line, e.g. USA – Eastern
Time, Pacific Time, Mountain Time,
Australia – Western Standard Time, Eastern Standard Time
a. Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and Daylight Saving Time (DST)
b. elapsed flying time
iii) Airport information using reference sources, e.g. OAG, airport
websites:
a. location
b. facilities like landside and airside
c. services, e.g. public transport, car parking
d. terminals and gates
e. hand luggage restrictions, e.g. liquids
f. IATA three-letter airport/city codes
iv) Flight information using reference sources, e.g. OAG, GDS,
airline websites:
a. aircraft type and configuration, e.g. 757, single aisle, 3 + 3
b. fare types and abbreviations, e.g. PEX, APEX
c. class of service and abbreviations, e.g. first (F), business (C),
economy (Y), premium economy
d. rules, e.g. validity, minimum stay, maximum stay
 e. conditions of travel, e.g. check-in times, baggage allowance,
unaccompanied minors, carriage of sports equipment
f. delayed or cancelled flight implications, e.g. with a scheduled
airline for a special ticket or a normal ticket, with a low-cost
carrier
g. missed flight implications, e.g. with a scheduled airline or a
low-cost carrier
h. flight codes
i. IATA codes, e.g. aircraft
j. commonly used abbreviations, e.g. ETA, STA, STD, PAX
k. common terms, e.g. priority boarding, online check in, e-
tickets, bag drop
l. use of phonetic alphabet
m. airport information for stopover or transit passengers
n. Entry and exit requirements for global destinations using
reference sources, e.g. OAG, government websites:
o. passport
p. visa and health requirements at destination
q. sources of information, e.g. government, travel industry
3. Understand how climate and health factors impact on
air passengers and crew
Climatic conditions at destinations
a. Global regions (equatorial, tropical, temperate, artic)
b. Seasonal variations, e.g. monsoon, snowfall, hurricanes, wet
and dry seasons, extreme heat, and extreme cold
 c. Influences, e.g. gulf stream, winds
Health factors at the destination
a. Specific area health warnings, e.g. malaria, cholera, typhoid,
HIV/AIDS, other epidemics
b. Precautions available, e.g. vaccination, immunisation,
pharmaceutical, not consuming local water, avoidance of heat
and sun, hygiene awareness, care when swimming in local
waters
Health factors associated with flying:
a. Jet lag (fatigue, circadian rhythms)
b. Deep vein thrombosis
c. Hypoxia
d. Dehydration
e. Effect of alcohol at altitude
f. Air quality, e.g. recirculated

1.5. GREENWICH MEAN TIME (GMT) AND TIME ZONES,

TIME CALCULATION, INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE
In 11884, the world’s major nations agreed to create a series of
standardized time zones. The world is now divided into 24 time
zones, beginning with the prime meridian Greenwich, England. The
Prime meridian is an imaginary line running through Greenwich that
connects the north and south poles. The time at Greenwich and all
other countries in this zone is called Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
and is also referred to as Universal Time Coordinated (UTC).
What is Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)?
Greenwich Mean Time or Meridian Time has been a time standard
since 1884. It was chosen because the Prime Meridian,the line of 0°
Longitude, runs through Greenwich.
Greenwich was a royal park and palace on a hill to the south of the
River Thames east of London.
In 1675 the great race to create accurate maps for navigators had
begun and Charles II offered the land to The Royal Society for
Britain’s first national observatory. Christopher Wren was
commissioned to design the domed building and John Flamsteed
was appointed the Astronomer Royal. British mapmakers began to
set Longitude from Greenwich and in 1884 it was adopted as the
international meridian or starting point.
Every 15° longitude represents one hour’s difference in time: (24 x
15 = 360, the degrees of a circle). You can work out the time at
every location on earth if you know how many degrees it is east or
west of Greenwich.
Where is Greenwich, England ?
Longitude 0° 0’ 0”
Latitude 51° 28’ 38”N ,North of the Equator.
Greenwich Mean Time is international time, the basis of the world
time clock. It defines date and time and the exact time.
UTC and GMT an update
The worldwide standard for coordinated universal time, formerly
known as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), is now abbreviated as
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).
Some sources still refer to it as UTC/GMT.
World Time Zones
Figure 1: World zone

International Date Line

The International Date Line (IDL) is an imaginary line of longitude
on the Earth’s surface located at about 180 degrees east (or west)
of the Greenwich Meridian.
While the world is divided into 24 time zones, there has to be a
place where there is a difference in days, somewhere the day truly
“starts” on the planet. Thus, the 180° line of longitude, exactly
one-half way around the planet from Greenwich, England (and 0°
longitude) is approximately where the International Date Line is
located. Cross the line from the east to the west and a day is added.
Cross from west to the east and a day is subtracted.
Figure 2: The globe indicating IDL and GMT

International Date Line (IDL), opposite Prime (Greenwich) meridian,

which marks change of date.
Source:
http://geography.about.com/od/physicalgeography/a/idl.htm
Figure 3: World clock
Source: http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/timepiece/world-clock/

1.6. AIRCRAFT FAMILIARIZATION: AIRCRAFT LAYOUT

Figure 4: aircraft familiarization and aircraft layout
Figure 5: Aircraft layout
Figure 6: On board oxygen system
Figure 7: Danger Areas
1.7. WORLD AIRPORT CODES AND AIRLINE CODES
AIRPORT 3-LETTER CODES
The International Air Transport Association’s (IATA) Location
Identifier, a unique 3-letter code, is used in aviation to identify
mainly locations of airports throughout the world.
TC I SUB AREA 1
Country City City Code
Greenland Nuuk GOH
Canada (11 Major cities)
Vancouver YVR
Montreal YMQ
Ottawa YOW
Toronto YTO
Edmonten YEA
Calgary YYC
Regine YRG
Winnipeg YWG
Halifax YHZ
St John YYT
Quebec YQB
Alaska Anchorage ANU

USA (25 Major cities)

Detroit DDT
Chicago CHI
Boston BOS
New York NYC
Washington WAS
San Francisco SFO
Los Angeles LAX
Dallas DAL
Atlanta ATL
 Miami MIA
Seattle SEA
Phoenix PHX
Las Vegas LAS
Boise BOI
Salt lake city SLC
Denver DEN
New orlando MCO
Philadelphia PHL
Pittsburgh PIT
Cincinnati CVG
Indiana polis IND
Minneapolis MSP
St Louis STL
New Orleans MSY
Houston HOU
3. Hawaiian island Honolulu HNL
4. Mexico 3 Major cities Mexico city MEX
Acapulco ACA
Guadalajara GDL
5. Puerto Rico and the virgin islands san Juan SJU
6. St Pierre and the Miquelon

Sub area 2 Mild Atlantic 15 countries

Belize Belmopan BCV
Guatemala Guatemala city GUA
El Salvador San Salvador SAL
Honduras Tegucigalpa TGU
Nicaragua Managua MGA
Costa Rica San Jose SJO
Panama Panama city PTY
Colombia Bogotá BOG
Venezuela Caracas CCS
Guyana St George GEO
Surname Paramaribo PBM
French Guiana cayenne CAY
Ecuador Quito UIO
Guayaquil GYE
Peru Lima LIM
Bolivia Lapaz LPB

Sub area 3
Argentina Buenos Aires BUE
Brazil Brasilia BSB
Sao Paulo SAO
Rio De Janeiro RIO
Recife REC
Chile Santiago De Chile SCL
Paraguay Asuncion ASU
Uruguay Montevideo MVD

2. CARRIBEAN ISLANDS
Anguilla
Antigua And Barbuda St Johns ANU
Aruba
Bahamas Nassau NAS
Barbados Bridge Town BGI
Bermuda Hamilton BDA
Cuba Havana HAV
Cayman Islands
Dominica Roseau DOM
Dominican Republic Santo Domingo SDQ
French Guyana
Guadeloupe
Grenada St George’s GND
Haiti Port Au Prince PAP
Jamaica Kingston KIN
Monte Serret
Martinique
Netherland Antilles
St Kits And Nevis Basseterre SKB
St Lucia Castries SLU
Trinidad And Tobago Port Of Spain POS
St Vincent And The Grenadines Kingstown SVD
Turks And Cairos islands
The Virgins Island British (UK)

TRAFFIC CONFERENCE II
Sub area 1 : EUROPE 46 COUNTRIES
Norway Oslo OSL
Sweeden Stock Holm STO
Danmark Copen Hagen CPH
Finland Helsinki HEL
Russia Moscow MOW
St peterbough LED
Estonia Tallin TLL
Lativia Riga RIX
Lithuania Vilnius VNO
Beralus Minsk MSQ
Ukraine Kiev IEV
Moldova Chisinau KIV
Romania Bucharest BUH
Bulgaria Sofia SOF
Turkey Istambul IST
Ankara ANK

Greece Athens ATH

Thessaloniki SKG
Cyprus Nicosia NIC
Larnaca LCA
Iceland Reykjavik REK
Ireland Dublin DUB
UNITED KINGDOM London LON
Birmingham BHX
Manchester MAN
Edinburg EDI
Glasgow GLA
Belfast BFS
Portugal Lisbon LIS
Oporto OPO
Faro FAO
Spain Madrid MAD
Malaga AGP
Barcelona BCN

France Paris PAR

Lyon LYS
Marseilles MRS
Nice NCE
Luxembourg Luxembourg LUX
Belgium Brussels BRU
Antwerp ANR
Netherland Amsterdam AMS
Rotterdam RTM
Germany Berlin BER
Hamburg HAM
Dusseldorf DUS
Frankfurt FRA
Munich MUC
Poland Warsaw WAW
Italy Rome ROM
Milan MIL
Venice VCE
Naples NAP
Switzerland Berne BRN
Geneva GVA
Zurich ZRH
Austria Vienna VIE
Innsbruck INN
Czeck republic Prague PRG
Slovakia Bratislava BTS
Slovenia Ljubljana LJU
Hungary Budapest BUD
Serbia Belgrade BEG
Kosovo pristine PTN
Macedonia Skopje SKP
Albania Tirana TIA
Montenegro podgorico TGD
Bosnia Sarajevo SJJ
Croatia Zagreb CRZ
Malta Valletta MLA
Tunisia Tunis TUN
Algeria Algiers ALG
Morocco Casablanca CAS
Rabat RBA
Marrakesh RAK
Gibraltar Gibraltar GIB
Andorra
Monaco
San Marino
Liechtenstein
Sub area 2 Middle East
Yemen Sanaa SAA
Oman Muscat MCT
Qatar Doha DOH
Egypt Cairo CAI
Alexandria ALY
Saudi Arabia Riyadh RUH
 Jeddhah JED

UAE Dubai DXB

Abudhabi AUH
Sharajah SHJ
Sudan Khartoum KRT
Israel Jerusalem JRS
Tel Aviv TLV
Syria Damascus DAM
Bahrain Manama HAH
Iraq Baghdad BGW
Iran Tehran THR
Kuwait Kuwait KWT
Jordan Amman AMM
Lebanon Beirut BEY
SUB AREA 3 AFRICA
EASTERN AFRICA
Rwanda Kigali KGL
Eritrea Asmara ASM
Djibouti Djibouti JIB
Ethiopia Addis Ababa ADD
Kenya Nairobi NBO
Mombasa MBA
Uganda Entebbe EBB
Burundi Bujumbura BJM
Tanzania Dodoma DOD
Dal-es-salaam DAR
Southern Africa
Mozambique Maputo MPM
Swaziland Mbabane MTS
Lesotho Maseru MSU
South Africa Pretoria PRY
Johannesburg JNB
Cape Town CPT
Botswana Gaborone GBE
Namibia Windnock WDH
Angola Luanda LAD

Central Africa
Zambia Lusaka LUN
Zimbabwe Harare HRE
Malawi Lilongwe LLW
Western Africa Western Sahara
Mauritania Nouakchott NKC
Mali Bamako BKO
Niger Niamey NIM
Chad Ndjamena NDJ
Nigeria Abuja ABV
Logos LOS
Central Africa republic Bangwi BGF
RD Congo Kinshasa FIH
Brazzaville BZV
Gabon Libreville LBV
Cameroon Yaoundé YAO
Douala DLA
Equatorial guinea Malabo SSG
Benin Cotonou COO
Togo Rome LFW
Ghana Accra ACC
Ivory Coast Yamoussoukro ASK
Abidjan ABJ
Burkinafaso Ouagadougou OUA
Liberia Monrovia MLW
Sierra Leone Freetown FNA
Guinea Conakry CKY
Guinea Bissau Bissau
Gambia Banjul BJL
Senegal Dakar DKR
Sao Tome Principe Sao Tome TMS
Indian ocean islands Seychelles Victoria
Comoros
Mayotte
Re- union
Mauritius Port Louis MRU
Madagascar Antananarivo TNR
Libya Tripoli TIP
TRAFFIC CONFERENCE III
Sub area 1 South East Asia
Mongolia Ulan Batar ULN
Kazakhstan Astana TSE
Almaty ALA
Uzbekistan Tashkent TAS
Kyrgyzstan Bishkek FRU
Tajikistan Dushambe DYU
Twikmenistan Ashgabat ASB
Georgia Tibilisi TBS
Armenia Yerevan EVN
Azerbaijan Baku BAK
China Beijing BJS
Shanghai SHA
Hong Kong Hong Kong HKG
Taiwan Chinese Taiper TPE
Brunei Bandar Seri Begawan BWN
Cambodia Phnom Penh PNH
Timor Leste Dili DIL
Indonesia Jakarta JKT
Laos Vientiane VTE
Malaysia Kualalumpur KUL
Singapore Singapore SIN
Russia East Of The Arabs Khabarov Sk KHV
Philippines Manila MNL
Thailand Bangkok BKK
Vietnam Hanoi HAN
Ho Chimink City SGN
Myanmar Yangon RGN
Sub area 2 south Asian sub- continents
Afghanistan Kabul KBL
Pakistan Islamabad ISB
Karachi KHI
Nepal Katmandu KTM
Bhutan Paro PBH
Maldives Male MLE
Srilanka Colombo CMB
Bangladesh Dhaka DAC
India Delhi DEL
Mumbai BOM
Chennai MAA
Kolkata CCU
Hyderabad HYD
Sub Area 3 JAPAN AND KOREA
North Korea Pyongyang FNJ
South Korea Seoul SEL
Japan Tokyo TYO
Osaka OSA
Nagoya NGO
Sub Are 4 South West Pacific
Palau Koror ROR
Papua New Guinea Port Moresby POM
Australia Canberra CBR
Sydney SYD
Perth PER
Darwin DRW
Melbourne MEL
Brisbane BNE
Adelaide ADL
Tasmania Hobart HBA
New Zealand Wellington WLG
Christ Church CHC
Auckland AKL
Marshall Islands Majuro MAJ
Northern Mariana Islands
Micronesia
Salomon Islands Honiara HIR
New Caledonia Noumea NOU
Vanuatu Pot Vila VLI
Tuvalu Funafuti FUN
Fiji Islands Suva SUV
Nadi NAN
Nauru Yeren INU
Tonga Nuuk Alofa TBU
French Polynesia Papute PPT
Cook Islands
Samoa Apia APW
American Samoa Fagatogo PPG
Kiribati Tarawa TRW
Wallis Futana Mata’ Utu FUT

1.8. AIRLINES CODE/AIRLINE DESIGNATORS

IATA airline designators, sometimes called IATA reservation codes,
are two-character codes assigned by the International Air
Transport Association (IATA) to the world’s airlines. The following
are some codes of airlines.
AIRLINE NAME CODE AIRLINE NAME CODE
Alaska Airlines AS Midwest Express YX
Aloha Air AQ Northwest Airlines NW
America West Airlines HP Southwest Airlines WN
American Airlines AA Tower Air FF
Air One AP Trans World Airlines TW
Continental Airlines CO United Airlines UA
Delta Air Lines DL US Airways US
Hawaiian Airlines HA AirTran FL

US Airlines
Country Code Airline Name
Argentina AR Aerolineas
Aruba FQ Air Aruba
Australia QF Qantas Airways
Austria OS Austrian Airlines
Belgium SN Sabena World
Brazil RG Varig Airlines
Canada AC Air Canada
Chile UC Ladeco
Chile LA Lan Chile Airlines
China CI China Airlines
Columbia AV Avianca
Costa Rica LR Lacsa Airlines
Dominican Rep. DO Air Valee
Ecuador EU Ecuatoriana
England BA British Airways
Finland AY Finnair
France AF Air France
Guadeloupe OG Go Fly Ltd.
Germany LH Lufthansa
Greece OA Olympic Airways
Guatamala GU Aviateca
Holland MP Martinair Holland

India AI Air India

Indonesia GA Garuda Indonesian Airways
Ireland EI Aer Lingus
Israel LY El Al Israel Airlines
Italy AZ Alitalia
Jamaica JM Air Jamaica
Japan NH All Nippon Airways
Japan JL Japan Airlines
Jordan RJ Royal Jordanian Airlines
Korea KE Korean Air
Mexico AM Aeromexico
Mexico MX Mexicana Airlines
New Zealand NZ Air New Zealand
Peru PL Aero Peru
Philippine Is. PR Philippine Air Lines
Poland LO Lot Polish Airlines
Russia SU Aeroflot
Singapore SQ Singapore Airlines
Spain IB Iberia
Switzerland SR Swissair
Thailand TG Thai Airways

Table 1: Codes of some airlines

Source: http://www.tvlon.com/resources/airlinecodes.htm

1.9. AIRPORT FAMILIARIZATION

Concentrations of buildings on the airport consist of the core or
Domestic Terminal Complex, International Terminal Complex, the
Hangar Alley , the cargo area , the Airport Maintenance Complex
(AMC) and Ramp.
The airport is also divided into landside operations and airside
operations. The landside portion includes all terminal areas and
access roads. The security checkpoints referred to as “Guard
posts” provide access to the airside portion, where all air traffic
movements take place.
GATES
i) Operating Procedures
Each airport has its own operating procedures, hazards, and one
might even say, personality. Some gliderports are isolated grass
strips with very little traffic, while others are busy airports with
traffic ranging from jets to ultralights. Before flying at any site, you
should familiarize yourself with it by studying maps, written
operating procedures, and the Airport/Facilities Directory and by
speaking with the local pilots and gliderport staff.
Some questions that you should ask include:
1. Where gliders should be parked when they are not in use?
2. Where should the glider stop after landing?
3. Where the glider should be positioned for takeoff?
4. What signals are used before takeoff? On tow?
5. What type of traffic is typical in the area?
Remember that there may be hazards unknown to you that the
locals are aware of. It never hurts to ask.
ii) Airport Markings
Airport surfaces are marked such that it is clear which areas are
used for which purposes. In particular, this helps to keep taxiing
aircraft safely separated from arriving and departing traffic.
Runway Designations
The numbers on the end of a runway indicate the magnetic heading
from the approach direction, to the nearest ten degrees, with the
trailing zero dropped.
For example, a runway on a magnetic heading of 300 would be
labeled 30. The other end of the runway, which would be on a
heading of 120, would be labeled 12.
If two runways are side by side, they will be labeled with a trailing L
or R, designating left or right. If there are three runways, the center
runway will be labeled C.
Figure 8: Runway designators

In the figure above drown above, runways 1L and 1R are on a

magnetic heading of 10. Runways 19L and 19R are on a heading of
190. Runway 9 heads directly east (90), and 27 directly west (270).
The center of the runway is marked by a dashed white line. Runway
markings are always in white, while taxiway markings are in yellow.
Do not land on a “runway” that has a solid yellow line down its
middle!
Segmented Circle
The standard direction for an airport traffic pattern is to the left.
However, at some airports the pattern direction may be
nonstandard due to terrain, obstructions, or noise abatement
considerations. The segmented circle is used to communicate to
the pilot what the pattern direction is for each runway at the
airport. The segmented circle is usually found near the center of the
airport, with a windsock or active runway indicator at its center. The
“legs” of the circle indicate how the base and final legs of the
pattern should be flown.

Figure 9: The segmented circle shown indicates a left pattern for runway 27 and a right
pattern for runway 9.

If the segmented circle has no “legs”, then left patterns should be

flown for all runways.
Wind/Active Runway Indicators
Every airport is required to have at least one wind or active runway
indicator. Usually, this will mean a windsock. Most windsocks are
calibrated so that they stand out straight at a wind speed of 13
knots.

Figure 10: Wind/active runway indicators

Some airports will also have an active runway indicator, which can
be either a tetrahedron, or a wind tee. These devices can be free
rotating, so that they point into the wind, or they can be set by
airport personnel so that they point down the active runway.
It is not better to assume that the direction which the tetrahedron
or wind tee is pointing in is necessarily the direction which the wind
is coming from.
Closed Runway
A closed runway is marked by a large “X” on each end of the
runway.

Figure 11: Closed runway marking

Runways can be closed because they are abandoned or because

construction or other activities make the runway unsafe to use.
Displaced Threshold
An arrow in front of the solid line under a runway number indicates
a displaced threshold. Taxiing and taking off are permitted in the
area marked by the arrows; however, landing is not.
Figure 12: Displaced threshold

A displaced threshold may be put in place when the pavement in

that area is not strong enough to support the force of landing
traffic. It may also be applied to keep landing traffic high enough to
clear obstacles when approaching the runway.
Taxiway Lines
Taxiway centerlines are solid yellow. The boundaries of the taxiway
may be marked by either a solid or dashed yellow double line. If the
double line is solid, the area outside of the taxiway is not to be used
by aircraft. If the double line is dashed, the area may be used by
aircraft.
Figure 13: Taxiway markings (yellow)

The edge of the taxiway pavement will often be unmarked.

Hold Short Marking
A hold short marking indicates where to stop on a taxiway before
entering a runway. The mark consists of four yellow lines: two
dashed, two solid. The solid lines are on the side where the aircraft
must stop. A person should not cross a hold short marking unless
he/she has clearance at a controlled airport, or has made sure that
he or she has adequate separation from other aircraft at an
uncontrolled airport.
Figure 14: Hold short marking. You must hold short when approaching from the side of the
solid lines.

For gliders, this means that you should not pull a glider across the
lines onto the runway unless you have verified that no one is
landing or taking off on that runway.
Chevrons
Chevrons painted on the pavement indicate an area that may not be
used for taxiing, takeoff, or landing.

Figure 15: Chevrons indicate pavement that should not be used for taxiing, takeoff, or
landing.
The pavement marked by chevrons may be un-reinforced, unstable,
damaged, or otherwise unsuitable for use.
Taxiway Signs
Taxiways are designated by a letter. The taxiway sign consists of a
yellow letter on a black background.

Figure 16: Taxiway Signs

Taxiway signs are placed near all intersections of taxiways, and

taxiways and runways.
Runway Holding Position Signs
This sign is located next to the hold short line where a taxiway
crosses or enters a runway, or where one runway crosses another.
The sign consists of white numbers on a red background. The
numbers correspond to the runway designators.

1.10. TRAVEL DOCUMENTS,CUSTOMS & CURRENCIES

For passengers to travel internationally, they need the below valid
documentations.
10.1. Types of passports
• Passport: A passport is an official identity issued to the holder
by government for international travel purposes. The
 passenger’s passport should be valid at least for 6 months
before commencing the journey
Types of Passports
The types passport currently issued are outlined as below:
Normal Passport: Most countries issue this type of normal
passports to its citizens.
Alien’s Passport: This type of passport may be issued to individuals
living in a country, even though they are not citizens of that
country.
Children’s Identity Card: This passport is issued to minor children
who have not reached a specified minimum age. For example; the
German “Kinderausweis”. Sme countries accept these types of
passports on grounds of bilateral agreements between
governments but not all countries may not recognize it.
Diplomatic or Consular passport: Issued to diplomatic , consular
and other government officials on missions entitling the bearer to
diplomatic or consular status under international law and custom.
Official, Special or Service Passports: These passports are issued
to government officials or other persons on government missions.
The type of passport has to be specified by the issuing Authority.
• Visa: Visitor’s Intention to Stay Abroad (VISA). “Visa is an
entry in a passport or other travel document made by an
Official og government, indicating that the bearer has been
granted authority to enter or re-enter the country concerned. A
visa usually specifies the authorized length of stay, the period
of validity and the number of entries allowed during that
period”.
10.2. Types of Visa
 1. Visitor Visa: It is also referred to entry permit, entry visa,
business visa or travel pass. It provides right of entry to another
country, subject to satisfying immigration authorities at the
point of entry.
2. Transit visa: It is meant to provide the right of entry into
another country purely for the purpose of making travel
connections onward to a third country. Regulations related to
transit vary from country to country and should be checked.
3. Transit without visa: Many countries have made agreements
that allow other (TWOV) nationals to transit their country
without the need to obtain a visa for a limited time span.
4. Schengen visa: To enable people to travel more freely, some
European countries created a borderless region called the
“Schengen Area”. Within this Schengen Area travelers can travel
freely from one Schengen country to another Schengen country
without any border controls for passports and visas, eliminating
immigration controls for travel within and between these
countries. Traveler documents are not checked when travelling
between Schengen countries.
5. Other types of visa include:
• Confirmed Airline Ticket
For the issue of Customs and Currencies, there are a number of
regulations respecting the means of determining the equivalent
dollar value of currencies of other Countries for the Purpose of
computing the value for duty for customs purposes.
10.3. Currencies
Country or territory Currency ISO-4217
A
Country or territory Currency ISO-4217
Afghanistan Afghan afghani AFN
Akrotiri and Dhekelia (UK) European euro EUR
Aland Islands (Finland) European euro EUR
Albania Albanian lek ALL
Algeria Algerian dinar DZD
American Samoa (USA) United States dollar USD
Andorra European euro EUR
Angola Angolan kwanza AOA
Anguilla (UK) East Caribbean dollar XCD
Antigua and Barbuda East Caribbean dollar XCD
Argentina Argentine peso ARS
Armenia Armenian dram AMD
Aruba (Netherlands) Aruban florin AWG
Ascension Island (UK) Saint Helena pound SHP
Australia Australian dollar AUD
Austria European euro EUR
Azerbaijan Azerbaijani manat AZN
B
Bahamas Bahamian dollar BSD
Bahrain Bahraini dinar BHD
Bangladesh Bangladeshi taka BDT
Barbados Barbadian dollar BBD
Belarus Belarusian ruble BYN
Belgium European euro EUR
Belize Belize dollar BZD
Benin West African CFA franc XOF
Bermuda (UK) Bermudian dollar BMD
Bhutan Bhutanese ngultrum BTN
Bolivia Bolivian boliviano BOB
Country or territory Currency ISO-4217
Bonaire (Netherlands) United States dollar USD
Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark BAM
Botswana Botswana pula BWP
Brazil Brazilian real BRL
British Indian Ocean Territory (UK) United States dollar USD
British Virgin Islands (UK) United States dollar USD
Brunei Brunei dollar BND
Bulgaria Bulgarian lev BGN
Burkina Faso West African CFA franc XOF
Burundi Burundi franc BIF
C
Cabo Verde Cape Verdean escudo CVE
Cambodia Cambodian riel KHR
Cameroon Central African CFA franc XAF
Canada Canadian dollar CAD
Caribbean Netherlands (Netherlands) United States dollar USD
Cayman Islands (UK) Cayman Islands dollar KYD
Central African Republic Central African CFA franc XAF
Chad Central African CFA franc XAF
Chile Chilean peso CLP
China Chinese Yuan Renminbi CNY
Christmas Island (Australia) Australian dollar AUD
Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Australia) Australian dollar AUD
Colombia Colombian peso COP
Comoros Comorian franc KMF
Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congolese franc CDF
Congo, Republic of the Central African CFA franc XAF
Cook Islands (New Zealand) Cook Islands dollar none
Costa Rica Costa Rican colon CRC
Country or territory Currency ISO-4217
Cote d’Ivoire West African CFA franc XOF
Croatia Croatian kuna HRK
Cuba Cuban peso CUP
Curacao (Netherlands) Netherlands Antillean guilder ANG
Cyprus European euro EUR
Czech Republic Czech koruna CZK
D
Denmark Danish krone DKK
Djibouti Djiboutian franc DJF
Dominica East Caribbean dollar XCD
Dominican Republic Dominican peso DOP
E
Ecuador United States dollar USD
Egypt Egyptian pound EGP
El Salvador United States dollar USD
Equatorial Guinea Central African CFA franc XAF
Eritrea Eritrean nakfa ERN
Estonia European euro EUR
Ethiopia Ethiopian birr ETB
F
Falkland Islands (UK) Falkland Islands pound FKP
Faroe Islands (Denmark) Faroese krona none
Fiji Fijian dollar FJD
Finland European euro EUR
France European euro EUR
French Guiana (France) European euro EUR
French Polynesia (France) CFP franc XPF
G
Gabon Central African CFA franc XAF
Country or territory Currency ISO-4217
Gambia Gambian dalasi GMD
Georgia Georgian lari GEL
Germany European euro EUR
Ghana Ghanaian cedi GHS
Gibraltar (UK) Gibraltar pound GIP
Greece European euro EUR
Greenland (Denmark) Danish krone DKK
Grenada East Caribbean dollar XCD
Guadeloupe (France) European euro EUR
Guam (USA) United States dollar USD
Guatemala Guatemalan quetzal GTQ
Guernsey (UK) Guernsey Pound GGP
Guinea Guinean franc GNF
Guinea-Bissau West African CFA franc XOF
Guyana Guyanese dollar GYD
H
Haiti Haitian gourde HTG
Honduras Honduran lempira HNL
Hong Kong (China) Hong Kong dollar HKD
Hungary Hungarian forint HUF
I
Iceland Icelandic krona ISK
India Indian rupee INR
Indonesia Indonesian rupiah IDR
International Monetary Fund (IMF) SDR (Special Drawing Right) XDR
Iran Iranian rial IRR
Iraq Iraqi dinar IQD
Ireland European euro EUR
Isle of Man (UK) Manx pound IMP
Country or territory Currency ISO-4217
Israel Israeli new shekel ILS
Italy European euro EUR
J
Jamaica Jamaican dollar JMD
Japan Japanese yen JPY
Jersey (UK) Jersey pound JEP
Jordan Jordanian dinar JOD
K
Kazakhstan Kazakhstani tenge KZT
Kenya Kenyan shilling KES
Kiribati Australian dollar AUD
Kosovo European euro EUR
Kuwait Kuwaiti dinar KWD
Kyrgyzstan Kyrgyzstani som KGS
L
Laos Lao kip LAK
Latvia European euro EUR
Lebanon Lebanese pound LBP
Lesotho Lesotho loti LSL
Liberia Liberian dollar LRD
Libya Libyan dinar LYD
Liechtenstein Swiss franc CHF
Lithuania European euro EUR
Luxembourg European euro EUR
M
Macau (China) Macanese pataca MOP
Macedonia Macedonian denar MKD
Madagascar Malagasy ariary MGA
Malawi Malawian kwacha MWK
Country or territory Currency ISO-4217
Malaysia Malaysian ringgit MYR
Maldives Maldivian rufiyaa MVR
Mali West African CFA franc XOF
Malta European euro EUR
Marshall Islands United States dollar USD
Martinique (France) European euro EUR
Mauritania Mauritanian ouguiya MRO
Mauritius Mauritian rupee MUR
Mayotte (France) European euro EUR
Mexico Mexican peso MXN
Micronesia United States dollar USD
Moldova Moldovan leu MDL
Monaco European euro EUR
Mongolia Mongolian tugrik MNT
Montenegro European euro EUR
Montserrat (UK) East Caribbean dollar XCD
Morocco Moroccan dirham MAD
Mozambique Mozambican metical MZN
Myanmar (Burma) Myanmar kyat MMK
N
Namibia Namibian dollar NAD
Nauru Australian dollar AUD
Nepal Nepalese rupee NPR
Netherlands European euro EUR
New Caledonia (France) CFP franc XPF
New Zealand New Zealand dollar NZD
Nicaragua Nicaraguan cordoba NIO
Niger West African CFA franc XOF
Nigeria Nigerian naira NGN
Country or territory Currency ISO-4217
Niue (New Zealand) New Zealand dollar NZD
Norfolk Island (Australia) Australian dollar AUD
Northern Mariana Islands (USA) United States dollar USD
North Korea North Korean won KPW
Norway Norwegian krone NOK
O
Oman Omani rial OMR
P
Pakistan Pakistani rupee PKR
Palau United States dollar USD
Palestine Israeli new shekel ILS
Panama United States dollar USD
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinean kina PGK
Paraguay Paraguayan guarani PYG
Peru Peruvian sol PEN
Philippines Philippine peso PHP
Pitcairn Islands (UK) New Zealand dollar NZD
Poland Polish zloty PLN
Portugal European euro EUR
Puerto Rico (USA) United States dollar USD
Q
Qatar Qatari riyal QAR
R
Reunion (France) European euro EUR
Romania Romanian leu RON
Russia Russian ruble RUB
Rwanda Rwandan franc RWF
S
Saba (Netherlands) United States dollar USD
Country or territory Currency ISO-4217
Saint Barthelemy (France) European euro EUR
Saint Helena (UK) Saint Helena pound SHP
Saint Kitts and Nevis East Caribbean dollar XCD
Saint Lucia East Caribbean dollar XCD
Saint Martin (France) European euro EUR
Saint Pierre and Miquelon (France) European euro EUR
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines East Caribbean dollar XCD
Samoa Samoan tala WST
San Marino European euro EUR
Sao Tome and Principe Sao Tome and Principe dobra STD
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabian riyal SAR
Senegal West African CFA franc XOF
Serbia Serbian dinar RSD
Seychelles Seychellois rupee SCR
Sierra Leone Sierra Leonean leone SLL
Singapore Singapore dollar SGD
Sint Eustatius (Netherlands) United States dollar USD
Sint Maarten (Netherlands) Netherlands Antillean guilder ANG
Slovakia European euro EUR
Slovenia European euro EUR
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands dollar SBD
Somalia Somali shilling SOS
South Africa South African rand ZAR
South Georgia Island (UK) Pound sterling GBP
South Korea South Korean won KRW
South Sudan South Sudanese pound SSP
Spain European euro EUR
Sri Lanka Sri Lankan rupee LKR
Sudan Sudanese pound SDG
Country or territory Currency ISO-4217
Suriname Surinamese dollar SRD
Svalbard and Jan Mayen (Norway) Norwegian krone NOK
Swaziland Swazi lilangeni SZL
Sweden Swedish krona SEK
Switzerland Swiss franc CHF
Syria Syrian pound SYP
T
Taiwan New Taiwan dollar TWD
Tajikistan Tajikistani somoni TJS
Tanzania Tanzanian shilling TZS
Thailand Thai baht THB
Timor-Leste United States dollar USD
Togo West African CFA franc XOF
Tokelau (New Zealand) New Zealand dollar NZD
Tonga Tongan pa’anga TOP
Trinidad and Tobago Trinidad and Tobago dollar TTD
Tristan da Cunha (UK) Pound sterling GBP
Tunisia Tunisian dinar TND
Turkey Turkish lira TRY
Turkmenistan Turkmen manat TMT
Turks and Caicos Islands (UK) United States dollar USD
Tuvalu Australian dollar AUD
U
Uganda Ugandan shilling UGX
Ukraine Ukrainian hryvnia UAH
United Arab Emirates UAE dirham AED
United Kingdom Pound sterling GBP
United States of America United States dollar USD
Uruguay Uruguayan peso UYU
 Country or territory Currency ISO-4217
US Virgin Islands (USA) United States dollar USD
Uzbekistan Uzbekistani som UZS
V
Vanuatu Vanuatu vatu VUV
Vatican City (Holy See) European euro EUR
Venezuela Venezuelan bolivar VEF
Vietnam Vietnamese dong VND
W
Wake Island (USA) United States dollar USD
Wallis and Futuna (France) CFP franc XPF
Y
Yemen Yemeni rial YER
Z
Zambia Zambian kwacha ZMW
Zimbabwe United States dollar USD

Table 2: Currencies of countries

Source : https://www.countries-ofthe-world.com/world-currencies.html

11. PHONETIC CODES : International Phonetic Alphabet

Letter and numeral pronunciation can be so easily misunderstood
(such as hearing an “S” for an “F” or a “B” for a “D”). Because of
that, letters and numerals in aviation are spoken using the
International Phonetic Alphabet. This alphabet substitutes an entire
word to represent one letter. The first letter of the word is the letter
of the alphabet it represents as showcased in the following table:
A - Alpha ( al - fah) N - November (no - vem - ber)

B - Bravo (brah - voh) O - Oscar (oss - car)

C - Charlie (char - lee) P - Papa (pah - pah)
 A - Alpha ( al - fah) N - November (no - vem - ber)
D - Delta (dell - tah) Q - Quebec (keh - beck)
E - Echo (eck - oh) R - Romeo (roh - me - oh)

F - Foxtrot (foks - trot) S - Sierra (see - air - ah)

G - Golf (golf) T - Tango (tang - go)

H - Hotel (hoh - tell) U - Uniform (you - nee - form)

I - India (in - dee - ah) V - Victor (vik - tor)

J - Juliet (jew - lee- ett) W - Whiskey (wiss - key)

K - Kilo (key - loh) X - X ray (ecks - ray)

L - Lima (lee - mah) Y - Yankee (yang - key)

M - Mike (mike) Z - Zulu (zoo - loo)

Table 3: International Phonetic Alphabet

Aviation has its own unique vocabulary, phraseology, and

acronyms. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is
the controlling agency for worldwide aviation activities. To avoid
miscommunications in a worldwide air transportation system, ICAO
chose English as the official language of aviation.
Everything pertaining to aviation is controlled and approved by the
ICAO. Radio frequencies, runway light colours, runway and taxiway
markings, airport and airway identifiers, and navigation aids are
ICAO approved.
 Chapter 2
Cabin Crew

The primary role of a flight attendant is to ensure passenger safety.

In addition to this, flight attendants are often tasked with customer
service duties such as serving meals and drinks, as a secondary
responsibility.
The number of flight attendants required on flights is mandated by
international safety regulations. For planes with up to 19 passenger
seats, no flight attendant is needed. For larger planes, one flight
attendant per 50 passenger seats is needed.
The majority of flight attendants for most airlines are female,
though a substantial number of males have entered the industry
since 1980.

2.1. INTRODUCTION TO THE CABIN CREW PROFESSION

The role of a flight attendant derives from that of similar positions
on passenger ships or passenger trains, but it has more direct
involvement with passengers because of the confined quarters on
aircraft. Additionally, the job of a flight attendant revolves around
safety to a much greater extent than those of similar staff on other
forms of transportation. Flight attendants on board a flight
collectively form a cabin crew, as distinguished from pilots and
engineers in the cockpit.
Origins of the word “steward” in transportation are reflected in the
term “chief steward” as used in maritime transport terminology.
The term purser and chief steward are often used interchangeably
describing personnel with similar duties among seafaring
occupations. This lingual derivation results from the international
British maritime tradition i.e. chief mate dating back to the 14th
century and the civilian United States Merchant Marine on which US
aviation is somewhat modelled. Due to international conventions
and agreements, in which all ships’ personnel who sail
internationally are similarly documented by their respective
countries, the U.S. Merchant Marine assigns such duties to the chief
steward in the overall rank and command structure of which
pursers are not positionally represented or rostered.

2.2. HISTORY AND ORIGIN OF CABIN CREW

It is better known that the job of a cabin crew member, flight
attendant or air steward is a much desired one and the dream of
many! The actual definition of the role is that cabin crew are there
for the safety and well- being of the passengers as well as each
other, writes Patricia Green. Safety is the top priority with service
being the second.
You can be cabin crew for an airline, a private jet or sometimes in
the military. The origins of the ‘flight attendant’ or ‘air steward’ title
is thought to have come from the maritime world and today is still
seen in the airline career ladder in roles such as ‘purser’ or ‘chief
steward’. But where did it all begin? Here we take a look as below:
1920s, 1930s, 1940s
The first cabin crew member was reportedly Heinrich Kubis in 1912,
who worked on a German Zeppelin. In the 1920’s Imperial Airways
in the UK started to recruit cabin boys who could load luggage and
reassure the passengers. In 1929, Pan Am in the USA were the first
to have ‘stewards’ who served food. However, in the 1930’s Boeing
Air Transport and registered nurse Ellen Church devised a scheme
where nurses were hired for 3 months at a time to travel on-board
and look after the passengers. During World War II, many of the
nurses were enlisted into the armed forces, therefore the nursing
requirement for ‘flight attendants’ changed.
1950s and 1960s
Through the 50’s and 60’s, being a flight attendant was seen as a
very elite profession but conditions were very strict – unmarried
females only were accepted and overall appearance was very
important. If you wanted to get married, you would have to give up
your job. The uniforms were form fitting and often with hats, high
heels and white gloves, so a certain glamorous reputation was
always perceived.
1970s and beyond
Things started to change again in the 1970’s with the start of
unions and equal rights between men and women. Ironically more
man joined the profession during these times and it is seen less as
just a female role.
Nowadays, although appearance is still an important factor as cabin
crew are the face of the airline, rules are less restrictive regards age
and height/weight restrictions with weight being in proportion to
height, being the general model. Tattoos that are visible are mostly
unacceptable as airlines still want to keep a very prestigious image.
Grooming standards and personal presentation are still very
important and expected to remain at all times. Uniforms are
designed not only to be durable and stylish (often top designers are
hired) but to inspire confidence for the passengers, a long way from
the original nurses uniforms of the 1930s!
Post 9/11
Since 9/11 and tougher safety regulations, it is a more difficult job
than it used to be and our role has become more challenging but
the skills you learn you will appreciate for life… Unfortunately, the
recent recession has called for many airlines to close down and
contracts are often short term but the industry is struggling to find
its feet again. Competition for every cabin crew job is fierce and it is
still one of the most difficult jobs to get!
However, it is still an amazing job to do if you get the chance and
you will never regret the experience.

2.3. THE LIFESTYLE OF CABIN CREW

There are so many girls and boys who have dreams of walking to
their departure gate with their crew, high heals echoing throughout
the airport, passenger heads turning. They dream of a life is the
skies, full of style and glamour. They dream of exotic love affairs,
overseas shopping and relaxing beach days. They dream they will
see the world. If they think that life they can definitely become
Cabin Crew and quite frankly this chapter can help them with
relevant knowledge.
Figure 17: Cabin crew’s lifestyle

a. Cabin crew
The word “cabin” means aircraft while the word “ crew” means
group of people
Cabin crew is also called “flight attendant”. They are members of
any airlines and do the duty in flight.
b. Duties and responsibilities of cabin crew/role of cabin
crew
1. Before the flight
Includes responsibilities and duties before take- off aircraft eg.
i) Food arrangement,
ii) To check the gallery or in flight kitchen
 iii) Make sure that all emergency equipment are in working order.
Eg. Oxygen masks
2. During the flight
During the flight, cabin crew are responsible for:
i) Child care: The cabin crew is also responsible to take care of a
child on board. Airlines like Air India , Emirates etc are known
for best child care on board
ii) Provide first aid: The cabin crew is responsible to provide 1st
aid services during the flight in case of emergency like little
injury etc.
iii) Handle emergency situation: The cabin crew should be able to
manage emergency situation. Forexample; Fire as per the rule of
International Air Transport Association (IATA) and International
Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO).
iv) Sell duty free items: Duty free items are sold without taxes to
the passenger on board. Eg: wine bottle, perfume, ladies purse
etc.
3. After the flight
i) At the end of flight, cabin crew must say “thank you to
passengers”. Eg. Thank you to travel with RwandAir , please visit
again.
ii) Make sure that all passengers leave the aircraft safely. This is
the one of the major duty and responsibility of the cabin crew.
Even they have to find if any passenger has special requirement.
iii) Make the flight report: At the end of the flight, the cabin crew
prepare a report of the flight. The report includes information
 like Air duration of the flight, number of passengers, record F
and B order etc.
c. Qualities of cabin crew
The aviation industry is changing rapidly. Along with it comes a new
era of comfortable travelling. People nowadays can enjoy salons
with selected food, entertainment and wonderful service. So what
does it take to provide professional service to them? Here are the
qualities of flight attendants or cabin crew:
1. Knowledge of aviation and airlines industry/sector in order to
become hostess or steward. Eg. Knowledge of flight classes: 1st
class, Business class and economy class
2. Good personality: pleasant personality matters to cabin crew
members. They should know how to behave cordially and
pleasantly.
3. Grooming: Grooming does not only mean to make up on face.
It refers to look fresh always because sometime the flight
duration can be for 10-15 hours but cabin crew should look
fresh and comfortable during the working hours.
4. Friendly nature: The cabin crew should be friendly and good
with the passenger to assist the passenger or guest this quality
the cabin crew can understand the basic need of the customer
5. Good communication skills: Excellent communication skills,
clear speaking voice. The cabin crew should have good
command of English and it is always to know more than two
languages.
6. Able to work quickly and efficiently: The cabin crew should be
smart to manage the work smoothly and efficiently during the
flight duty because the number of passengers might be many.
 7. Physically fit: Remaining fresh during long flight and keep
smiling face
Generally, qualities cabin crew recruiters look for are :
1. Empathy: Cabin crew should demonstrate high quality of
empathy not only towards passengers but also towards co-workers,
2. Customer Service Orientation: This is a great quality because
cabin crew are normally asked a lot of problem solving questions, 3.
Adaptability, 4. Teamwork and Communication, 5. Cultural
Awareness, 6. Grooming and Grace.

2.4. BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES OF THE CABIN CREW

PROFESSION
Benefits
1. One of the greatest benefit of being a cabin crew is, that a
cabin crew get to see new places. It is a bit like a free short
holiday. And they even pay for that! Now not many jobs can beat
that.
2. When a flight attendant is on a ‘real’ holiday, he/she can get
holidays for a cheap price as most airlines offer to their workers
discounted or free tickets, and in many places he/she can get
great deals just because of being a cabin crew.
3. A flight attendant meets new people, experience different
cultures, and even pick up many words from different languages.
4. Cabin Crew will have a lot of free time however he/she will
often need to stay at home to be on standby.
5. Some airlines even pay for accommodation.
Figure 18: Crew members

b. challenges
Health risks associated with travel and flying, other recognized
effects from flying such as jet lag or fatigue, emergency situations
to prepare for when traveling, in transit and in the hotel, security
and safety while away from Base are the major challenges of cabin
crew profession.

2.5. CREW MEMBER TRAINING

The crew member should undergo the training focusing on Flight
Preparations, Pre-flight Crew Briefing, Pre-flight Preparation,
Boarding Process, Pre Take-Off Preparations, Passenger Safety
Briefing, Preparing for Take-off and Preparing for Landing training.
1. Pre-flight preparations
Pre-flight preparation is an essential preliminary to all flights.
Usually, it comprises the following five stages, although stages 1.
and 2. may be interchanged:
i) The Aeronautical Information Service (AIS) -AIS briefing
ii) Meteorological Briefing
iii) Route Selection
iv) Chart Preparation
v) Flight Plan Preparation
AIS Briefing
AIS Briefing involves identifying all aeronautical information which
may affect the flight. This comprises: Permanent aeronautical
information, contained in national AIPs or commercial flight guides
and printed on aeronautical charts.
Temporary information contained in NOTAMs, AICs, etc.
Most aerodromes contain briefing facilities for use by pilots
preparing for a flight; however, this may be limited in its
geographical coverage. Where this is so, there may be a direct link
to a central aeronautical library, or on-line access to aeronautical
information may be available.
The contents of AIPs are laid down by ICAO Standards; however,
national AIPs are of limited geographical coverage and commercial
flight guides are usually more convenient to use.
Meteorological Briefing
Meteorological briefing involves determining forecast and actual
weather conditions for the route planned and for selected airfields
along the route.
En-route weather comprises forecast winds and temperatures at
cruising levels along the route together with forecasts of en-route
weather conditions, especially cloud conditions and any associated
turbulence and/or icing. This information is depicted on special
charts.
Airfield weather reports may be either actual reports (METAR) or
forecast conditions (TAF). METARs are issued at regular intervals;
when a significant change to conditions occurs before the next
METAR is due, a special report (SPECI) is issued. In the interests of
brevity and clarity, written METARs, SPECIs and TAFs always follow
the same format and employ simple self-evident codes.
If the aerodrome has a fully staffed meteorological office, a
forecaster may be available to explain the forecast and any
expected hazards.
Where briefing is by reference to printed matter only, a degree of
expertise is necessary to decode the various different types of
information.
Route Selection
When choosing the route for a flight, the following considerations
must be taken into account where applicable:
Flights across National Boundaries. Flights which will cross national
boundaries must obey the relevant regulations contained in
national Airport Improvement Programmes ( AIPs).
Controlled Airspace. Flights to be conducted wholly or partly within
controlled airspace must follow the provisions of the appropriate
national authorities, contained in the national Airport Improvement
Programmes (AIP). Other flights must avoid controlled airspace.
Airspace Restrictions
Flights must avoid airspace restrictions, including danger,
prohibited and restricted areas, and other flight restrictions e.g. VIP
flights.
RVSM Airspace. RVSM airspace must be avoided when operating
aircraft for which RVSM approval has not been granted.
Weather
Where possible, the route should avoid areas of forecast extreme
weather conditions, e.g. severe turbulence, or moderate or severe
icing.
Weather conditions at the departure, destination and alternate
airfields must be better than the specified minima.
Mode of Navigation
Navigation equipment in the aircraft must be adequate for safe
operation in accordance with national Airport Improvement
Programmes (AIPs). Equipment serviceability must satify the
relevant Minimum Equipment List.
Where visual navigation is to be employed, the route should avoid
areas of low cloud or areas where visibility is forecast to be poor;
where navigation is to be by use of radio navigation aids, the route
may be designed to follow tracks between radio beacons or radials
or bearings from radio beacons.
Over-water Flights
Special rules apply to flights over water: Flights across the North
Atlantic above specified flight levels must conform to the North
Atlantic Track structure. Similar provisions may apply in other
geographical areas.
Flights by twin engined aircraft may be required to route in
accordance with Extended-range Twin-engine Operational
Performance Standards (ETOPS) procedures.
Chart Preparation
Charts used must be marked with all relevant airspace restrictions,
i.e. controlled airspace, danger, prohibited and restricted areas.
Charts printed with aeronautical information must be checked to
ensure the currency of depicted information.
Temporary airspace restrictions notified in Notification for Airmen (
NOTAMs) or Aeronautical Information Circulars (AICs) must be
marked on charts
The route to be flown should be marked on charts, including, where
appropriate, topographical charts.
Where appropriate, important bearings or ranges from navigational
beacons e.g. those which define a turning point or entry into
controlled airspace should be marked on the chart.
Flight Plan Preparation
Where required by national procedures, an Instrument Flight Rule
(IFR) or Visual Flight Rule (VFR) flight plan should be prepared for
submission to ATC authorities. The ATC flight plan must be
submitted in good time, as specified in the national Airport
Improvement Programme (AIP).
Whether or not an ATC flight plan is required, a navigation flight
plan should be prepared for the route, showing planned levels,
minimum safe flight levels, tracks, distances, times, and fuel
requirements and any other information specified by the operator.
Pre-flight Crew Briefing
One of the most important aspects of the day is the ‘pre-flight
briefing’ which is held before every flight at base.
Briefing should provide a clear picture of the flight ahead, and build
a common
understanding amongst the crew of the expectations of the flight.
A successful briefing should be short, interesting and detailed, and
should include
teamwork, communication, coordination, planning and anticipating
possible unplanned
events:
• Team Building and Teamwork
Many cabin crew and flight crew are faced with the challenge of
constantly working
with different colleagues, often with colleagues that they have
never met or worked
with before. However, they are expected to work in very close
proximity for long
periods of time. In this case, it is important to quickly establish
teamwork and
synergy.
Good team performance depends on synergy, which means working
together.
Synergy is a vital ingredient to effective teamwork.
The conditions for synergy are:
a. A shared goal
b. A clear crew structure
c. Clear task allocation
 d. Team spirit
e. Good Leadership.
The structure of the cabin crew ensures that crewmembers have
specific roles, and very specific duties. The application of good
Crew Resource Management (CRM) within a crew creates the right
balance for the crew to work as an effective team. For a team to be
successful, they must be able to talk to each other, share
information, listen to each other and be assertive, when necessary.
• Encourage Open Communication: A good briefing must
encourage open, interactive communication between all
crewmembers, emphasizing the importance of questions, input
from crewmembers, and exchanging information.
• Crew Coordination and Workload Distribution: The briefing
establishes the chain of command, the leadership. The Purser
organizes the workload and duties of the cabin crew, and
ensures that the cabin crewmembers understand their
responsibilities. The workload must be evenly distributed
amongst the crewmembers to avoid individuals from work
overload, which may distract attention from critical tasks, and
lead to errors.
• Planning and Time Management Cabin crew activities should be
planned, based on the flight time, the expected flight
conditions, the Standard Operating Procedures of the Operator,
and the service requirements. Cabin crewmembers should be
encouraged to prioritize tasks during periods of heavy
workload, and according to flight conditions.
• Unplanned Events Briefings are the ideal moment for cabin crew
and flight crew to discuss the importance of safety duties and
 responsibilities, to ensure crew communication, coordination
and crew awareness during unplanned events.
Highlight the need for the cabin crew to:
• Respond promptly and efficiently to any unusual, abnormal or
emergency situation
• Communicate with flight crew and Purser.
Effective Pre-flight Briefings
The briefing is addressed to all cabin crewmembers, and is
performed by the Purser or senior cabin crew member. The
expectations, tone and the standards for the flight are set during
this briefing. The Purser must keep in mind the main objectives of
the briefing, as well as important information specific to the flight.
A good tip to conduct an effective briefing is to use the “A, B, C
rule”:
• A for Appropriate: The briefing should be relevant and
appropriate to the flight. It should highlight the specific details
of the flight. A briefing should be prepared for each individual
flight otherwise it may become routine and repetitive.
The Purser should:
a. Plan and prepare the briefing
b. Select the relevant information before the briefing.
• B for Brief: A briefing should be as the word suggests, “brief”.
The Purser should keep the briefing short to ensure that the
attention of all cabin crewmembers is focused on the most
important points.
• C for Clear and Concise: The briefing must be understood by all
crewmembers. It should be interactive, and encourage cabin
 crewmembers to share information and ask questions. The
Purser should adopt good communication methods to
encourage feedback.
Pre-flight Preparation
Pre-flight preparation prevents potential problems. There’s no
substitute for thorough planning. After cabin crew log their arrival
time at the operations ofice, they ill in necessary documentation
such as customs, immigration, and log timing sheets. They then
meet the Flight supervisor (Purser, Chief cabin crew member),
captain, and other members of their crew.
The aim is to make sure there is a common understanding between
all crew members. Teamwork, good communication, and planning
are emphasized. Many cabin crew and light crew have to work
closely with colleagues they may not have met before for extended
periods and it is important to quickly establish synergy. A briefing
usually aims to encourage interactive communication between all
crew members and includes questions from crew members and an
exchange of information. There is an emphasis on the principles of
Crew Resource Management (CRM) to ensure that the crew works
as an effective team. Briefings are held in a designated room or
aboard the aircraft and the time they last depends on the number of
the crew and the specifics of the aircraft.
Boarding Process
Before a plane is ready to be boarded, checks need to be carried
out and meetings held between light crew and cabin crew, and then
between the Chief cabin crew member and cabin crew. There may
also be other briefings during the light, before each period of duty
and also during emergencies. In most countries, these meetings are
compulsory and are required under national aviation authority
regulations.
Pre Take-Off Preparations
During pre Take-Off Preparations some announcements are made
as below:
Pre-boarding Announcement
Good afternoon passengers. This is the pre-boarding
announcement for flight 89B to Ethiopia. We are now inviting those
passengers with small children, and any passengers requiring
special assistance, to begin boarding at this time. Please have your
boarding pass and identification ready. Regular boarding will begin
in approximately ten minutes time. Thank you.”
Final Boarding Announcement
This is the final boarding call for passengers Agathe and Joseph
booked on flight 372A to Kigali City. Please proceed to gate 3
immediately. The final checks are being completed and the captain
will order for the doors of the aircraft to close in approximately six
minutes time. I repeat. This is the final boarding call for Agathe and
Joseph. Thank you.
Passenger Safety Briefing
Cabin crew will provide the following Pre-flight Announcement:
Ladies and gentlemen, welcome onboard Flight 4B7 with service
from Hong Kong to San Francisco. We are currently third in line for
take-off and are expected to be in the air in approximately seven
minutes time. We ask that you please fasten your seatbelts at this
time and secure all baggage underneath your seat or in the
overhead compartments. We also ask that your seats and table
trays are in the upright position for take-off. Please turn off all
personal electronic devices, including laptops and cell phones.
Smoking is prohibited for the duration of the flight. Thank you for
choosing Mountain Airlines. Enjoy your flight.
Safety Briefing
Ladies and gentlemen, on behalf of the crew I ask that you please
direct your attention to the monitors above as we review the
emergency procedures. There are six emergency exits on this
aircraft. Take a minute to locate the exit closest to you. Note that
the nearest exit may be behind you. Count the number of rows to
this exit. Should the cabin experience sudden pressure loss, stay
calm and listen for instructions from the cabin crew. Oxygen masks
will drop down from above your seat. Place the mask over your
mouth and nose, like this. Pull the strap to tighten it. If you are
traveling with children, make sure that your own mask is on first
before helping your children. In the unlikely event of an emergency
landing and evacuation, leave your carry-on items behind. Life rafts
are located below your seats and emergency lighting will lead you
to your closest exit and slide. We ask that you make sure that all
carry-on luggage is stowed away safely during the flight. While we
wait for take off, please take a moment to review the safety data
card in the seat pocket in front of you.
2. Preparing for Take-off : Prepare for take-off” followed by the
actual take-off. For example; This is a Rwandair Airbus A350-900
taking off from Kigali (KGL).
3. Preparing for Landing
For preparing for landing, the captain will make announcement as
below:
Captain’s Announcement
Good afternoon passengers. This is your captain speaking. First I’d
like to welcome everyone on Rightwing Flight 86A. We are currently
cruising at an altitude of 33,000 feet at an airspeed of 400 miles
per hour. The time is 1:25 pm. The weather looks good and with the
tailwind on our side we are expecting to land in London
approximately fifteen minutes ahead of schedule. The weather in
London is clear and sunny, with a high of 25 degrees for this
afternoon. If the weather cooperates we should get a great view of
the city as we descend. The cabin crew will be coming around in
about twenty minutes time to offer you a light snack and beverage,
and the inflight movie will begin shortly after that. I’ll talk to you
again before we reach our destination. Until then, sit back, relax
and enjoy the rest of the flight.

2.6. DUTIES OF CABIN CREW

Cabin crew should ensure that the following cabin safety
precautions are taken:
1. Cabin baggage should be stowed in approved locations
2. Overhead bins should be closed
3. Safety instructions should be carried out
4. Galley and cabin curtains should be open and securely latched
5. Galley electrical systems should be “Off”
6. Trolleys and ovens should be secured and latched
7. Loose objects and equipment should be stowed
8. Passengers should have seat belts fastened and seat backs
secured in the upright position
9. Electronic devices should be turned off and stowed
 10. Infants should either be held on an adult lap or secured in an
approved Child Restraint System/device
11. Cabin lights should be adjusted for departure to match
outside ambient light conditions to acclimate crew and
passenger’s eyes to outside conditions
12. Exits should not be blocked
13. Lavatories should be vacant with the doors closed

PASSENGER HANDLING
Passenger handling include checking the travel documents of
passenger , Passenger categories, ensure that the Ticket is valid
and confirmed, Check-In, verify the ID passengers, Baggage, Bag
tags, checking irregularities, making announcements, checklists
and providing customer service.
i) Travel documents of Passenger: A passenger must have a valid
visa, passport, or national ID in case of domestic flights, and
confirmed air ticket before boarding an aircraft.
ii) Passenger categories: There are commonly 3 categories of
passengers such as First class passengers, Business Class and
Economy Class.
iii) Ticket: The air ticket is defined as an agreement between an
airline company and a passenger. This form of agreement starts
from departure to arrival at destination.
iv) Check-in: During the check-in process the airport security has
to check a passenger and his laggage will be passed through X-
Ray machine.
v) PAX ID: A passenger has to have a valid national identity card.
 vi) Baggage: This is any item a passenger carries on his journey
for his comfort or convenience. The objective of baggage
handling process is to accept the baggage from the passenger,
transport it from station A to B, and return it to the passenger in
the exact same condition as when it was checked in.
In theory ,this seems simple and straight forward, but in practice it
is not. There are many things which can, and do go wrong.
There are five steps in baggage handling as below:
1. Check in or acceptance: This is the stage at which baggage is
accepted from the passenger for transportation by an airline to the
passenger’s destination. A baggage tag is provided and attached to
the baggage, reading the final destination of the baggage,
transiting stations, if any, and the flights and dates the baggage is
to be transported on.
Exceptional Baggage: This is the baggage which cannot be
transported on the conveyor belt because it is fragile, heavy and
bulky or in need of special treatment such as live animals,
sporting equipment, musical equipment, baby strollers,courrier
baggage,etc.
Every airport has it’s own procedure for the handling of
exceptional baggage i.e. For large,heavy,bulky and oddly shaped
baggage, a staff from the make-up area collects the baggage
and uses the southern gate to take baggage from the check-in
area to the make-up area.
Late check-in: Passengers usually check-in after the positive
close-out time for a flight and each airport and airline has it’s
own routine on the handling of these passengers and their
baggage. Late check baggage procedures determine how the
 baggage will be taken to the aircraft and reconciled with the
passenger. This baggage is usually received.
2. Make-up: Make-up is concerned with sorting and preparing
baggage for loading onto the aircraft. The main points to be taken
into account when dealing with baggage make –up are: Sorting by
flight, Separation by class of travel.
3. Loading: Aircraft loading is concerned with loading and securing
of baggage ,cargo and mail. Loading must be carried out with
special emphasis on, and attention to, basic principles.
Appropriate loading to facilitate handling:
All items should be loaded onto the aircraft according to the order
in which in which they will be unloaded. Baggage should always be
unloaded in the following order;
1st transfer baggage
2nd destination/terminating baggage

3rd other (cargo,mail,etc).

It should be noted that some airlines require First/Business
class baggage to be offloaded before economy baggage and
therefore first class baggage is loaded after economy baggage.
5. Transfer: At each airport, Minimum Connecting Times (MCT) are
established by the scheduled airlines. AMCT Refers to the time
required to transfer passengers and their baggage successfully
between airlines at an airport. MCTs are sent in order to ensure that
there is enough time to transfer baggage.
That is because; in general it is quicker to transfer passengers ,
arrival to departure gate, than it is to transfer baggage. This is
because baggage has to under go various processes, i.e. it must be
sorted, screened, transfered, reconciled and loaded again.
Baggage is usually transferred using the following methods:
The in bound airline takes baggage to the connecting airlines.
A single ground handling company transfers baggage for all
airlines at an airport.
6. Unloading and claim area: When dealing with loading, it was
mentioned in what order baggage should be unloaded.
The Baggage Transfer Message (BTM), which includes the baggage
tag number, passenger name and flight details of the connecting
baggage (if any) before the aircraft arrives.
Claim area

Figure 19: Baggage Claim Area

The factors which might be taken into account at check-in also

apply to the claim area, i.e. exceptional baggage cannot be
transported on the normal conveyor system.
 Procedures dealing with exceptional baggage must be
established at each airport.

IN-FLIGHT PROCEDURES & EMERGENCIES

PRE-FLIGHT & PRE-BOARDING PROCEDURES
Pre-flight Procedures
A pre-flight crew briefing should be mandatory for all flights
including subsequent legs with the same crew. The briefing can be
accomplished with all crewmembers present, or between the PIC
and the Lead Cabin Crewmember, in which case the Lead Cabin
Crewmember would then brief the remaining Cabin Crewmembers.
This briefing should address the following topics:
1. Number of cabin crew on board
2. Passenger load factor
3. Passenger boarding time
4. Anticipated length of taxi
5. In-flight weather
6. Anticipated delays
7. Unusual circumstances pertaining to the flight
8. If flight route may require use of supplemental oxygen units
during a decompression
9. Presence of armed and escorted passengers including seat
locations
10. Number of passengers with disabilities and the nature of
those disabilities that would affect the seating
11. Number of “Unaccompanied Minors” (UNAMs) and other
special needs passengers to be boarded
 12. Service overview
13. Review aircraft specific safety procedures
14. Flight specific security procedures
Pre-flight Checks
Pre-flight aircraft checks must be accomplished on each flight prior
to passenger boarding. This includes checking for presence of
emergency equipment, completing security checks and checking
catering.
Prior to passengers boarding the aircraft all cabin crew members
should:
• Introduce themselves to the flight deck crew some Operators
require the flight deck crew to initiate this process
• Exchange introductions with other cabin crewmembers
• Stow personal belongings
• Check to ensure that all necessary emergency equipment is
available and appears to be in working order with unobstructed
access. Perform a Cabin Security Check. Per regulations, cabin
security checks should be performed on every flight[FAR
108.13 (d)/JAR-OPS 1.1250]
• Check operation of jump seat/harness\
• Check cabin systems, interphones and video players
• Check overall cabin appearance/cleanliness
• Check seatback pocket/literature pockets for:
– Presence of Passenger Safety Information Cards (spot/random
check, as this function is normally performed by another
department)
 – Free of extraneous items
• Ensure that tray tables/seatbacks are upright and in locked
position
• Open all overhead bins
• Check that lavatories are empty of passengers
• Check door exits for barrier straps caught in door or missing
• Ensure minimum crew per regulations is onboard prior to
passenger boarding
• Perform any necessary security checks
Pre-Boarding Passengers - Use and Notification
Pre-boarding is a service that is usually offered on all flights to
allow certain passengers to board the aircraft before general
boarding begins.
The Gate Agent should inform the Lead Cabin Crewmember that
pre-boarding is beginning. Ensure that the minimum required cabin
crew are onboard and uniformly distributed throughout cabin in
accordance with regulations [FARs121.391 & 121.393/JAR-OPS
1.990] and company policy.
During pre-boarding, all cabin crew should:
1. Greet pre-board passengers
2. Assist passengers with seat assignments
3. Offer assistance with special needs passengers
4. Individually brief passengers with special needs
5. Ensure child restraints are properly located and configured;
check with the parent/guardian to ensure that requirements
have been met.
 6. Check ID and brief jump seat riders as necessary
7. Ensure seat assignments are in compliance with exit seat
criteria; passengers requiring seat belt extensions should not be
permitted to occupy an emergency exit row sea.t
GENERAL BOARDING PROCEDURES
To ensure a smooth and efficient boarding process, the Gate Agent
or a Cabin Crewmember will notify the other cabin crewmembers
that general boarding will begin.
Boarding responsibilities for cabin crew include: checking validity of
passenger boarding cards, assisting passengers with seat
assignments, monitoring cabin baggage, electronic devices,
ensuring exit seat criteria are met, monitoring child restraint
devices as well as keeping a visual watch of the cabin at all times.
Cabin crew should be evenly distributed throughout the cabin in
order to monitor the boarding process.
If it is necessary for a cabin crewmember to leave the aircraft, the
Lead Cabin Crewmember or flight deck crew should be notified.
Emergencies: According to FAA, an emergency can be either a
distress or urgency condition as defined in the pilot/controller
glossary. Distress is defined as a condition of being threatened by
serious and/or imminent danger and requiring immediate
assistance. Urgency is defined as a condition of being concerned
about safety and requiring timely but not immediate assistance; a
potential distress condition. Pilots do not hesitate to declare an
emergency when faced with distress conditions, such as fire,
mechanical failure, or structural damage. However, some are
reluctant to report an urgency condition when encountering
situations that may not be immediately perilous but are potentially
catastrophic. An aircraft is in an urgency condition the moment that
the pilot becomes doubtful about position, fuel endurance, weather,
or any other condition that could adversely affect flight safety. The
time for a pilot to request assistance is when an urgent situation
may, or has just occurred, not after it has developed into a distress
situation. The pilot in command (PIC) is responsible for crew,
passengers, and operation of the aircraft at all times. Title 14 of the
Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, section 91.3 allows
deviations from regulations during emergencies that allow the PIC
to make the best decision to ensure safety of all personnel during
these contingencies. Also, by declaring an emergency during flight,
that aircraft becomes a priority to land safely. Pilots who become
apprehensive for their safety for any reason should request
assistance immediately. Assistance is available in the form of radio,
radar, direction finding (DF) stations, and other aircraft.
Inadvertent Thunderstorm Encounter: A pilot should always avoid
intentionally flying through a thunderstorm of any intensity;
however, certain conditions may be present that could lead to an
inadvertent thunderstorm encounter. For example, flying in areas
where thunderstorms are embedded in large cloud masses may
make thunderstorm avoidance difficult, even when the aircraft is
equipped with thunderstorm detection equipment. Pilots must be
prepared to deal with inadvertent thunderstorm penetration. At the
very least, a thunderstorm encounter subjects the aircraft to
turbulence that could be severe. The pilot, as well as the crew and
any passengers, should tighten seat belts and shoulder harnesses
and secure any loose items in the cabin or flight deck. As with any
emergency, the first order of business is to fly the aircraft. The pilot
workload is high; therefore, increased concentration is necessary to
maintain an instrument scan. Once in a thunderstorm, it is better to
maintain a course straight through the thunderstorm rather than
turning around. A straight course most likely gets the pilot out of
the hazard in the least amount of time, and turning maneuvers only
increase structural stress on the aircraft. Reduce power to a setting
that maintains a recommended turbulence penetration speed as
described in the appropriate aircraft operator’s manual, and try to
minimize additional power adjustments. Concentrate on keeping
the aircraft in A-1 a level attitude while allowing airspeed and
altitude to fluctuate. Similarly, if using autopilot, disengage altitude
and speed hold modes because they only increase the aircraft’s
maneuvering, which increases structural stress. During a
thunderstorm encounter, the potential for icing also exists. As soon
as possible, if the aircraft is so equipped, turn on anti-icing/deicing
equipment. Icing can be rapid at any altitude, and may lead to
power failure and/or loss of airspeed indication. Lightning is also
present in a thunderstorm and can temporarily blind the pilot. To
reduce risk, turn up flight deck lights to the highest intensity,
concentrate on flight instruments, and resist the urge to look
outside. Inadvertent Icing Encounter:
Because icing is unpredictable, pilots may find themselves in icing
conditions although they have done everything to avoid the
condition. To stay alert to this possibility while operating in visible
moisture, pilots should monitor the outside air temperature (OAT).
Anti-icing/deicing equipment is critical to safety of the flight. If
anti-icing/deicing equipment is not used before sufficient ice has
accumulated, it may not be able to remove all ice accumulation. Use
of anti-icing/deicing reduces power availability; therefore, pilots
should be familiar with the aircraft operator’s manual for use of
anti-icing/deicing equipment. Before entering visible moisture with
temperatures at five degrees above freezing or cooler, activate
appropriate anti-icing/deicing equipment in anticipation of ice
accumulation; early ice detection is critical. Detecting ice may be
particularly difficult during night flight. The pilot may need to use a
flashlight to check for ice accumulation on the wings, fuselage,
landing gear, and horizontal stabilizer. At the first indication of ice
accumulation, the pilot must act to circumvent icing conditions.
Options for action once ice has begun to accumulate on the aircraft
are the following:
1. Move to an altitude with significantly colder temperatures.
2. Move to an altitude with temperatures above freezing.
3. Fly to an area clear of visible moisture.
4. Change the heading, and fly to an area of known non-icing
conditions.
If these options are not available, consider an immediate landing at
the nearest suitable airport. Anti-icing/deicing equipment does not
allow aircraft to operate in icing conditions indefinitely; it only
provides more time to evade icing conditions. If icing is
encountered, an aircraft controllability check should be considered
in the landing configuration. Give careful consideration to
configuration changes that might produce unanticipated aircraft
flight dynamics.
Precipitation Static
Precipitation static occurs when accumulated static electricity
discharges from extremities of the aircraft. This discharge has the
potential to create problems with the aircraft’s instruments. These
problems range from serious, such as complete loss of VHF
communications and erroneous magnetic compass readings, to the
annoyance of high-pitched audio squealing. Precipitation static is
caused when an aircraft encounters airborne particles during flight
(rain or snow) and develops a negative charge. It can also result
from atmospheric electric fields in thunderstorm clouds. When a
significant negative voltage level is reached, the aircraft discharges
it, creating electrical disturbances. To reduce problems associated
with precipitation static, the pilot ensures that the aircraft’s static
wicks are maintained and accounted for. All broken or missing static
wicks should be replaced before an instrument flight.
Aircraft System Malfunction: Preventing aircraft system
malfunctions that might lead to an in-flight emergency begins with
a thorough preflight inspection. In addition to items normally
checked before visual flight rules (VFR) flight, pilots intending to fly
instrument flight rules (IFR) should pay particular attention to
antennas, static wicks, anti-icing/deicing equipment, pitot tube,
and static ports. During taxi, verify operation and accuracy of all
flight instruments. The pilots must ensure that all systems are
operational before departing into IFR conditions.
Generator Failure
Depending on aircraft being flown, a generator failure is indicated in
different ways. Some aircraft use an ammeter that indicates the
state of charge or discharge of the battery. A positive indication on
the ammeter indicates a charge condition; a negative indication
reveals a discharge condition. Other aircraft use a load meter to
indicate the load being carried by the generator. If the generator
fails, a zero load indication is shown on the load meter. Review the
appropriate aircraft operator’s manual for information on the type
of systems installed in the aircraft. Once a generator failure is
detected, the pilot must reduce electrical load on the battery and
land as soon as practical. Depending on electrical load and
condition of the battery, sufficient power may be available for an
hour or more of flight or for only a matter of minutes. The pilot
must be familiar with systems requiring electricity to run and which
continue to operate without power. In aircraft with multiple
generators, care should be taken to reduce electrical load to avoid
overloading the operating generator(s). The pilot can attempt to
troubleshoot generator failure by following established procedures
published in the appropriate aircraft operator’s manual. If the
generator cannot be reset, inform ATC of an impending electrical
failure.
Instrument Failure
System or instrument failure is usually identified by a warning
indicator or an inconsistency between indications on the attitude
indicator, supporting performance instruments, and instruments at
the other pilot station, if so equipped. Aircraft control must be
maintained while the pilot identifies the failed components and
expedite cross-check including all flight instruments. The problem
may be individual instrument failure or a system failure affecting
several instruments. One method of identification involves an
immediate comparison of the attitude indicator with rate-of-turn
indicator and vertical speed indicator (VSI). Along with providing
pitch-and-bank information, this technique compares the static
system with the pressure system and electrical system. Identify the
failed components and use remaining functional instruments to
maintain aircraft control. Attempt to restore inoperative
components by checking the appropriate power source, changing
to a backup or alternate system, and resetting the instrument if
possible. Covering failed instruments may enhance the ability to
maintain aircraft control and navigate the aircraft. ATC should be
notified of the problem and, if necessary, declare an emergency
before the situation deteriorates beyond the ability to recover.
Pitot/Static System Failure
A pitot or static system failure can also cause erratic and unreliable
instrument indications. When a static system problem occurs, it
affects the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and VSI. In the absence of
an alternate static source in an unpressurized aircraft, the pilot
could break the glass on the VSI because it is not required for
instrument flight. Breaking the glass provides both the altimeter
and airspeed indicator a source of static pressure, but pilots should
be cautious because breaking the glass can cause additional
instrument errors. Before considering, pilots should be familiar with
their aircraft’s specific procedures for static problems.
Loss of Situational Awareness (SA)
SA is an overall assessment of environmental elements and how
they affect flight. SA permits the pilot to make decisions ahead of
time and allows evaluation of several different options. Conversely,
a pilot who is missing important information about the flight is apt
to make reactive decisions. Poor SA means that the pilot lacks
vision regarding future events that can force him or her to make
decisions quickly often with limited options. During an IFR flight,
pilots operate at varying levels of SA. For example, a pilot may be
en route to a destination with a high level of SA when ATC issues an
unexpected standard terminal arrival route (STAR). Because the
STAR is unexpected and the pilot is unfamiliar with the procedure,
SA is reduced. However, after becoming familiar with the STAR and
resuming normal navigation, the pilot returns to a higher level of
SA. Factors reducing SA include distractions, unusual or
unexpected events, complacency, high workload, unfamiliar
situations, and inoperative equipment. In some situations, a loss of
SA may be beyond a pilot’s control. With an electrical system failure
and associated loss of an attitude indication, a pilot may find the
aircraft in an unusual attitude. In this A-3 situation, established
procedures are used to regain SA and aircraft control. Pilots must
be alert to loss of SA especially when hampered by a reactive
mindset. To regain SA, reassess the situation and work toward
understanding what the problem is. The pilot may need to seek
additional information from other sources, such as navigation
instruments, other crewmembers, or ATC.
Inadvertent Instrument Meteorological Condition (IIMC)
Some pilots have the misconception that inadvertent instrument
meteorological condition (IIMC) does not apply to an IFR flight. The
following examples could cause a pilot to inadvertently encounter
IMC.
1. The aircraft has entered visual meteorological conditions
(VMC) during an instrument approach procedure (IAP) and
while circling to land encounters IMC.
2. During a non-precision IAP, the aircraft, in VMC, levels at the
MDA just below the overcast. Suddenly, the aircraft re-enters the
overcast because either the pilot was unable to correctly hold
his or her altitude and climbed back into the overcast, or the
overcast sloped downward ahead of the aircraft and, while
maintaining the correct MDA, the aircraft re-entered the clouds.
3. After inadvertently re-entering the clouds, the pilot maintains
aircraft control, and then maneuvers to the published holding
fix, while contacting ATC. If navigational guidance or pilot
situational awareness (SA) were lost, the pilot would then climb
to the published MSA. In order to survive an encounter with
 IIMC, a pilot must recognize and accept the seriousness of the
situation. The pilot will need to immediately commit to the
instruments and perform the proper recovery procedures.
Maintaining Aircraft Control
Once the crewmembers recognize the situation, they commit to
controlling the aircraft by using and trusting flight instruments.
Attempting to search outside the flight deck for visual confirmation
can result in spatial disorientation and complete loss of control. The
crew must rely on instruments and depend on crew coordination to
facilitate that transition. The pilot or flight crew must abandon their
efforts to establish visual references and fly the aircraft by their
flight instruments. The most important concern, along with
maintaining aircraft control, is to initiate a climb immediately. An
immediate climb provides a greater separation from natural and
manmade obstacles, as well as improve radar reception of the
aircraft by ATC. An immediate climb should be appropriate for the
current conditions, environment, and known or perceived obstacles.
Listed below are procedures that can assist in maintaining aircraft
control after encountering IIMC with the most critical action being
to immediately announce IIMC and begin a substantial climb while
procedures are being performed. These procedures are performed
nearly simultaneously:
• Attitude: level wings on the attitude indicator.
• Heading: maintain heading; turn only to avoid known obstacles.
• Power: adjust power as necessary for desired climb rate.
• Airspeed: adjust airspeed as necessary. Complete the IIMC
recovery according to local and published regulations and
policies. In situations where the pilot encounters IIMC while
 conducting an instrument maneuver, the best remedy is
immediate execution of the published missed approach. The
pilot must trust the flight instruments concerning the aircraft’s
attitude regardless of intuition or visual interpretation. The
vestibular sense or motion sensing by the inner ear can
confuse the pilot. Because of inertia, sensory areas of the inner
ear cannot detect slight changes in aircraft attitude nor can
they accurately sense attitude changes that occur at a uniform
rate over time. Conversely, false sensations often push the pilot
to believe that the attitude of the aircraft has changed when in
fact it has not, resulting in spatial disorientation.
ATC Requirements During an In-Flight Emergency
ATC personnel can help pilots during in-flight emergency situations.
Pilots should understand the services provided by ATC and the
resources and options available. These services enable pilots to
focus on aircraft control and help them make better decisions in a
time of stress.
Provide Information
During emergency situations, pilots should provide as much
information as possible to ATC. ATC uses the information to
determine what kind of assistance it can provide with available
assets and capabilities. Information requirements vary depending
on the existing situation. ATC requires at a minimum, the following
information for in-flight emergencies:
1. Aircraft identification and type
2. Nature of the emergency
3. Pilot’s desires If time and the situation permits, the pilot
should provide ATC with more information. Listed below is
 additional information that would help ATC in further assisting
the pilot during an emergency situation.
4. Aircraft altitude
5. Point of departure and destination
6. Airspeed
7. Fuel remaining in time
8. Heading since last known position
9. Visible landmarks
10. Navigational aids (NAVAID) signals received
11. Time and place of last known position
12. Aircraft color
13. Pilot reported weather
14. Emergency equipment on board
15. Number of people on board
16. Pilot capability for IFR flight
17. Navigation equipment capability When the pilot requests, or
when deemed necessary, ATC can enlist services of available
radar facilities and DF facilities operated by the FAA. ATC can
also coordinate with other agencies, such as the U.S. Coast
Guard (USCG) and other local authorities and request their
emergency services.
Radar Assistance
Radar is an invaluable asset that can be used by pilots during
emergencies. With radar, ATC can provide navigation assistance to
aircraft and provide last-known location during catastrophic
emergencies. If a VFR aircraft encounters or is about to encounter
IMC weather conditions, the pilot can request radar vectors to VFR
airports or VFR conditions. If the pilot determines that he or she is
qualified and the aircraft is capable of conducting IFR flight, the
pilot should file an IFR flight plan and request a clearance from ATC
to the destination airport as appropriate. If the aircraft has already
encountered IFR conditions, ATC can inform the pilot of appropriate
terrain/obstacle clearance minimum altitude. If the aircraft is below
appropriate terrain/obstacle clearance minimum altitude and
sufficiently accurate position information has been received or
radar identification is established, ATC can furnish a heading or
radial on which to climb to reach appropriate terrain/obstacle
clearance minimum altitude.
Emergency Airports
ATC personnel consider how much remaining fuel in relation to the
distance to the airport and weather conditions when recommending
an emergency airport to aircraft requiring assistance. Depending on
the nature of the emergency, certain weather phenomena may
deserve weighted consideration. A pilot may elect to fly further to
land at an airport with VFR conditions instead of closer airfield with
IFR conditions. Other considerations are airport conditions, NAVAID
status, aircraft type, pilot’s qualifications, and vectoring or homing
capability to the emergency airport. In addition, ATC and pilots
should determine which guidance can be used to fly to the
emergency airport. The following options may be available:
• Radar
• DF
• Following another aircraft
• NAVAIDs
 • Pilotage by landmarks
• Compass headings Emergency Obstruction Video Map (EOVM)
The emergency obstruction video map (EOVM) is intended to
facilitate advisory service in an emergency situation when
appropriate terrain/obstacle clearance minimum altitude cannot be
maintained. The EOVM, and the service provided, are used only
under the following conditions:
1. The pilot has declared an emergency.
2. The controller has determined an emergency condition exists
or is imminent because of the pilots inability to maintain an
appropriate terrain/obstacle clearance minimum altitude.
NOTE: Appropriate terrain/obstacle clearance minimum altitudes
may be defined as minimum IFR altitude (MIA), minimum en route
altitude (MEA), minimum obstacle clearance altitude (MOCA), or
minimum vectoring altitude (MVA). When providing emergency
vectoring service, the controller advises the pilot that any headings
issued are emergency advisories intended only to direct the aircraft
toward and over an area of lower terrain/obstacle elevation.
Altitudes and obstructions depicted on the EOVM are actual
altitudes and locations of the obstacle/terrain and contain no
lateral or vertical buffers for obstruction clearance.
Responsibility
ATC, in communication with an aircraft in distress, should handle
the emergency and coordinate and direct the activities of assisting
facilities. ATC will not transfer this responsibility to another facility
unless that facility can better handle the situation. When an ATC
facility receives information about an aircraft in distress, they
forward detailed data to the center in the area of the emergency.
Centers serve as central points for collecting information,
coordinating with search and rescue (SAR) and distributing
information to appropriate agencies. Although 121.5 megahertz
and 243.0 megahertz are emergency frequencies, the pilot should
keep the aircraft on the initial contact frequency. The pilot should
change frequencies only when a valid reason exists. When
necessary, and if weather and circumstances permit, ATC should
recommend that aircraft maintain or increase altitude to improve
communications, radar, or DF reception.
Escort
An escort aircraft, if available, should consider and evaluate an
appropriate formation. Special consideration must be given if
maneuvers take the aircraft through clouds. Aircraft should not
execute an in-flight join up during emergency conditions unless
both crews involved are familiar with and capable of formation flight
and can communicate and have visual contact with each other.
Duties after Landing
CABIN CREW DUTIES DURING NORMAL OPERATIONS
At the time of the boarding, passengers, most of the time, are
welcomed at the door of the airplane by the smiling faces of the
cabin crew. The posture and their language must be positive, to
make the passengers impressed even before take off. These will
never know that behind the big smile, in fact, are hiding sometimes
long hours of work, because newly airline companies resort more
often to the double-sector system. This mean 4 consecutive flies in
one day, for example: Dubai-Muscat-Dubai-Bahrein-Dubai)
If in the technical building at the briefing, the pilots did not present
themselves before the cabin crew, they can organize a short
meeting with the entire crew even before the flight, before boarding
the passengers. As flight attendants arrive at the airplane 30-45
minutes before take-off, in all this time they have to organize
practically the whole flight.
1. Pre-passenger boarding
Senior cabin crew member (SCCM) conducts pre-flight cabin crew
safety briefing. This will include questions and/or scenario type
questions relating to first aid, security, dangerous goods and safety
and emergency procedures, to ascertain cabin crew competence. It
will also provide specific flight information that could affect flight
safety, such as expected turbulence, special categories of
passengers (SCPs) including passengers of reduced mobility
(PRMs), obese persons and children whether accompanied or not,
infants, deportees or prisoners in custody and passengers with
animals;
1. Very Large Transport Aircraft (VLTA) will have a large number
of cabin crew and are likely to include several SCCM’s;
2. Single cabin crew members will conduct a pre-flight briefing
with the flight crew; • Board aircraft and stow personal crew
baggage securely in approved stowages;
3. Carry out checks of cabin, emergency equipment, both fixed
and portable, toilets, cabin crew and passenger seats and
accessible cargo areas;
4. Carry out galley and catering checks to ensure equipment such
as trolleys and containers are securely stowed and that all
equipment such as ovens, boilers, chillers, coffee makers etc.,
are fully serviceable;
5. Carry out security checks as required by the operator including
overhead lockers, wardrobes, seat pockets, life jacket stowages,
 galleys, cabin and toilets, rest areas and remote areas. Report
any suspicious or unidentified items.
2. Passenger boarding
Once obtained the approval of the captain, the passenger can be
boarded, taken to their seats by the cabin crew, process followed by
distribution of some products on ground such as amenity kit,
menus, perfumed napkins, candies, newspapers and a video and
audio presentation of the safety equipment and the evacuation
procedures in case of emergency. As soon as the passengers
buckled their seatbelts, raised the seatbacks, table trays, feet
support and sunshades and closed the electronic equipment, the
cabin crew will transmit to the cabin manager that the entire cabin
is ready to take off.
Such a preparation of the cabin will take place, as well, before
landing, insisting on the fact that the passengers must remain
seated till the airplane is completely stopped and the “Fasten the
seatbelts” sign is off. Before landing, is again checked the bar stock
and the Duty Free, compartments being sealed by the flight
attendants responsible with it, and in case of a flight with a layover,
it’s written also an inventory of the products remained on board for
the cabin crew that will retrieve the airplane and even can be
prepared the products used on the return flight.
Inspect and monitor passenger boarding routes including integral
steps, external steps, piers and jetties both prior to and during
boarding, to ensure that these remain safe;
• Monitor boarding to ensure no inadmissible passengers are
permitted to board, including those who may be under the
influence of alcohol and drugs;
 • Observe passenger behaviour and be aware of any suspicious
behaviour or items and report any security concerns
immediately;
• Ensure passengers are advised of aircraft refuelling and that
both cabin crew and passengers comply with operator and
regulatory procedures to ensure exits are manned and exit
routes remain clear;
• Assist with passenger boarding and seating to ensure seating
allocation is appropriate, particularly with regard to SCPs.
Ensure that seats adjacent to exits are occupied by able-bodied
passengers (ABPs) and that passenger seating is in
accordance with the aircraft mass and balance requirements;
• Monitor and assist with placing of passenger baggage in
approved stowages to ensure this is securely and safely
stowed;
• Distribute and monitor use of passenger safety equipment such
as infant seat belts and child restraint devices;
• Give safety briefing to passengers seated at self-help exits;
• Monitor visible aircraft surfaces and advise flight crew of any
surface contamination such as ice or snow;
• Close doors and arm evacuation devices if installed in
accordance with operator procedures.
3. Pre take-off
Conduct safety demonstration, ensuring all passengers receive this
in an appropriate format, with particular regard to SCP’s;
• Carry out cabin secure check. This should include seat belts,
seat positions, tables, armrests, footrests, in-flight
 entertainment systems (IFE), overhead lockers, passenger and
crew baggage, exits areas, galleys and equipment including
catering supplies, personal electronic devices (PEDs) including
mobile phones, and toilets;
• Ensure flight crew are advised that the cabin is secure for take-
off; • Adjust cabin lighting as appropriate;
• Take up cabin crew station and fasten seat belt and harness
securely;
• Remain alert to potentially hazardous situations.
Post take-off
• Remain seated and secured until advised in accordance with
operator procedures;
• Ensure passengers remain seated until seat belts signs are
switched off;
• Prepare for cabin service and ensure equipment remains stowed
until safe to be removed from stowage.
Cruise
• Carry out cabin service ensuring that service equipment is used
in a safe manner;
• Monitor passenger behaviour, particularly with regard to
consumption of alcohol and security issues;
• In the event of turbulence, ensure passengers are notified,
remain seated with seat belts fastened and ensure that results
of checks are passed to flight crew;
• Comply with flight crew commands regarding suspension of
cabin service during turbulence and necessity for cabin crew to
also be seated in exceptional circumstances. In the absence of
 commands from the flight crew during turbulence, the senior
cabin crew member (SCCM) may discontinue with service
duties in order to prevent injury to cabin crew and passengers;
• Provide food and drink to flight crew members in accordance
with operator security procedures regarding the locked flight
deck door if installed;
• Carry out general surveillance of toilets, galleys, flight deck, and
cabin.
7. Disembarkation
• Remain seated and secured;
• Ensure passengers remain seated until aircraft stops and seat
belt signs are turned off;
• Disarm evacuation devices if appropriate, in accordance with
operator procedures; • Adjust cabin lighting as appropriate;
• Ensure disembarkation equipment such as steps, piers and
jetties, are in place prior to opening doors;
• Monitor disembarkation equipment to ensure this remains safe;
• Monitor disembarkation of passengers including Special
Categories of Passengers (SCPs);
• Conduct security check in accordance with operator procedures
and report any suspicious items.
8. Turnarounds
• Maintain security of aircraft by checking the identification of
anyone who boards;
• Carry out security checks as appropriate.
CABIN CREW DUTIES DURING ABNORMAL OPERATIONS &
EMERGENCY SITUATIONS
Planned emergency evacuation
• Flight crew will contact Senior cabin crew member (SCCM) for
briefing;
• SCCM will brief other cabin crew members;
• Cabin crew will brief passengers using equipment as
appropriate including brace positions, seat belts, life jackets,
and exits;
• Brief ABPs for self-help exits;
• Brief ABPs to assist at other exits;
• Cabin crew carry out cabin secure check;
• Ensure flight crew are advised that the cabin is secure;
• Adjust cabin lighting as appropriate;
• Cabin crew take up cabin crew station on command;
• On ‘brace’ command from flight crew, cabin crew will adopt
brace position and advise passengers to brace;
• Once aircraft has stopped, await evacuation command from
flight crew;
• Check outside conditions, operate exit and check serviceability
of evacuation device/equipment. Deliver appropriate passenger
commands;
• Launch life rafts if installed;
• Evacuate passengers as appropriate. Utilize exit by-pass and
redirection techniques dependent on aircraft type;
• Instruct passengers to inflate life jackets if applicable;
 • If no command from flight crew, cabin crew should assess the
situation and take appropriate action;
• Remove any appropriate emergency equipment for use outside
aircraft after evacuation;
• Cabin crew evacuate aircraft and take command of situation as
appropriate. Inflate life jacket if applicable;
• Detach slide rafts and life rafts if installed, in a ditching
situation;
• Carry out first aid as appropriate.
Flight Evaluation
The cabin crew can give information regarding to the airport,
connections, terminals and smoking lounges in the airport. Once
landed, as soon as the last passengers leave the airplane, the cabin
crew will check again the security process to make sure that
nobody forgot any luggage in the airplane, intentional or not, and
the compartments in the kitchen will be sealed if the plane landed
on base or if it will be another cabin crew without them to meet on
board.
Unplanned emergency evacuation
• Flight crew will give command to evacuate;
• Cabin crew follow procedures as for planned emergency
evacuation;
• If no command from flight crew, cabin crew should assess the
situation and take appropriate action.
Decompression
• Connect to nearest oxygen supply; if installed
• Sit down and secure self;
 • Advise passengers to don oxygen masks if possible; if installed
• Wait for descent to be complete or announcement from flight
crew;
• Contact flight crew to establish situation;
• Check passengers and carry out cabin secure;
• Administer oxygen to passengers if necessary.
Pilot incapacitation
• Respond to call from flight crew;
• Secure pilot in seat or remove from flight deck);
• Administer first aid as required;
• Remain on flight deck and assist with check list if required;
• In single cabin crew operations, assistance from passengers
may be required.
Fire-fighting
• Locate source of fire;
• Identify type of fire;
• Apply appropriate procedures;
• Ensure personal protection including use of portable breathing
equipment (PBE), gloves, and protective clothing;
• Select appropriate extinguisher or agent;
• Attack fire;
• Ensure flight crew advised;
• Communicate with other crew members;
• Monitor passengers;
 • In single cabin crew operations, assistance from passengers
may be required.
First-aid incidents and medical emergencies
• Assess situation;
• Treat symptoms;
• Utilise first aid equipment as installed;
• Other crew members to provide back up equipment as installed,
including therapeutic oxygen, first aid kits, emergency medical
kits, and defibrillators;
• Ensure flight crew are advised;
• Request medical assistance, either from passengers or using
aircraft radio link to medical centre service;
• Complete any necessary paperwork;
• If required, request medical assistance after landing;
• In single cabin crew operations, assistance from passengers
may be required.
Disruptive passengers
• Advise passenger that behaviour is unacceptable;
• Advise passenger of instruction from Captain that they must
obey commands;
• Follow operator procedure for further action;
• Carry out restraint if such equipment is installed;
• In single cabin-crew operations, assistance from passengers
may be required.
Security threats – Bomb warning in-flight
 • Adhere to operator specific procedures where possible;
• Receive briefing from flight crew;
• Carry out search;
• Ensure passengers identify all baggage;
• Isolate suspect article and protect;
• Move passengers and equipment from area;
• Move article to least-risk bomb location area if possible
Security threat – Hijack
• Adhere to operator specific procedures where possible;
• Maintain locked flight deck door if installed;
• Communicate with flight crew;
• Control cabin and reassure passengers;
• Restrict alcohol;
• Comply with demands of hijackers unless safety of passengers
and aircraft is threatened

PASSENGERS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

Passengers with special needs allowed to pre-board may include:
1. Passengers travelling with infants: In the US, FAR 121.311
addresses infant carriers: Only FAA approved child restraint
systems may be used during movement on the surface, take-off
and landing. Some Operators may allow passengers to use non-
approved child restraint systems during other phases of flight.
Some carriers provide “bassinets” that passengers may use for
infants during the cruise portion of flight and have procedures in
 place to require that parents hold these infants whenever the
Fasten Seat Belt sign is illuminated.
2. Unaccompanied minors
3. Passengers needing assistance: Wheelchair passengers and
other disabled PAX.
4. Armed law enforcement officers and prisoners with escorts
5. Passengers assigned exit row seating some operators use this
as pre-screening
6. Deportees
Unaccompanied Minors (UNAMs)/Unaccompanied Young
Passengers
Accepting children for travel without an accompanying adult
assumes a very heavy responsibility. A UNAM who is accepted for
passage is in Operator custody until surrendered to those
responsible for the minor’s welfare at his/her destination.
Operators may accept children between the ages of 5 and 11, exact
ages may vary according to State or Operator policy, who are
travelling alone. Operator policies vary concerning connecting
itineraries. Children 12 and older are considered young adults by
most States. Similar unaccompanied minor procedures may be
applied to young adults per Operator or State policies.
Operators should ensure all required documents have been filled
out completely prior to boarding. Child’s name, address, person’s
name and phone number escorting the child to the airport, person’s
name and phone number meeting the child, list of connecting
flights, special instructions/needs all should be included, along with
the child’s ticket/boarding passes, passport, luggage tags, and any
medical conditions.
Proper identification should be verified prior to the child being
released from the Operator’s responsibility. If the person meeting
the flight is not available, the child should be turned over to
Passenger Service or a pre-designated Operator employee.
Transportation of Passengers with Disabilities
In order to comply with certain State regulations and accommodate
the needs of passengers with disabilities, the Airline should not:
• Discriminate against any individual with a disability
• Refuse transportation to any person with a disability whose
appearance or involuntary behaviour may offend, annoy or
inconvenience crewmembers or passengers.
• Refuse to provide transportation to individuals with disabilities
by limiting the number of such persons who are permitted to
travel on a given flight
• Require a disabled individual to occupy a certain seat except
that exit row seating requirements should be followed
• Require a disabled individual to pre-board
• Require a disabled individual to sit on blankets
Upon request, Operators should provide information concerning the
location of seats with movable armrests, wheel chair accessible
lavatories and locations for stowing personal wheelchair, cane
and/or other walking devices.
Canes can be stowed along the fuselage wall, in an overhead bin, a
closet or under a seat cannot impede passenger egress.
Braille Briefing Booklets may be offered when applicable. On board
wheelchairs may be offered, when available.
Non-ambulatory passengers should be personally briefed by a
cabin crewmember and include the following points:
• Route to the closest floor level door exit
• Location of all other floor level door exits
• Time to start moving to an exit in an evacuation
• Determination of the most appropriate way to provide
assistance in order to prevent injury or pain
Passengers who cannot sit erect should be seated in a row of seats
just forward of a bulkhead/monument. Seat backs may be reclined
for all phases of flight.
Persons with ventilators/respirators may use their approved
personal devices while on board, based on the Operator’s pre-
screening procedures.
Assistance should be offered to passengers when filling out landing
cards.
Cabin crew should inquire about the passenger’s itinerary,
including connections and final destination. If the disabled
passenger needs assistance after the flight, the crew shall radio
ahead to ensure assistance is available.

FOOD SERVICE AND DUTY FREE

Food service or catering and duty free products proceed to make
sure passengers will have an excellent service the whole flight.
Therefore, the cabin crew responsible for selling the Duty Free will
check their stock, the ones responsible for the bar will fill in the
refrigerates with bottles of white wine, champagne, beer and juice,
and the ones that are working in the kitchen, will number the trays
and food casseroles to make sure that each passenger has a
portion for the service offered on that flight. Of course, now is the
time to check if any special foods are brought on board, like the
ones for children, diabetics, and passengers with gluten
intolerance, lactose, peanuts and so on.
TYPES OF BEVERAGE: ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES AND COCKTAILS,
MEAL & BEVERAGE SERVICES.
At the most basic level, a drink is a type of liquid that humans can
consume for sustenance, energy or hydration. For hundreds of
thousands of years, the idea of a beverage was likely restricted to
water or milk, and perhaps juice squeezed from fruits. Then there
was alcohol and wine, various teas, coffees, cocktails, cocoas,
ciders and sodas.
Non-Alcoholic Beverages
There are definitely more varieties of beverages that are non-
alcoholic, at least in terms of their nutritional variation. From
freshly squeezed orange juice to chemical-packed energy drinks,
the spectrum of non-alcoholic beverages is broad.
Figure 20: Non-Alcoholic Beverages

Juice: Juice can come in as many varieties as they are types of

fruits and vegetables. From orange juice to beet juice, freshly
squeezed to concentrate, juice plays a huge part in our daily life.
Fruit and vegetable juices are not only refreshing and filling, but
also very good for you, due to their vitamin and mineral content. In
fact, some fruit juices have such concentrated nutrients that you
can fulfil some of your vitamin and mineral needs with a single cup!
That being said, many fruit juices are altered with additional sugars
and other additives, either fillers or flavorings. Depending on the
source of the juice and the purity, the nutritional content may vary.
Most juices are rich in vitamins and antioxidants, including vitamins
A, C and D, as well as magnesium, calcium, potassium and
phosphorous. While most of these nutrients are gained when
drinking juice, the actual juicing process causes most of the dietary
fiber to be kept out of the juice itself, which makes it slightly less
beneficial than simply eating the fruit alone.
Tea: When you pour boiling water over certain types of leaves,
herbs or other substances, you can create a tea, which is primarily
composed of water, but it is infused with the various nutrients,
vitamins, minerals and antioxidants of the tea “leaf”. Tea comes in
many different forms, including black, green, white, oolong, and
puer. You can also make teas from various herbs and spices, like
cinnamon, honey, pine needle, chamomile, echinacea and many
others. Each tea variety promises certain health benefits by
delivering specific antioxidants or other organic compounds to the
drinker, as well as varying amounts of caffeine, depending on what
the desired effect is.
The most common benefits of tea are reduced inflammation, lower
anxiety and stress levels, better sleep, respiratory improvement, an
immune system boost and increased antioxidant activity to defend
against chronic disease, like cancer.
Coffee: Similar to tea in its preparation, coffee is made by pouring
boiling water over coffee grounds, which come from coffee beans.
This is a rather straightforward beverage, and is found throughout
the world. Its primary use is as a stimulant, and billions of cups of
coffee are drunk every year around the world due to the high levels
of caffeine found in this daily drink. Roasted coffee beans can come
in many different varieties, flavors and intensities, which is why
there are thousands of different coffee blends out there in the
world. Most coffee has a moderate amount of B vitamins,
pantothenic acid, riboflavin and trace amounts of potassium and
manganese. Caffeine can be addictive, so it is important to regulate
your coffee intakes, as too much can negatively affect your nervous
system and stomach.
Cocoa: One of the simplest beverages is cocoa, quite simply
composed of hot water or milk mixed with cocoa powder, shaved
chocolate or melted chocolate. Sugar is also added to some kinds
of cocoa as a sweetener. Generally, cocoa is considered a sweet
treat, and not a healthy beverage, but there are an impressive
amount of surprising benefits. The cacao plant, from which cocoa is
derived, possesses a number of antioxidants and organic acids,
doing everything from improving blood flow and reducing
cholesterolcontent to preventing chronic disease and boosting
cognition.
Water: The most basic beverage on the planet is also the most
important. Without water, each and every human being on the
planet would die. It is incredibly important to maintain an intake of
water so our bodies can function properly. Since we are composed
of more than 70% water, it makes sense that staying hydrated is so
important! Water can come in various forms such as sparkling, tap,
still, bottled etc. but it is the lubricant for all of life’s processes, and
if you don’t have enough of it, your body will let you know!
Energy Drinks: The recent craze over energy drinks is
understandable in our fast-paced world, but many of these
supercharged beverages can be hazardous to our health, if drunk in
excess. They tend to have slightly less caffeine than an average cup
of coffee, despite how they’re marketed, but that isn’t the main
problem. While they may give you a healthy energy boost, some of
that is coming in the form of sugar, because there is a LOT in most
energy drinks. So, while caffeine picks you up, the sugar crash that
can occur after drinking an energy drink can also be quite severe.
Milk: One of the most natural substances in the world, milk is
produced from the mammary glands of certain animals. Commonly
consumed forms of milk include cow, goat, sheep, buffalo, camel,
donkey, horse, reindeer and yak milk, although some of these are
less commonly found than others. Animal milk is typically
suggested to be drunk by animals of the same species e.g., goat’s
milk is best for goats, etc., but there are significant health benefits
to be had when humans drink these different animal milks. Many of
them are high in minerals and unique compounds that can help
build strong bones and improve immunity. Each type of animal milk,
however, should be considered individually based on their individual
nutrient profiles.
Soda: Carbonated beverages are beloved by children, but many
parents are wary of allowing their children to drink too much
“soda” or “pop”. Coca-Cola, Sprite, Pepsi, Dr. Pepper, Root beer and
so many other sodas are out there on the market, and most of them
are packed with sugar and sugar substitutes. There are no real
health benefits to soda, except for the caffeine boost that it can
occasionally provide. Sodas tend to have no vitamins or minerals,
and carbohydrates exclusively in the form of sugar.
Alcoholic Beverages

Figure 21: Alcoholic Beverages

Beer: Beer is likely one of the oldest beverages on the planet, and is
certainly the first form of alcohol. Made by the fermentation of
starches – cereal grains, rice, corn, maize, etc. – beer was probably
made by accident at some point in ancient history, and has now
become a global phenomenon, and most people’s favorite way to
relax after a hard day of work. Beer isn’t generally considered a
healthy beverage, due to the effect of alcohol on the body, and the
relatively high calorie count of most beers. However, there is a small
amount of B vitamins, potassium and magnesium in most varieties
of beer. Depending on how each beer is brewed, there are an infinite
number of unique nutrient profiles, but most are primarily made of
carbohydrates and small amounts of protein.
Wine: Another ancient beverage, wine is made by fermenting
grapes, just as beer is made by fermenting starches. This
fermentation process is what gives these beverages their alcohol
content. Wine comes in two primary varieties, red and white, but
depending on where the grapes are grown in the world, the soil
content and the cultivation process, the flavours and unique
nutrient profile will be different. Most wines possess high levels of
tannins, antioxidants and phytochemicals that are derived from the
skin of the fermented grapes. This can make wine, in moderation,
very helpful for lowering your risk of chronic disease, cancer,
chronic stress hormones and other unsavoury medical conditions.
Cider: Fermented grains and grapes make up beer and wine, but
fermented apples are the source material behind cider, another very
popular alcoholic drink. Commonly known as hard cider, there are
some health benefits, namely the low levels of vitamins and certain
minerals that remain from the apple. High concentrations of
antioxidants from the apple also make hard cider somewhat healthy
for those who drink it, as always, in moderation.
Hard Alcohol: Spirits, liquor or hard alcohol… whatever you want to
call it, these are the most potent forms of alcoholic beverages,
often exceeding 40% alcohol by volume. Whiskey, vodka, gin,
tequila, rum, soju, brandy and countless others are all forms of
alcohol, but they are concentrated in strength because they are
distilled versions of fermented products. This makes them much
more powerful and intoxicating for consumers. The distillation
process tends to eliminate any of the possible nutrients from these
types of alcohol, but studies do show that occasional drinking in
moderation can be good for your immune system and heart health.
 Chapter 3
Air Ticketing & Reservations

The purpose of this chapter is to inform the readers about existing

Airline booking rules and main Airline Ticketing Policies.

3.1. TICKET POLICIES AND PROCEDURES

The airline Ticketing policies are related to the sales, issuance of air
fares & documents, exchange/reissue, refund & other related
topics.
The booking policy enables Airline to manage the flight inventories
in an optimal manner. It also enables to offer more seat availability
to our travel partners and aims to reduce check-in problems for
airline customers if transactions generated are processed correctly.
Airline booking policy takes into consideration and complies with
IATA resolutions; the obligations of the travel agency are described
in IATA Resolutions 824 and 830a. As mentioned in paragraph 3.2
of IATA resolution 824, Airline can provide travel agencies with
booking policy and travel agencies are obliged to comply with it.
Airline ticketing policy has taken into consideration and complies
with IATA resolutions; the obligations of the travel agency are
described in IATA Resolutions 824, 830a, 850m, 852, 890 & 049x.
Non-compliance with the airline booking & ticketing policy could
lead to penalties. Airline audits all transactions to identify non-
compliance.
If any travel agent has engaged in practices that conflict with these
policies, Airline will inform the agent with documented evidence
and may take appropriate measures, e.g. charging the correct
applicable fares, flat penalty fees, taxes, surcharges and/or GDS
fees associated with the PNR(s) directly to the agent with an
additional administrative fee.

BOOKING POLICY
The booking policy has the following steps:
1. Creation & Modification of a Passenger Record
When creating or modifying a Passenger Name Record (PNR) the
travel itinerary must be booked in sequence of travel times. Full
O&D Availability (Origin & Destination) is mandatory irrespective of
whether a reservation involves ailine flights only and/or including
codeshare and/or other airline flights. The selected O&D availability
must show and secure authorized Minimum Connecting Times.
Airline may provide a level of availability on Married Segments that
differs from the level of availability provided by Airline if the
segments were sold separately.
PNRs that are not booked from the provided Origin and destination
(O&D) availability and contain bookings received through any
manipulations before or after EoT (end of transaction) are being
monitored. Such manipulations will be subject to cancellations of
the PNRs when unticketed or an ADM/invoice per passenger and
per directions of travel of the O&D when ticketed. Airline will send a
cancellation message to the original agent in the PNR.
In case a Travel agent issues a ticket based on PNR with a
manipulated segment an ADM/invoice is issued. The ticketing agent
is responsible for malpractices even if they are not the original
agent making the booking and the ADM will be raised irrespective of
the ticket stock used.
Airline reserves the right to implement additional checks, as well as
to change the penalty fee amounts.
2. Waitlist Segments
Wait listing (WL) of flight segments is a common practice by travel
agents that enables the customer to be listed on flights at the
preferred fare.
Airline has several tools to inhibit, reduce or cancel WL segments in
place.
Travel agents are asked to:
1. Limit the number of WL segments to the minimum level and
2. Cancel and remove not needed WL segments at least outside
24hrs before flight departure.
3. No Waitlist segment permitted at the time of check-in if any
higher booking class within the same travel compartment is
available.
3. Name Changes/Name Corrections
The full name and title of each passenger must be entered at the
time of booking. A name change means that you replace the person
by another person in your booking. Changes of family name or first
name are not permitted within the same PNR. If change is needed,
the original PNR must be cancelled and a new PNR must be created,
however the booking class must be available. The old ticket must be
refunded according to fare rules and a new ticket must be issued as
per the actual applicable fare.
Name corrections up to 2 letters are only permitted if the customer
name has been misspelled or to reflect legal documents. The name
change restrictions do not apply for Group PNRs.
4. Dupes/ADSP: Advice disposition of space
Airline does not allow duplicate bookings. In addition, the creation
of bookings across one or more PNRs and/or GDSs, where it is
logically impossible to travel, is not permitted.
Airline has an automated application in place focused on detection
and cancellation of Dupe/ADSP, which sends out a cancellation
message, i.e. the status code ‘HX’. Also a Dupe/ADSP blocks unused
seats, thus causing less availability for new bookings. HX and other
inactive segments must be removed immediately.
Note: By inserting the correct full First name of a passenger at the
time of the booking you ensure that DUPE/ADSP check is
minimized. If you receive an SSR message for DUPE checks it is
important to contact Airline to inform if it is not a DUPE.
5. Inactive Segments (Status codes HX/NO/UC/UN/US)
It is an industry standard for airlines to respond with status codes
like HX, NO, UC and UN due to host processes or automated
applications (like Dupe, Passive Segment Notification, No-show/WL
Clearer as described above), for non-compliance with Airline
booking policy, for unavailability to confirm sales on Airline flights
or for schedule changes.
All inactive status codes like HX/NO/UC/UN/US must be removed
latest 24 hours before flight departure by using the cancel entry.
6. Cancellation Ratio
The cancellation ratio is the number of booked segments vs.
number of cancelled segments which differs from agent to agent.
Cancellation ratio is the relation between booked and cancelled
segments above 80% must be avoided.
Cancellations should whenever possible be done latest 24 hours
before departure.
7. Fictitious/speculative/test bookings
These are defined as reservations where a booking is entered into a
GDS, using fictional/speculative names and/or flight segments,
with no intent for travel and/or which is not directly related to a
request from a passenger to purchase a ticket. Also PNRs should
not be created for training and testing reasons.
Examples of such bookings include reservations with names in
PNRs such as: SCHEDULE/A/B/C, MOUSE/MICKEY, SMITH/A/B/C,
and TEST/AIRLINE.
The training mode provided by the GDS must be used when testing
functionality or training personnel.
It is prohibited to create segments and/or PNRs for:
• holding or blocking seats in view of expecting demands
• circumventing fare rules
• request and/or sell airline space not at the specific request of a
customer, e.g. add additional flight segments to the PNR and
remove it later.
8. Churning
All GDS bookings must be either ticketed as per tariff rules or
cancelled in the GDS immediately when not required and prior to
departure.
Cancelling and rebooking of the same itinerary in the same or
different classes of service across one or more PNRs or GDSs to
circumvent or extend ticketing time limits is not permitted.
9. Look to book ratio
Some airlines allow all agencies, per Office ID or PCC; a maximum
look-to-book ratio of 400:1 per month. This means that the
maximum number of availability requests is observed per booked
net passenger segment cannot exceed this limit.
The travel agency ensures that this limit is known and adhered to.
In case Airline identifies that this maximum limit has been
exceeded, the agency will be contacted and the following
appropriate measures will be taken by Airline:
1. The agency ensures that with immediate effect, meaning within
1 month, the look-to-book ratio is reduced.
2. The travel agency may increase the number of availability
requests by paying some amount for any additional availability
request that exceeds the maximum ratio per month. Airline will
invoice the respective travel agency on a monthly basis.
3. Airline can substitute the seamless availability with an
availability status (AVS), which might lead to discrepancies in
the availability request and the sell request.
In case the travel agency is not able to reduce the availability
requests below the maximum ratio, option 2) or 3) can be selected
by the agent in agreement with airline. Selected option can be
changed by informing airline at any time. Airline will ensure that
with a lead time of 1 month and at the beginning of the next full
month, the respective action is implemented.
10. Correct Booking class
All bookings must use the correct and appropriate booking class
according to the fare paid.
11. Ticket Deadline Control
A date and time deadline required for ticket issuance is set for each
booking.
Each fare has its own ticket time limit which is reflected in Category
5 of the respective fare note chapter. However, if there is a
discrepancy between the time limit set and the note chapter then
the most restrictive ticket time limit will apply.
12. Hidden Groups
Airline Group Policy states that 10 or more passengers travelling
in-/outbound sector together in Economy class (10 in Business
class, and 4 in First class) constitute a group booking regardless of
the fare paid.
Airline informs agents that such bookings are subject to
cancellation via an HX message in the PNR to the originator of the
PNR. Such HX segments need to be removed immediately.
Example of an OTHS sent by Airline:
4/OTHS-YY/// *ATTN AGT/BOOKING CNLD AS HIDDEN GROUP$
FOR GROUP REQUEST CTC NEXT LX OFFICE Booking & Ticketing
Policy 6/17 For GDS Agents in CH Market .
13. No-shows
No-shows occur when the Travel Agent fails to cancel a booking
that is not required by the customer which leads to inventory
spoilage. If the reservation is not cancelled it may result in a No-
show rebooking/refund restrictions may apply for no-show after
ticketing.
Un-ticketed segments which result in No-Show shall be liable to
penalty

TICKETING POLICY
1. Carrier validation rule
According to the definition in IATA Resolution 852, an Airline can be
used as validating Carrier provided that:
– It is a BSP member and eligible for electronic ticketing in the
market
– It has interline agreements with all marketing and operating
carriers part of the itinerary
– It is part of the itinerary or is GSA for one carrier part of the
itinerary
SWISS validation principle shall be selected by Agents for issuing
LX724 tickets, when sales for the journey includes travel entirely or
partially on LX flight numbers.
Validation Principle
Airline which may be as:
– First international or intercontinental flight or at least one
international or intercontinental flight in the itinerary;
Valid for:
– LX operated flights and LX flight numbers on leisure flights
(WK)
– LX flight number on code share flights, LX is marketing carrier
(code share agreement)
– LX flight number operated by another carrier, but LX has the full
commercial responsibility (so called wet lease).
– LX purely domestic flights and tickets;
– When issuing a LX724/document number for flights purely
involving flight numbers e.g. STAR passes. It is mandatory to
 mention the valid document number for the international LX
flights in the endorsement box as a cross reference.
Validation Exemption
Airline may allow validation exception in an e.g. specific market
when a certain selected carrier, which is not in BSP, need to be
ticketed. It is allowed only in connection with a journey including
sale of other airline flights and if specifically authorised by airline. If
more information is needed contact local airline representative. LX
shall write such exemptions into the PNR by vendor remark.
Not valid for:
– A first or last airline domestic flight combined with solely other
carriers’ international or inter-continental flights.
In case of interline bookings the LX validation principles may be
overruled by any other sales restriction, filed in the fare note.
2. Electronic ticket document
The e-ticket or electronic ticket)as defined by IATA Resolution 722f
consists of the following:
– E-flight coupons have consecutive coupon numbers within a
range of one (1) through four (4), as applicable, and being
issued in sequence (in sequence of travel).
– A maximum of four (4) flight coupons per ticket number issued.
– A maximum four (4) consecutive tickets issued for one journey
(max.16 flight coupons).
The e-ticket (electronic ticket) as defined by IATA Resolution 722f
shall contain the following:
– Passenger name: family name/full first name & gender (title
optional), airline can accept max. 29 characters (including
 slash)
– Airline designator or name of Marketing Carrier; name of
Operating Carrier;
– Flight number(s); Date of flight(s); flight departure time(s);
– For each flight, origin and destination Airport/City code;
– Fare (base amount); equivalent Fare amount (when applicable);
Taxes/Fee/Charges;
– Ticket document;
– Fare construction; NUC (neutral currency unit) if published fare
is being ticketed
– Form of payment; Reservation status;
– Date of issue; Issuing Agency; Airline name and place of issue;
Baggage Allowance
– Ticket/Document number(s); Endorsement/Restrictions.
The passenger e-ticket (electronic ticket) confirmation as defined by
IATA Resolution 722f
The electronic traffic document includes the electronic or written
flight itinerary confirmation, including airfare and payment details,
provided by the travel agency.
Ticket Notices
– The Conditions of Contract and other important notice shall be
provided with the e-ticket confirmation used for interline
international carriage as shown below.
– The Ticket Notices or reference to IATA Resolution 724 is
mandatory.
Carriage and other services provided by the carrier are subject to
Conditions of Carriage, which are hereby incorporated by reference
to IATA Resolution 724.
3. Credit card sales rule – card acceptance
In reference to following important points and parts of the IATA
Resolution 890, §1- 4
Credit Card Acceptance
1. The Agent may accept cards as payment for ticket sales on
behalf of the Member/Airline whose ticket being issued; subject
to the Rules & Procedures outlined in IATA Resolution 890 and
in chapter 10 and/or 14 of the billing and settlement plan
manual for Agents.
Policy
– Accept cards as payment for ticket sales where applicable for a
certain airline.
2. The Agent shall ensure that the type of card processed during
the sale is accepted by the Member/Airline whose traffic
document is being issued.
Policy
– For LX724 validation documents only cards contracted with
airline may be accepted.
– airline accepts all general credit cards: AX, DC, JC, MC, VI and
TP.
3. No Card issued in the name of the Agent, or in the name of a
person permitted to act on behalf of the Agent, or in the name of
the Agent officer, partner or employee, shall be used in
 connection with the sale of the air transportation on behalf of
the Member/Airline to any customer of the Agent.
Alternative
Air Plus offers agencies credit card payment solution accepted by
airline e.g. for agent web bookings on closed user group (CUG)
and/or group sales.
Refunding
Refund amount of a total unused or partially used ticket shall only
be refunded to the credit card number, which has originally been
used for payment.
4. Fare guarantee
Fare Guarantee – as defined in IATA Resolution 049x
A fare and tariff is only guaranteed when the fare was auto-quoted
by system and the ticket was issued with ticket number, based on
confirmed flights and ticket reported in BSP.
Auto-quoted stored fares but not ticketed are subject to any price
change. The ticketed fare remains guaranteed up to a voluntary
first flight and/or itinerary change. Any change needs observation
of the corresponding fare rule and followed respectively. This
applies to taxes equally that need reassessment in case of
reissue/rerouting before departure.
Airline tickets established with manual fare quotations are subject
to control and any fare discrepancies are subject to agent debit.
5. Airline booking/reservation change rule
By changing a flight in a passenger booking record, the
corresponding e-ticket shall be fare and flight adjusted within that
change transaction. That guarantees an effective customer service
with smooth check-in before flight departure by avoiding the risk
that the flight bookings could be cancelled due to ticketing deadline
control.
A flight change transaction performed without e-ticket adaptation
for e.g. fare adjustment and/or change fee collection including
ticket reissue or revalidation
Airline e-ticket coupon revalidation is permitted and technically
possible once, if within the same reservation booking code (RBD)
and as long as the not valid before and not valid after (NVB/NVA)
date on such flight coupon is not restricted or overruled. Fare
change conditions also apply with coupon revalidation.
6. Usage of EMD – with Airline ticketing
Airline offers the usage of EMD (electronic miscellaneous
document) for travel agents. There are two types of EMD existing:
EMD-S (stand-alone) & EMD-A (associated).
Cancellation Policy
An EMD can be cancelled on the day of issuance only. After that, if
applicable, a refund request is necessary.
7. Ticket adjustment procedures
a) E-ticket revalidation and change fee
b) E-ticket reissue/rerouting and collection of change fee
c) E-ticket reissue/rerouting and refundable balance
8. General refund principle
Voluntary Refund means a refund of an unused ticket or portion
thereof other than an involuntary refund. A refund notice for
unused tickets or portion thereof shall be made in accordance with
the following conditions:
- Voluntary refund of a ticket, sold on behalf of airline, shall be
applied for by the agent according to the SWISS refund rules;
- For Cancel or refund conditions apply the conditions mentioned in
the fare note according to the date of issue.
Exception to the rule: in case of no-show for fares, TICKET IS NON-
REFUNDABLE IN CASE OF NO-SHOW the entire ticket is non-
refundable and the definition (TICKET) in the fare note overrules
the per fare component cancellation policy.
Involuntary Refund means a refund of an unused ticket or portion
thereof other than a voluntary refund. Involuntary (irregularity)
refunds are restricted to the issuing Airline and to the carriers’
decision of involuntary treatment or not. Airline may authorise or
request support by travel agents to involuntary refund or possibly
reissue a ticket according to specifically advised conditions.
Expired Tickets shall not be exchanged for, or being used as
payment towards further travel. It is exclusively valid for refund.
9. General ADM/Agency credit memo (ACM) policy
Principles of Agency debit memos (ADM)
Agency debit memos are a legitimate accounting tool for use by all
BSP Airlines to collect amounts or make adjustments to Agent
transactions in respect of the issuance and use of Standard Traffic
Documents issued by the Agent.
Alternative uses of agency debit memo may exist provided that
consultation has taken place either individually with the Agent or a
local representation of Agents, or through the applicable local joint
consultative forum.
ADM Policy
The policy stands in accordance with IATA Resolution 850m
(Passenger Agency Conference Resolutions Manual). All the
provisions of the resolutions agreed by the Passenger Agency
Conference will apply.
Minimum ADM Value
The minimum value for a single Agency debit memo is CHF 20.00 in
Swiss, unless the sum of multiple proposals on the same case is
higher than the minimum amount. In case of persistent errors, the
minimum debit value shall not be applicable. The minimum value
does not apply either if ADM reason is linked to commission, fuel
surcharge or refund.
ADM Issuance
Agency debit memos specify in detail as to why a charge is being
made. A complementary document indicating reason for debit and
details of charge is attached to the respective debit memo.
Agency debit memos will only be processed through the BSP if
issued latest nine months after final travel date. Any debit action
initiated beyond this period will be handled directly between the
BSP Airline and Agent i.e. by issuing invoice.
Agency debit memos are issued via mass-upload into BSP Link four
times a month. The ADMs show the contacts of the respective
department having knowledge about the debit memo and provides
detailed information about the reason for it. One is issued per
ticket. ADMs for specific items for instance, tax can be issued for
multiple tickets on one ADM.
Dispute Handling
Disputes of ADMs are to be deposited in writing. They have to be
handled via BSPLink within the given set-up in BSP link, or via e-
mail after reception of the ADM, indicating dispute reason and
including supporting documentation. Disputed ADMs will be
clarified in a timely manner, limited in BSP link to within 60 days
maximum. In case of rejected disputes, detailed information and
explanations about reason of rejection will be provided to the
agent.
Disputes will be accepted up to two years after ADM issuance date.
Agency Credit Memo (ACM) Issuance
In the event that agency debit memos have been discovered as
unjustified, an agency credit memo will be issued to credit the
respective amount.

3.2. LUGGAGE AND PERSONAL EFFECTS

Passengers are advised to seek for insurance covers your luggage
and personal effects if they are stolen, permanently lost or
accidentally damaged during travel.

3.3. COMPUTER RESERVATION SYSTEM

Computer Reservation System (CRS) is an information system that
promotes sales and provides fast and accurate information about
availability seats, price and bookings of tourism products and
services.
1. Originally CRSs were developed to facilitate business
transactions and bookings related to air travel
2. Later, CRSs were extended for the use of travel agencies,
hotels, and other tourism and hospitality businesses to manage
their inventory and allow direct access through terminals to
check for availability, make reservations and issue tickets
 3. Today, CRSs are of high importance for travel and tourism
industry with the main focus on direct reservations e.g. directly
in the hotel.
CRS History
CRS is the first information system that was used in tourism
industry. Primarily it was used as inventory-control system by
airlines
• In 1962 American Airlines introduced SABRE (Semi-Automated
Business Research Environment) the first commercial CRS,
developed by IBM, that was used for generating flight plans for
the aircraft.
Typical CRS Functions:
• Indicating flight schedule information : Days and times for
flights operated by the airline
• Availing information: Seat availability on a flight by service class
i.e. Economy, business, first class
• Showing fare quotes
• Indicating a consolidated fare for an itinerary based on flight,
day, time, service class and passenger types chosen
• Providing reservation information
• Seat bookings
• Ticketing information
• Generating and storing tickets
• Refunding and cancelling
• Cancelling of existing reservations and tickets
Evolution of CRS
In the 1970s and 80s multiple CRSs came up. The growth of air
traffic expanded CRS in order to distribute up-to-date information
to all potential customers worldwide and to support the operation
and administration of airlines, CRS evolves from the central to the
distribution system.
In the mid 1980s, CRS developed into much more comprehensive
global distribution system (GDS) offering a wide range of tourism
products and providing the backbone mechanism for
communication between actors in tourism industry.
From CRS to GDS:

Figure 22: Evolution from CRS to GDS

• Among the first non-North American CRS, that was developed

jointly by Air France, Lufthansa, Iberia and SAS in 1987, was
Amadeus.
Global Distribution Systems – GDS
Figure 23: Global Distribution Systems – GDS

• GDS is an integrated information system and communication

channel that incorporates all travel services, connects service
providers with end users, providing information from all
segments of the journey and allows booking and selling of the
required services. Being more than just a reservation tool , GDS
integrates the core business processes of tourism businesses
and therefore increase their productivity, speed, and
performance.
Besides air products, today GDSs provide access to:
• Car rentals
• Hotel booking
• Packaged holidays
• Cruises and ships
• Railways
 • Local road transport ...
• GDS enable clients to compare, and access information about
travel, leisure, and other tourism related information from
various tourism service providers.
Travel Agent before GDSs
The work of travel agent was difficult before GDS and travel agency
was the center airline booking even though it seems to be the same
scenario nowadays as shown in the following diagramme.

Figure 24: Travel Agent before GDSs

Major GDSs
GDS has the crucial operations in airline industry. Therefore, the
following are the major four GDS softwares:
1. Sabre
2. Amadeus
 3. Travelport (the umbrella company for the Galileo and
Worldspan)
4. Abacus
1. Sabre
Sabre was founded in 1964 by American Airlines and is
headquartered in Texas, USA.
Sabre Travel Network provides:
• solutions for the air transportation industry
• solutions for the hospitality industry
• online travel company
• solutions for the travel industry

Figure 25: Sabre

Figure 26: Illustration of International Booking search

2. Amadeus
It was founded in 1987 by Air France, Iberia, Lufthansa and SAS. It
has headquarter in Madrid, Spain.

Figure 27: Amadeus

3. Worldspan
Founded in 1990 by Delta Airlines, Northwest Airlines and
Transworld Airlines. It was Merged with Galileo in 2006.

Figure 28: Estimated air market share gain (2000-2012).

Source: Amadeus, 2013.

4. Abacus is a global distribution system (GDS) only used by travel

agencies in Asia. It is operated by Abacus International Pte, Ltd.,
which is headquartered in Singapore and which is owned by Sabre
Holdings and eleven Asian airlines; All Nippon Airways, Cathay
Pacific, China Airlines, EVA Airways, Garuda Indonesia, Dragonair,
Philippine Airlines, Malaysia Airlines, Royal Brunei Airlines and
SilkAir. It has worldwide Market Share of 5%.

3.4. FARE RULES & CONSTRUCTION

IATA’s New Pricing System using NUC, IROE and LCF, use of BBR
and BSR when payment is made other than LSC with different
instruments of payment.
Fare calculations with the above systems for OW, NOJ, RT, CT, RTW,
specified routing, mixed class travel, interrupted journeys, side
trips, special fares and rerouting with required minimum checks
such as BHC, DMC, CPM, CTM, COP, RWM, OSC, RSC, collection &
calculation of taxes, fees & charges.
Fare Construction
• OW/One Way Journey
• RT/Round Trip, CT/Circle Trip, RW/Round the World
Construction Steps-OW
• Type of Journey-OW,RT,CT,RW
• GI- Global Indicator (EH, PA, AT…)
• FCP-Fare Construction Point
• NUC-Neutral Unit Construction
• SR-Specific Routing
• MPM-Maximum Permitted Mileage
• TPM-Ticketed Point Mileage
• EMA-Extra Mileage Allowance
• EMS-Excess Mileage Surcharge
• HIP-Higher Intermediate Point
• BHC-Backhaul Minimum Check
• LCF-Local Currency Fare = NUC * ROE
Standard Calculation-Ex(1)
 • ITINERARY: TPE/FRA/PAR/LON
• Type of Journey-OW
• GI-Global Indicator: EH
• FBP-Fare Break Point
• NUC-Neutral Unit Construction
ITIN1-Steps
• DF-TPELON OW Y (1709.69)
• SR-NIL
• MPM-8791
• TPM-6593
• EMA-NIL
• EMS-NIL
• HIP-TPELON 1709.69
• LCF-1709.69*34.45700=TWD59811
Standard Calculation-Ex(2)
• ITIN: TPE/HKGx/FRA/MUCx/FRA/BKK
• Type of Journey-OW
• GI-Global Indicator: EH
• FBP-Fare Break Point: MUC
• NUC-Neutral Unit Construction
ITINERARY 2-Steps
• DF1-TPEMUC OW Y (1627.27)
• SR-NIL
• MPM-8125
 • TPM-6384
• EMA-NIL
• EMS-NIL
• HIP-HKGMUC 1811.66
ITIN2-Steps
• DF2-MUCBKK OW Y (1946.55)
• SR-NIL
• MPM-7034
• TPM-5761
• EMA-NIL
• EMS-NIL
• HIP-MUCBKK 1946.55
• LCF=(1811.66+1946.55)*34.45700
=TWD129497
OW Minimum Fare-Ex(1)
• ITIN: TPEx/FRA/LON/PAR
• Type of Journey-OW
• GI-Global Indicator: EH
• FBP-Fare Break Point
• NUC-Neutral Unit Construction
Back Haul Minimum Check-Steps
• DF-TPEPAR OW C (1959.63)
• SR-NIL
• MPM-8560
 • TPM-6703
• EMA-NIL
• EMS-NIL
• HIP-TPELON 2059.32
• BHC=2*TPELON-TPEPAR=2*2059.32-1959.63
=2159.01>2059.32(TPELON)
• P-Premium=2159.01-2059.32=99.69
• TPE CI X/FRA LH LON BA PAR M TPELON 2059.32 COW
PTPELON TPEPAR 99.69 NUC 2159.01END ROE 34.45700
• LCF=2159.01*34.45700=TWD74393
OW Minimum Fare-Ex(2
• ITIN: TPEx/SINx/FRA/LON/PAR
• Type of Journey-OW
• GI-Global Indicator: EH
• FBP-Fare Break Point
• NUC-Neutral Unit Construction
Back Haul Minimum Check-Steps
• DF-TPEPAR OW Y (1627.27)
• SR-NIL
• MPM-8560
• TPM-9011
• EMA-NIL
• EMS-9011/8560=1.0526→10M
• HIP-TPELON 1709.69*1.1=1880.65
 • BHC: 2*TPELON-TPEPAR=2*1709.69-1627.27
=1792.11<1880.65(TPELON)
• TPE SQ X/SIN LH X/FRA LH LON AF PAR 10M TPELON 1880.65
YOW NUC 1880.65END ROE 34.45700
• LCF=1880.65*34.45700=TWD64802
Construction Steps-RT,CT,RW
• Type of Journey-RT,CT,RW
• GI- Global Indicator (EH, PA, AT…)
• FBP-Fare Break Point
• NUC-Neutral Unit Construction
• SR-Specific Routing
• MPM-Maximum Permitted Mileage
• TPM-Ticketed Point Mileage
• EMA-Extra Mileage Allowance
• EMS-Excess Mileage Surcharge
• HIP-Higher Intermediate Point
• CTM/RWM-Circle Trip Minimum Check/Round the world
Minimum Check
• LCF-Local Currency Fare = NUC * ROE
CT Minimum Fare-Ex(1)
• ITIN: KHH/BKK/LON/MUCx/BKK/SIN/KHH
• Type of Journey-CT
• GI-Global Indicator: EH
• FBP-Fare Break Point: LON
 • NUC-Neutral Unit Construction
Circle Trip Minimum Check-Steps
• DF1-Outbound KHHLON ½RT C (3744.16/2=1872.08)
• SR-NIL
• MPM-8678
• TPM-7349
• EMA-NIL
• EMS-NIL
• HIP-KHHLON 1872.08
• F1-1872.08
Circle Trip Minimum Check-Steps
• DF2-Inbound KHHLON ½RT C (3744.16/2=1872.08)
• SR-NIL
• MPM-8678
• TPM-8758
• EMA-NIL
• EMS-8758/8678=1.0092→5M
• HIP-SINLON (4665.92/2)*1.05
=2449.60
• F2=2449.60
• F1+F2=1872.08+2449.60=4321.68
Circle Trip Minimum Check-Steps
• CTM-Compared RT NUC and F1+F2 (4321.68)
KHHBKK-918.04
 KHHLON-3744.16
KHHMUC-3562.92
KHHSIN-1259.26
• CTM=4321.68
• KHH TG BKK TG LON M1872.08 LH MUC LH X/BKK SQ SIN SQ
KHH 5M SINLON 2449.60 NUC 4321.68END ROE 34.45700
• LCF=4321.68*34.45700=TWD148913
CT Minimum Fare-Ex(2)
• ITIN: LAXx/SFO/TYOx/SEL/TPEx/SFO/LAX
• Type of Journey-CT
• GI-Global Indicator: PA
• FBP-Fare Break Point: TPE
• NUC-Neutral Unit Construction
Circle Trip Minimum Check-Steps
• DF1-Outbound LAXTPE ½RT F (7546/2=3773)
• SR-NIL
• MPM-8130
• TPM-7121
• EMA-NIL
• EMS-NIL
• HIP-LAXTYO (10216/2=5108)
• F1-5108
Circle Trip Minimum Check-Steps
• CTM-Compared RT NUC and F1+F2 (8881)
 LAXTYO-10216
LAXTPE-7546
• CTM=(LAXTYO RT)10216>8881(F1+F2)
• P-Premium=10216-8881=1335
• LAX UA X/SFO UA TYO JL X/SEL CX TPE MLAXTYO 5108 UA
X/SFO UA LAX M3773 PLAXTYO1335 NUC10216END
ROE1.00000
• LCF=10216*1.00000=USD10216
CT Minimum Fare-Ex(3)
• ITIN: HKGx/SIN/KUL/BKK/HKG
• Type of Journey-CT
• GI-Global Indicator: EH
• FBP-Fare Break Point: KUL
• NUC-Neutral Unit Construction
Circle Trip Minimum Check-Steps
• DF1-Outbound HKGKUL ½RT F (1724.46/2=862.23)
• SR-NIL
• MPM-1887
• TPM-1791
• EMA-NIL
• EMS-NIL
• HIP-HKGKUL (1724.46/2=862.23)
• F1-862.23
Circle Trip Minimum Check-Steps
 • DF2-Inbound HKGKUL ½RT F (1724.46/2=862.23)
• SR-NIL
• MPM-1887
• TPM-1811
• EMA-NIL
• EMS-NIL
• HIP- HKGKUL 862.23
• F2=862.23
• F1+F2=862.23+862.23=1724.46
Circle Trip Minimum Check-Steps
• CTM-Compared RT NUC and F1+F2 (1724.46)
HKGKUL-1724.46
HKGBKK-1085.96
• CTM=(F1+F2)1724.46=1724.46(HKGKUL RT)
• HKG CX X/SIN Q4.22 SQ KUL M862.23 TG BKK TG HKG M862.23
NUC1728.68END ROE7.799460
• LCF=1728.68*7.799460=HKD13490

3.5. PASSPORTS & VISA

Prior to passenger’s departure, it is recommended t check the entry
and travel requirements for a certain destination country/countries
by contacting the proper embassies or consulates. The required
documents are :
Identity card
Passport
Visa, etc.

3.6. HEALTH REGULATIONS

The Convention on International Civil Aviation has been signed by
191 States and governments. Titled “Prevention of Spread of
Disease”, Article 14 of this Convention commits signatory States to
prevent “by means of air navigation” the spread of communicable
disease and to consult on this subject with other involved agencies.
To assist with the implementation of Article 14, ICAO works with
the World Health Organization (WHO), the International Air
Transport Association (IATA), Airports Council International (ACI)
and several other interested bodies. Effective preparedness
planning requires a multi-sector, multi-stakeholder approach and it
often involves a different way of working from usual that can
provide a major challenge.
In past centuries, millions have died from diseases imported from
other countries. Such risks remain a significant threat to health and
safety. Nowadays, pandemics are likely to:
1. Be promulgated by air transport
2. Adversely affect the efficiency and potentially, the safety of
aviation operations
3. Impact national economies and private enterprises that rely on
aviation
4. Expose aviation workers and travellers to health risks
Personnel working in the aviation sector should be aware of how
public health events might affect the industry, as well as their own
health. They should know how to respond to a public health event.
Such events include an influenza pandemic or a widespread
outbreak of a new type of disease e.g. a new type of SARS (Severe
Acute Respiratory Syndrome) virus.
Annexes containing public health related SARPs
To help promote uniform implementation by States of the
Convention on International Civil Aviation, 18 Annexes to the
Convention provide the Standards and Recommended Practices
(SARPs), and a number of these address the implementation of
Article 14 of the Convention. They are:
I) Annex 6 – Operations
II) Annex 9 – Facilitation
III) Annex 11 – Air Traffic Services (and associated Procedures
for Air Navigation Services – Air Traffic Management, PANS-
ATM)
IV) Annex 14 – Aerodromes
V) Annex 18 – The Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air
Conclusion
Public health emergencies or potential emergencies are not new,
but the increase in aviation activity in recent decades has made it
more likely than before that air travel will promulgate the
international spread of disease, and that aviation itself and the
economies that rely on it will be affected on a wider scale.
States should develop and test aviation related public health
preparedness plans that are integrated with a State’s general
preparedness plans. At a governmental level this will require
communication and collaboration between the Ministries of Health
and Transport.
ICAO has established links with WHO, ACI, IATA and other
stakeholders and is working towards joint preparedness planning at
a global and regional level.

3.7. CUSTOMS AND IMMIGRATION FOR AIR TRAVEL

Introduction
When you enter a different country from which your flight departed
you will have go through the Immigration process- each country
will have its own agency that administers this inspection process.
For the vast majority of passengers the immigration process only
takes a few minutes- though lines to take your turn can get long if
many international flights arrive around the same time.
Inspections of international air passengers are performed on
arrival.
Definition of customs
Customs is the authority in the respective country you enter that is
responsible for controlling the flow of goods, including animals,
transports, foods, personal effects, and hazardous items, into and
out of a country.
Arrival to the Immigration Area of the airport
• Upon arrival and entrance into the immigration area passengers
are split into multiple lines. There is generally a line for host
country nationals, people with a passport from that country,
sometimes a line for citizens of the region (EU, ECOWAS, etc),
and non-immigrant visitors.
• When going through immigration in a country in which
passengers are not a host-country national, passengers will
likely go through the non-immigrant visitor line.
 • Cell phone or cameras are not allowed in the immigration area.
Cell phone calls are not allowed in this area and could be
subject to confiscation. It is a good practice to avoid using any
electronics in the immigration and inspection area.
Steps of the Immigration Process
1. Officials will review the required passenger travel documents
such as passport, visa, green card, disembarkation card
provided by flight attendant during flight, immunization
documentation, letters of confirmation or support, etc.
2. Officials will likely ask a passenger questions
Typical questions
i) What is the nature of your visit? How long are you staying?
Where will you be staying?
ii) Some countries require fingerprints and/or photos of every
individual entering the the country. Officials will take
fingerprints or photos if required.
iii) Official puts stamp on passenger’s passport once approved
and granted admission.
3. Some passengers might be selected for second level of
inspection
Reasons for 2nd level inspection:
• random checks
• questions or issues with documentation.
Second-level inspections could be conducted in the same queue
(line) or in a separate room to aid in a conversation and to keep the
queues moving for other passengers. The timeframe of these
inspections can vary greatly. Passengers that are part of second-
level inspections could be granted regular admission into the
country once inspection is complete. However, if the incorrect or
inadequate documentation is provided, passengers can be denied
approval to enter country. Passengers are sent back to their
original location on the next available flight.
Customs and Action for Travellers
While passengers are still in their flight, the flight attended will
distribute a Customs Declaration Form.
Most forms ask the point of exit and entry of flight, flight number,
what goods a passenger may be bringing into the country and
forms might list prohibited items for respective country
Each country and airport will have varying processes and
requirements for customs and rules around declaration of items. It
is encouraged to review the specific country and airport of entry for
specific customs guidelines.
 Chapter 4
First Aid

INTRODUCTION
Rule 57 of aircraft rules, 1937 requires that every aircraft shall be
fitted and equipped with the instrument and equipment including
radio apparatus and special equipment as may be specified
according to the use and circumstances under which the flight is to
be conducted. This part of Civil Aviation Requirements lays down
the requirement for placement and use of First-aid Kit, Medical Kit
and Universal Precaution kit on aircraft registered in India, and is
issued under Rule 133A of the aircraft rules.
Definitions
1 First-aid kit: A kit containing such items which can be used for
the purpose of first-aid treatment of injuries which may occur in
flight or as a result of minor accidents.
2 Medical kit: A kit containing such life saving drugs intended to be
administered only by a qualified medical practitioner if and when
available.
3. Universal precaution kit: A kit for the use of cabin crew members
in managing incidents of ill health associated with a case of
suspected communicable disease, or in the case of illness involving
contact with body fluids.
Requirement of medical supplies
All aircraft shall carry medical supplies as follows:
a. First-aid kits for carriage on all aircraft,
 b. Medical Kit for carriage where the aircraft is authorized to
carry more than 100 passengers, on a sector length of more
than two hours, and
c. a universal precaution kits for carriage on all aircraft that
require a cabin crew member.
First-aid Kit
Each First-aid Kit shall contain at least the following
I) Quantity Antiseptic swabs (10/pack)
II) Bandage: adhesive strips
III) Bandage: gauze 7.5 cm × 4.5 m 2
IV) Bandage: triangular; safety pins
V) Dressing: burn 10 cm × 10 cm
VI) Dressing: compress, sterile 7.5 cm × 12 cm
VII) Dressing: gauze, sterile 10.4 cm × 10.4 cm
VIII) Tape: adhesive 2.5 cm (roll)
IX) Steri-strips/equivalent adhesive strip/suture material
X) Pad with shield (or tape) for eye
XI) Scissors: 10 cm
Medical kit
Large public transport aircraft, capable of carrying more than 100
passengers, shall in addition to the First-aid kit be equipped with
Medical kit which shall contain the life saving drugs.

TRAINING OF CREW MEMBERS IN THE APPLICATION OF

FIRST-AID
In the case of transport aircraft engaged in scheduled and non-
scheduled services, it will be the responsibility of the
owner/operator to ensure that cabin crew are adequately and
properly trained in the proper use of equipment in accordance with
CAR Section 7 Series M Part I.
First aid for shock and fainting
Fainting occurs when the blood supply to your brain is momentarily
inadequate, causing a patient to lose consciousness. This loss of
consciousness is usually brief.
Fainting can have no medical significance, or the cause can be a
serious disorder. Therefore, treat loss of consciousness as a
medical emergency until the signs and symptoms are relieved and
the cause is known.
If a passenger feels faint, the cabin crew will intervene and advise a
passenger as follows:
i) A passenger has to lie down or sit down. To reduce the chance
of fainting again, don’t get up too quickly.
ii) Placing head between knees .
iii) Positioning the passenger on his or her back. If the person is
breathing, restore blood flow to the brain by raising the person’s
legs above heart level about 12 inches (30 centimeters). Cabin
crew has to loosen belts, collars or other constrictive clothing.
To reduce the chance of fainting again, a cabin crew should not
get the person up too quickly.
iv) Checking the passenger’s’s airway to be sure it’s clear.
Watch for vomiting.
v) Checking for signs of circulation (breathing, coughing or
movement).
First aid for Bleeding and Wounds

Figure 29: First aid for Bleeding and Wounds

a. Stop Bleeding
To stop bleeding, it is better to apply direct pressure on the cut or
wound with a clean cloth, tissue, or piece of gauze until bleeding
stops.
If blood soaks through the material, don’t remove it. Put more cloth
or gauze on top of it and continue to apply pressure. If the wound is
on the arm or leg, raise limb above the heart, if possible, to help
slow bleeding. It is not worth to apply a tourniquet unless the
bleeding is severe and not stopped with direct pressure.
b. Clean Cut or Wound
Gently clean with soap and warm water. Try to rinse soap out of
wound to prevent irritation.
Don’t use hydrogen peroxide or iodine, which can damage tissue.
c. Protect the Wound
Apply antibiotic cream to reduce risk of infection and cover with a
sterile bandage.
First aid for Fractures/Sprains
Fracture is a broken bone. There are two types of fractures:
Closed fractures are those in which the skin is intact
Open, also called compound fractures, involve wounds with mild or
severe bleeding.
Sprain is an injury which occurs as a result of stretching or tearing
of ligaments.
Strain is an injury which occurs as a result of stretching or tearing
of muscles.
The symptoms are mild to severe pain, stiffness, swelling and/or
bruising. Generally, it is hard to differentiate fracture vs.
sprained/strained, however for the purposes of first aid
administration the method of treatment is the same. Therefore,
when talking about sprain/strain, differ the diagnosis, and assume
it can be a break, and vice versa.
First aid for Factures/spraines is as below:
1. If bone is protruding, cover with clean cloth once bleeding is
controlled
2. Have victim rest, with affected area elevated
3. Apply cold compress or ice pack wrapped in cloth to affected
area

4.2. FIRST AID FOR BURNS

First aid for burns is
1. Cool immediately by holding under cold water for at least 10
minutes. If water is not available, any cold, harmless liquid, such as
milk or canned drinks, can be used.

Figure 30: First aid for Burns

2. Gently remove any constricting clothing or jewellery before the

injured area begins to swell. DO NOT remove clothing if it has stuck
to the burn
3.Once cool, cover the burn with kitchen film or place a clean
plastic bag over a foot or hand. Apply lengthways, not around the
limb, because the injured area may swell. If you do not have kitchen
film use a sterile dressing or a non-fluffy pad and bandage.

First aid for Respiratory Problems

A passenger who is having a hard time breathing difficulty will often
look uncomfortable. They may be:
• Breathing rapidly
• Unable to breathe lying down and need to sit up to breathe
• Very anxious and agitated
• Sleepy or confused
• They might have other symptoms, including:
• Dizziness
• Pain
• Fever
• Cough
 • Nausea
• Vomiting
• Bluish lips, fingers, and fingernails
• Chest moving in an unusual way
• Gurgling, wheezing, or whistling sounds
• Muffled voice or difficulty speaking
• Coughing up blood
• Rapid or irregular heartbeat
• Sweating
First aid for respiratory problems is:
• The cabin crew will first of all check the sick passenger's airway,
breathing, and pulse.
• Loosen any tight clothing.
• Help the passenger use any prescribed medicine (an asthma
inhaler or home oxygen).
• Continue to monitor the passenger's breathing and pulse until
medical help arrives.
• If there are open wounds in the neck or chest, they must be
closed immediately, especially if air bubbles appear in the
wound. Bandage such wounds at once.
• A "sucking" chest wound allows air to enter the patient's chest
cavity with each breath. This can cause a collapsed lung.
Bandage the wound with plastic wrap, a plastic bag, or gauze
pads covered with petroleum jelly, sealing it except for one
corner. This allows trapped air to escape from the chest, but it
prevents air from entering the chest through the wound.
 Chapter 5
Introduction to Dangerous Goods

INTRODUCTION
Dangerous Goods are articles or substances which are capable of
posing a significant risk to health, safety, property or the
environment when transported by air.Concern for our environment,
the safety of the public and road safety are of prime importance.
Both the levels of training and the certification of staff involved in
the transportation of dangerous goods are important elements of
an operator’s responsibilities.

5.2. REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS FOR THE SAFE

TRANSPORTATION OF DANGEROUS GOODS
Annex 18 to the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation
entitled "The Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air" was
developed in response to a need expressed by Contracting States
for an internationally agreed set of provisions governing the safe
transport of dangerous goods by air. The broad provisions of Annex
18 are elaborated in the International Civil Aviation Organizations
Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods
by Air (DOC 9284). The internationally agreed instructions in DOC
9284, are also reflected in the IATA Dangerous Goods Regulations.
Limitations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods Some dangerous
goods have been identified as being too dangerous to be carried on
any aircraft under any circumstances; others are forbidden under
normal circumstances but may be carried with specific approvals
from the States concerned; some are restricted to carriage on all-
cargo aircraft; most however, can be safely carried on passenger
aircraft as well, provided certain requirements are met.

CLASSIFICATION OF DANGEROUS GOODS

There are 9 dangerous goods classes. Substances (including
substances and mixtures), and articles are assigned to one of the
following 9 classes according to the most predominant hazards
they pose in transport. Some of the classes can be further divided
into divisions, e.g., Class 1, while others do not have sub-divisions,
e.g., Class 3.
Classification of Dangerous Goods are described as below:
This indicates the type of hazard, not the degree of danger.
• Class 1: Explosives (6 Divisions)
• Class 2: Gases (3 Divisions)
• Class 3: Flammable Liquid
• Class 4: Flammable Solids (3 Divisions)
• Class 5: Oxidizing Substances and Organic Peroxides
(2 Divisions)
• Class 6: Toxic and Infectious Substances o Division 6.1: Toxic
Substances o Division 6.2: Infectious Substances
• Class 7: Radioactive Material
• Class 8: Corrosives
• Class 9: Miscellaneous Dangerous Goods (including Dry Ice and
Non-Pathogenic Genetically Modified Organisms)
UN Number, Proper Shipping Name and Packing Group
Dangerous goods are assigned four-digit UN numbers and proper
shipping names according to their hazard classification and
composition. Several examples are given below:
Example 1: UN 1090 ACETONE
Example 2: UN 1993 FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS, N.O.S
Some symbols of Dangerous goods:

Figure 31: Some symbols of Dangerous goods

5.4. DANGEROUS GOODS OR HAZARD CLASS

DEFINITIONS
According to The International Air Transport Association (IATA),
Dangerous goods, often recognised as hazardous materials, may be
pure chemicals, mixtures of substances, manufactured products or
articles which can pose a risk to people, animals or the environment
if not properly handled in use or in transport.

5.5. PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES - ENFORCEMENT AND

REPORTING
For precautionary measures dangerous goods will be packed
properly according to IATA rules and guidelines.
Packing Dangerous Goods
Packing is the act of placing the dangerous substances into the
appropriate packaging with appropriate packaging materials and
procedures guided by the Packaging Instruction for the specific
Dangerous Goods being shipped. Selecting the Proper Packaging
Once the materials intended for shipment is properly classified and
identified; regulations dictate the minimum packaging requirements
to prevent leakage or spillage during transport. These are referred
to as “Packaging Instructions” and vary depending on the type and
quantity of the Dangerous Goods. These are detailed in the IACO
Technical Instructions and IATA Dangerous Goods Regulations. For
example, Dry Ice is packaged according to “Packaging Instructions
945.”
Whenever dangerous goods are offered for transport, a dangerous
goods transport document shall also be provided conveying basic
hazard information about the dangerous goods to be transported.
The following information is required for each of the dangerous
goods offered for transport by any mode. Different authorities may
consider requiring addition info.
Consignor, consignee and date
Dangerous goods description: UN number, proper shipping name,
primary and subsidiary hazard class and division, packing group,
and technical names for "N.O.S" and generic entries; empty
uncleaned packages, waste, and elevated temperature substances
i.e., MOLTEN shall also be indicated;
Total quantity of dangerous goods
Additional words: Indication of "limited quantities" or "excepted
quantities" or "STABILIZED" or "SALVAGING PACKING" if
applicable.
Marking and Labeling
Marking and Labeling is the process through which information
about the Dangerous Goods present in the package are
communicated to carriers, consignees, and the public. Most
packages of Dangerous Goods must bear durable and clearly visible
hazard labels or marks that provide information about the contents
of the package.
• Hazard Labels: They are diamond-shaped labels that are
assigned specific colours or images for easy identification and
indicate the class or division of the material in the package.
• Handling Labels: These are labels that contain standard colours
or images that outline specific handling directions specific to
the substances within the package (e.g., orientation).
Figure 32: Marking and Labeling

Documentation
There are two types of documents used in transporting Dangerous
Goods:
1. Declaration or Transport Document: Most often, Dangerous
Goods regulations require the shipper to complete a legal
document or declaration for each shipment. ICAO refers to this as a
“Transport Document.” IATA calls this document the “Shipper’s
Declaration for Dangerous Goods,” and the Department of
Transportation (DOT) designates it as a “Shipping Paper.”
2. Waybills (Air Waybills): Waybills are dedicated shipping
documents used by all scheduled operators and airlines, which may
differ among carriers, but convey the same information. Waybills for
Dangerous Goods that require a transporter’s Declaration must
include one of the following statements in the “handling
information” section of the document which may be conveyed by
checkboxes:
a. “Dangerous Goods per attached transporter’s Declaration”
b. “Dangerous Goods per attached Dangerous Goods Document
(DGD)
Any other Legal Arrangements
The transporter must ensure that all legal documentations are met.
This includes obtaining the proper import and/or export permits for
International air transportation.
Operator (or Carrier) Responsibilities
The Operator (or carrier) is the person(s) responsible for
transporting the material from the origin to the destination.
Must Detect Errors Carriers must ensure that the regulations are
followed before accepting Dangerous Goods for transport.
Use Acceptance Checklist
Carriers utilize checklists to:
• Ensure proper documentation
• Observe quantity limits
• Confirm that all marks and labels are clear and proper
• Ensure the outer packaging requirements meet those
designated for materials described in the transportation
document
• Establish that there is no leakage or compromise in the package
integrity.
Loading and Storage
Correct marking and labeling of packages allow the carrier to
properly load and store Dangerous Goods during transit. The
operator will inspect the package for damage or leaks. This
typically only includes the exterior of the package, but they may
request the shipper to open the package for inspection of the inner
packaging.
Receiver (or Consignee) Responsibilities
The Receiver (or Consignee) is the person(s) the material was sent
to at the final destination. Responsibilities are to:
1. Provide assistance with import permits
2. Inspect received packages for damage or leaks
3. Verify itemized list of contents
4. Report receipt to the shipper
5. Report leaking packages to the appropriate authority
 Chapter 6
Hospitality-Airline Catering and Food Service

INTRODUCTION
Regardless of the domestic or international flights of an airline,
front office is the most visible and essential focal-point of an airline.
The focal point of activity within the front office is the reception
desk, which is located in the front lobby of an airport .
It is the communication centre of the airline with great amount of
passenger contact. Passengers interact with the hotel for the first
time by interacting with the staff of the front office, and they form
the first impression about the airline based on the efficiency,
competency and behaviour of the front office staff. The reception
desk performs the functions like the sale of seats, handling of
passenger requests, handling mail and providing information. The
financial tasks usually handled by the front desk personnel include
receiving cash payments, handling passenger folios, verifying
cheques and handling foreign currency and credit cards. In this
Unit, you will be familiarised with all these aspects of the front
office management.

6.1. FRONT OFFICE OPERATIONS

Front office is a department an airline responsible for reception,
registration, information reservation etc.
Making booking and reservations for passengers is a function of
front office operations. Even though passengers may make
reservations online, reservations have to be monitored, verified and
often changed at the guest's request. Airlines offer personal
services that require reservations agents to document special
requests. The front office must also communicate special requests
to other departments.
The passenger cycle describes the activities that each passenger
passes by from the moment he/she calls to communicate for a seat
booking inquiry till he/she boards the flight and arrives at
destination. In fact, the passenger cycle encompasses 4 different
stages, which are depicted in the underneath diagram.

Pre-Arrival ⇒ Arrival ⇒ Boarding the flight ⇒ Arrival at destination

1. Pre-arrival
• At the pre-arrival stage, the airline or travel agency must create
for every potential passenger a booking Record. Doing this
initiates the passenger cycle. Moreover, booking records help
personalize passenger services and appropriately schedule
needed lounge facilities and other special needs of passengers.
• The reservation/booking department should, then, complete all
the booking activities. Doing so will eventually maximize seat
sales by accurately monitoring seats availability and
forecasting airline revenues
2. Arrival
• At the arrival stage, check in functions takes place and the
airline counter establishes a business relation-ship with the
passenger.
• The check-in counter should issue a boarding pass to the
passenger’s with confirmed air tickets
 • The boarding pass shall include the following passenger’s
information and Passenger Name Record (PNR):
Personal information:
1. Name and Surname of the guest
2. Flight number
3. Itinerary which includes Airports of Arrival, connecting and
Destinations
4. Class
5. Assigned seat number
• Booking records can be used for various purposes:
a. Satisfy passenger needs
b. Forecast seats occupancies
c. Establish passenger history records at check-out [personal &
financial information]
d. Assign a room type and a room rate for each guest
e. Determine long-run availability [i.e. reservation information]
versus short-run availability [i.e. room status]
f. Satisfy special categories of guests such as disabled people
through barrier-free designs
3. Boarding the Flight: During this time, passengers will proceed to
board the flight . The passenger presents his/her boarding pass
and the cabin crew will direct him/her to the assigned seat with a
smiling face and high hospitality.
4. Arrival at Destination: At this stage, the passenger reaches at
destination and proceeds to the baggage claiming area.
Hospitality: Warm welcome.
Hotel is a place where the traveler can get the accommodation and
enjoy different food and services provider he/she must be able to
pay for it. Hotels also offer entertainment and relax facilities such
swimming pool, gym discotheque etc.

THE RESERVATION OFFICE

The term “reservation” used in the context of a hotel, means the
booking or reserving of a room or accommodation by a guest.
Reservations lead to reserving of a particular type of room for a
particular guest for a given period of time. Reserving a room
ensures or guarantees the guest the availability of a room on arrival
at the hotel, as reservation is a commitment made by the hotel,
when the hotel has accepted the reservation request. A great deal
of importance is attached with the reservation system because it
helps in:
Selling the primary product of the hotel, i.e., lodging or
accommodation,
Building a good first impression on the prospective client, Front
Office Manager N.B.: The dotted line indicates that this function
now tends to be performed by the concierge/porter or reception
department. Assistant front office manager, Assistant managers,
Reservations manager, Reservations supervisor, Reception
manager, Reception supervisor, Mail and information supervisor,
Head hall porter, Assistant reception supervisor, Senior
receptionist, Receptionists, Night manager, Telephone
supervisor, Reservations clerks, Mail and information clerks,
Business centre supervisor, Cashier supervisor, Doorman, Pages
Drivers ,Porters ,Telephone operators, Senior night auditor, Night
 auditors ,Guest relations officer ,Business centre clerks,
Cashiers and Senior front office .
Generating customers for the other departments of the hotel,
Generating and providing information to the other departments
of the hotel. The reservation clerks takes in the reservation
bookings. And they are passed on. The reservation procedure
differs from hotel to hotel depending on the reservation system
used by the hotel.

6.2. FOOD & BEVERAGE MANAGEMENT, F&B SERVICE

The food and beverage service department in the airline is
responsible for all type of catering service on board. Food and
beverage management department coordinates with catering
contractors in order to establish good food and beverage service.
Food and beverage service equipment may be divided into
glassware, chinaware and tableware which are further subdivided
into flatware, cutlery and hollowware.
GLASSWARE: Glassware refers to glass and drinkware items
besides tableware, such as dishes, cutlery and flatware, used to set
a table for eating a meal. The term usually refers to the drinking
vessels, unless the dinnerware is also made of glass. The choice of
the right quality glass is a vital element if the cocktail is to be
invitingly presented and give satisfaction to the consumer. Well
designed glassware combines elegance, strength and stability, and
should be fine and smooth rimmed and of clear glass.
TABLEWARE: Tableware includes the dishes, glassware, cutlery, and
flatware eating utensils such as knives, forks, and spoons used to
set a table for eating a meal. The nature, variety, and number of
objects varies from culture to culture, and may vary from meal to
meal as well. Tableware may be categorized as follows:
Flatware: It denotes all forms of spoon and fork. Flatware,
especially that used by most people when they eat informally, is
usually made of stainless steel.
Cutlery: It refers to knives and other cutting instruments.
Holloware: It also refers to table service items such as sugar bowls,
creamers, coffee pots, teapots and soup tureens.
Handling of Tableware
Tableware should be handled as below:
i) Storage of cutlery and flatware is very important. Each item has
to be stored in the boxes or drawers lined with baize to prevent
the items being scratched
ii) They should be stored in cupboard or room which can be
locked.
iii) Cutlery and flatware may be stored in cutlery trollies
Food and Beverage Manager
The food and beverage manager is the head of the food and
beverage service department, and is responsible for its
administrative and operational work. Food and Beverage Managers
direct, plan and control all aspects of food and beverage services.
Food and Beverage Managers require excellent sales and customer
service skills, proven human resource management skills, and good
communication and leadership skills. Desired knowledge for this
position includes knowledge of the products, services, sector,
industry and local area, and knowledge of relevant legislation and
regulations, as well. Hence it is said that food and beverage
manager is a Jack-of-all-trades, as the job covers a wide variety of
duties.
In general, food and beverage manager is responsible for:
i) Budgeting: The food and beverage manager is responsible for
preparing the budget for the department.
ii) Compiling New Airline Menus and Wine Lists: In consultation
with the catering contractors, and based on the availability of
ingredients and prevailing trends, the food and beverage
manager should update and if necessary, compile new menus.
New and updated wine lists should also be introduced regularly.
iii) Quality Control: The food and beverage manager should
ensure quality control in terms of efficiency in all service areas,
by ascertaining that the staffs are adequately trained in keeping
with the standards of the unit.

AIRLINE MENU
Airline Menu is the statement of food and beverage items available
or provided by food establishments primarily based on consumer
demand and designed to achieve organizational objectives. It
represents the focal point around which components of food
service sytems are based. The menu is designed carefully what the
outlet wants to cater for, keeping in mind the type of clientle. The
main advantage of a well-planned menu is that it leads to consumer
satisfaction. It also helps to motivate the employees for a
responsible and successful service. A successful menu depends
upon composition-the right combination of foods, prepared
perfectly, to the entire satisfaction of the customer claimed so by
Antonin Careme (1784-1833), the French chef who is considered
the founder of classical cuisine.
TYPES OF MENU
There are two different types of menus which are differentiated by
the manner in which they are served and priced. A menu may be a
la carte or table d'hôte.
i) A La Carte Menu
An “A La Carte Menu”, is a multiple choice menu, with each dish
priced separately. If a passenger wishes to place an order, an a la
carte is offered, from which one can choose the items one wants to
eat on board.
ii) Table D'hôte
Table d'hôte is a French phrase which literally means "host's table".
It is used to indicate a fixed menu where multi-course meals with
limited choices are charged at a fixed price. Such airline menu may
also be called prix fixe ("fixed price"). It usually includes three or
five courses meal available at a fixed price. It is also referred to as a
fixed menu. Because the menu is set, the cutlery is set for all of the
courses, with the first course cutlery on the outside, working in
towards the plate as the courses progress.

TYPES OF FOOD CATERERS

They generally fall into one of three categories:
1. Party Food Caterers: Party food caterers supply only the food
for an event. They drop off cold foods and leave any last-minute
preparation, plus service and cleanup, to others.
2. Hot Buffet Caterers: Hot buffet caterers provide hot foods that
are delivered from their commissaries in insulated containers
and they sometimes provide serving personnel at an additional
charge.
 3. Full-Service Caterers: Full-service caterers not only provide
food, but frequently cook it to order on-site. They also provide
service personnel at the event, plus all the necessary food-
related equipment china, glassware, flatware, cutleries, tables
and chairs, tents, and so forth. They can arrange for other
services, like décor and music, as well. In short, a full-service
caterer can plan and execute an entire event, not just the food
for it.
TYPES OF CATERING ESTABLISHMENTS
Various catering establishments are categorized by the nature of
the demands they meet. The following are some of the catering
establishments.
1. Restaurant: A restaurant is an establishment that serves the
customers with prepared food and beverages to order, to be
consumed on the premises. The term covers a multiplicity of venues
and a diversity of styles of cuisine. Restaurants are sometimes also
a feature of a larger complex, typically a hotel, where the dining
amenities are provided for the convenience of the residents and for
the hotel to maximize their potential revenue. Such restaurants are
often open to non-residents also.
2. Transport Catering: The provision of food and beverages to
passengers, before, during and after a journey on trains, aircraft
and ships and in buses or private vehicles is termed as transport
catering. These services transport catering unit. The major forms of
modern day transport catering are airline-catering, railways
catering, ship catering and surface catering in coaches or buses
which operate on long distance routes.
3. Airline Catering: Catering to airline passengers on board the air
craft, as well as at restaurants situated at airport terminals is
termed as airline catering. Modern airports have a variety of food
and beverage outlets to cater to the increasing number of air
passengers. Catering to passengers en route is normally contracted
out to a flight catering unit of a reputed hotel or to a catering
contractor or to the catering unit operated by the airline itself as an
independent entity.

6.3. FLIGHT CATERING OPERATIONS

Introduction
The food service industry, catering industry in British English
encompasses those places, institutions and companies that provide
meals eaten away from home. This industry includes restaurants,
schools and hospital cafeterias, catering operations, and many
other formats, including ‘on-premises’ and ‘off-premises’ caterings.
The flight catering industry is a very large, global activity. The total
market size is estimated to be around 12 billion euros. More than 1
billion passengers are served each year. It is probably one of the
most complex operational systems in the world. For instance, a
large-scale flight catering production unit may employ over 800
staff to produce as many as 25,000 meals per day during peak
periods. Large international airlines may have more than 1,000
take-offs and landings every day. A single, long-haul Boeing 747
has over 40,000 items loaded on to it before it flies. All together
these items weigh 6 metric tonnes and occupy a space of 60 cubic
metres. These items range from meals to toilet bags, from duty-free
goods to first aid boxes, from newspapers to headsets. Food items
must be fresh and items for personal passenger use must be clean
and serviceable. These facts and others like them make flight
catering unlike any other sector of the catering industry. While the
way food is served on trays to airline passengers bears some
resemblance to service styles in restaurants or cafeterias, the way
food is prepared and cooked is increasinglyresembling a food
manufacturing plant. Certainly the hot kitchen in a typical
production kitchen is often no more than 10% of the total floor
area. The rest of the space is used for bonded stores, tray and
trolley assembly, and flight wash-up. And almost certainly there are
far more loaders and drivers employed than chefs. The way food
and equipment is stored resembles a freight warehouse, and the
way meals and equipment are transported and supplied has a close
affinity to military-style logistics and distribution systems. When the
very large numbers and variety of items which must be loaded for
passenger service during a flight are considered, together with the
need for them to be loaded at widespread locations, the logistics
complexity is obvious. It is therefore not surprising that the
President of KLM Catering once said that “Flight catering is 70 per
cent logistics and 30 per cent cooking.”
Flight catering operation department consists of four key sections;
Flight Preparation, Airside Logistics, Transport and Ware Wash. The
meals produced and other amenities required for onboard an
aircraft are packed and loaded into the trolleys by Flight
Preparation. The trolleys are forwarded to Airside Logistics, based
on the flight schedules are loaded and transported to the aircraft.
It works within strict timeframes, our operations have to be
conducted with clinical precision and ensure there are no delays so
that the flight departs on time. Trolleys and items off-loaded from
an aircraft are sent to Ware Wash for cleaning and the cycle starts
again. Our operational environment if highly dynamic, quick
decision making and physical fitness are of prime importance.
Flight catering means to provide food and beverage on board
Sourcing catering internationally involves more considerations and
flexibility than local catering. You may be securing catering from
non-traditional sources, available packaging may not be
appropriate for your galley, and certain brands and specific cuisines
may not be available. Ordering catering worldwide can be a
successful and rewarding experience, as long as you plan
adequately for each location and work within the limitations of what
may or may not be available particularly at smaller and more
remote locations.
Role of Food Onboard
How important are food and onboard service to the airlines? Some
airlines use food as a marketing tool. A number of airlines advertise
their product by making food the focal point. But food as a
marketing tool has only a limited impact. Surveys over a number of
years suggest that passengers appear most concerned about
safety, on time performance, scheduling/ticketing issues, the
aircraft’s physical surroundings such as seat and leg comfort, and
gate check-in and boarding. This means that while food is
important, it is unlikely to be the deciding factor in a passenger’s
airline choice. This is most clearly seen in the USA where
deregulation has had a great effect upon competition and fare wars
are common. This has led to most US airlines implementing a no-
frills policy where no meals are served on board flights within the
USA. This same trend is evident in Europe, with carriers such as
Ryanair and EasyJet offering low cost, no frills flights between
European destinations. Consumer and media perceptions of meal
quality in airlines are low. This may be due to a number of factors
which affect passengers’ appetite and behaviour whilst flying.
Sensory abilities such as smell, sight, and taste are affected by the
relatively low humidity and air pressure experienced at altitude.
This affects taste buds which may function as much as 30 percent
below par and mucous membranes in the nose which blunts the
sense of smell. Airline food is often more highly seasoned for these
reasons. Likewise, at such a high altitude not all wines retain their
subtle aroma and bouquet and this has to be taken into account
when wine lists are chosen by the airlines and caterers. Also, as
passenger movement and exercise is limited at such high altitude,
the meals provided need to be easily digestible. Moreover, the
effects of alcohol are more quickly observed in a pressurised cabin
and on dehydrated passengers Research at the University of Surrey
suggests that while food and drink in flight may not affect pre-
purchase decisions, it emerges as a highly significant post-
purchase factor. The onboard service and meal is the most
remembered aspect of people’s travel experience, so the food
service offered to passengers is still an important part of the overall
service experience but as the factors listed above begin to suggest,
providing a product that will satisfy the customer is about much
more than simply providing a ready meal. The passenger receives a
final product that can consists not only of well-seasoned food but
one that is made up of many different products procured from many
different places and through many different processes.
Major Stakeholders
The in-flight catering industry consists of five major players: the
airlines, or their various representatives; the providers, in this case
specialised flight caterers; the suppliers, either to the providers or
direct to the airlines; those using the airline’s services,that is the
fare-paying passengers and distributors.

Figure 33: Major Stakeholders of in-flight catering industry

1. How in-flight catering should be requested when traveling

internationally
The main things to keep in mind when ordering are portion size and
measurement, packaging style and availability, and cultural food
terminology. When placing the order, it is best to be specific with
portion sizes and have an understanding of metric and imperial
equivalences. For example, in most of the world, a typical protein
portion is 4-6 ounces, while a U.S.-sized portion is 8 ounces.
2. What to consider when obtaining catering from a local hotel or
restaurant
Even though a restaurant can make great food, that does not mean
the food will be packaged or presented well to meet specific
aviation requirements. Packaging is one of the most important
considerations in aviation catering. Will the containers fit into the
on-board re-heating equipment and be able to be stowed properly?
It is always best to request sauces and dressings to be packaged
separately. Hot food orders should ALWAYS be chilled and
refrigerated by the restaurant or hotel prior to delivery for re-
heating later.
3. What to do in advance to help the process
Looking at online menus pre-trip for all the international locations,
it is an important to know that only about 25% of international in-
flight catering orders are directly from menus. Use in-flight catering
menus as guidelines for determining the best options for the
location. Talking with caterers and take into consideration what’s
available and in season and what local chefs prepare particularly
well is also crucial. Knowing individual passenger preferences is
critical to giving them a memorable onboard experience. Also, it is
better to consider the purpose of the catering. Is it a full meal or
just a snack? It is generally accepted standard practice to give
crewmembers different meals from the passengers, and that should
be followed. It is a must to be specific and detailed in ordering
process but also somewhat flexible in order to respond quickly to
caterer substitution recommendations. Considering the caterer’s
service policies, for example, a notice required to change orders,
cancellation policies and payment terms and clarifications of safety
reasons, if catering is cooked, it should be cooled down, kept
refrigerated and chilled until ready to be re-heated or consumed.
4. What to consider in terms of quality differences and ingredient
availability overseas
The size of the market the airline is flying to will have the most
impact in terms of catering quality and availability. Larger markets
will typically have more catering options compared to smaller, more
remote destinations. Many countries won’t carry produce year-
round if it’s not in season. That’s why it’s best to talk to airline’s
caterers, as they will understand local availabilities and seasonality.
5. What to know about in-flight catering for remote locations
It is of paramount importance to use local knowledge and ground
handler expertise in sourcing catering at more remote locations. At
some locations, there may not be any aviation caterers. The deal
will be among hotels and local chefs, instead of dedicated in-flight
kitchens. In such cases, it is suggested to provide a minimum of 48
hours’ notice for the local handler to coordinate catering. Also, it’s
a good idea to carry extra packaging on-board to provide to local
restaurants. This helps ensure that the order will be packaged and
delivered appropriately for re-heating at altitude.
6. What to keep in mind regarding last-minute catering changes
Being flexible and aware of local limitations is important when
revising catering orders. Calling in changes at midnight before a 6
a.m. departure may have little success particularly at smaller
locations but even larger ones, too. Most catering prep work and
shopping are done the day before the order is delivered. It is always
better to take into consideration local limitations. Some places may
be unable to meet last-minute change requests. Airline should be
aware of local time zones when calling the location is important.
Because even caterers that advertise 24/7 coverage may not have
kitchen staff round-the-clock. It’s usually easier to make quantity
changes than to change items altogether.

6.4. CUSTOMER CARE SERVICE.

In this highly competitive era for the airline industry where one
event can trigger oil price hike and send the profit margins
tumbling down the drain, the level of efforts required in order to not
only survive but thrive are a lot higher. There are many factors that
have to be considered to make an airline a winning industry player.
Here is a quick view of some important factors which can
significantly improve your company’s profitability and make it a
successful airline in the aviation industry.
Attitude to Customers
The correct approach towards the customer is of the utmost
importance. The staff must not be servile, but should anticipate the
customer’s needs and wishes. A careful watch should be kept on
customers at all times during the service without staring. Care
should always be taken when dealing with difficult customers. There
is really no such thing as a ‘difficult’ customer, they are normal
people whom one is uncertain how to deal with Staff should never
argue with customers as this will only aggravate the situation. All
complaints should he referred to someone in authority in the food
service area.
Customer Feedback and Action
Customer feedback is very important in improving the user
experience. Airline industries in particular need to have a reliable
way of collecting and gauging customer feedback. Whenever a
customer registers a complaint, it needs to be taken seriously.
Smaller problems, when neglected, later become complex issues,
creating customer service nightmares for airlines. Similarly, only
collecting feedback without incorporating it into improving the
overall customer experience is of no use. The airline industry needs
to ensure that all customer feedback has been reviewed and proper
actions are taken to avoid similar situations in the future.
In-depth Competitor Analysis
Sometimes customers prefer one airline over the other because of
minor differences in service offerings, seasonal promotions or other
facilities. An airline needs to keep an eye on its competition to know
what might attract the customers. Air travel is a well saturated
industry in terms of service standards followed. However,
identifying and offering Unique Selling Propositions (USPs) may
create a significant impact on future revenue streams. Provide your
customers with more options to choose from.
Creation of Service Standards
Successful organizations define service standards in absolute terms
critical for survival and long term business growth. Implementation
of these service standards helps the company form a positive brand
image of itself. Customer care standards need to be measurable in
order to bring further improvement and accordingly train
employees for delivering better experiences. Smaller gestures like
“Good Morning”, “Good Afternoon”, “Have a Nice day” and using
customer’s name when conversing with them all add to better
quality customer service.
Integration of Technology for Customer care
The constant use of technology to accomplish daily tasks has
increased our dependence on it magnanimously. Airlines can expect
customers to approach them by using any means of communication
available to them apart from the traditional channels. Companies
need to make sure customers are provided with the required
information in an easy to access manner at all these channels
where they might search for it.
This will not only help reduce a lot of burden on the information
desk but also enables customers to differentiate the organization
from others for being customer friendly. Integrating technology to
improve the customer experience and making travel more
convenient is the way forward for airlines. A recent example of this
is the launch of mobile boarding passes by Etihad Airways to
facilitate passengers. Another example is of Emirates which
launched an app exclusively for iPad this year which gives
customers the option of booking flights, checking in online and
managing their travel details.
Conclusion
In order to meet customer care requirements, cabin crew and other
airline staff must be tactful, courteous, good humoured and of an
even temper. They must converse with the customer in a pleasing
and well-spoken manner and the ability to smile at the right time.
 Chapter 7
Personality Development

INTRODUCTION
A man is normally identified by his personality that reflects an
instant public image. It is the totality of the person and not merely
external looks, but character, behavioral traits and attitude towards
life.

DEFINITION OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Personality development is dined as the improvement of behavioral
traits such as communication skills, interpersonal relationships,
attitude towards life and restoring human ethics.
Types of personality
There are nine types of personality:
i) Perfectionists
ii) Helpers
iii) Romantics
iv) Achievers
v) Asserters
vi) Questioners
vii) Adventurers
viii) Observers and
ix) Peacemakers.
i) Perfectionists: They are realistic, conscientious and principled
ii) Helpers: They are warn, concerned, nurturing and sensitive to
other people’s needs.
iii) Achievers: They are energetic, optimistic, self assured and goal
oriented
iv) Romantics: They have sensitive feelings and are warm and
perceptive
v) Observers: They normally have a need for knowledge and are
introverted, curious, analytical and insightful.
vi) Questioners: They are responsible and trustworthy.
vii) Adventurers: They are energetic, lively and optimistic. They
want to contribute to the world.
viii) Asserters: They are direct, self-reliant, self- confident and
protective.
ix) Peacemakers: They are receptive, good-natured and supportive.
They seek union with others and the world around them.

7.1. COMMUNICATION
Airline like any other companies, large and small, commercial and
not-for-profit, religious and educational are all structured to
facilitate the achievement of objectives. The communication
process in an organization connects superiors, subordinates,
members of the peer group and the external environment. The top
man’s job is almost solely communication as he has the main task
of linking and relating the organization with the environment.
In the absence of communication, human beings will have to exist
as individuals never benefiting from the sharing of emotions,
experiences, knowledge etc. Without communication, which has
undisputed primary in the affairs of human race, man will not be
able to unit to overcome limitations and ensure achievements.
Communication involves the transfer or rather exchange of ideas,
information, understanding, feelings, emotions etc. between
individuals. It can be defined as “who says what and why to whom
through which channel with what effect”. Though this is a
reasonably comprehensive definition of communication, it is a
process oriented one. It should be stated in this context that the
concept of communication is common understanding between the
involved parties – whom we shall refer to as the Sender and
Receiver – about what is being communicated which we shall term
as Message. “Message” may denote anything ranging from ideas to
data to statistics to emotions and feelings.

THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION

Studies have been conducted on the amount of time spent on
communication by people from different walks of life. It is found
that the group that has to spend least time for the process of
communication is the shop floor level workers in manufacturing
organizations. Even in their case, 40 to 60% of time is spent on
communication. As a person’s position in the organizational
echelon is higher and higher, the time required to be spent on
communication is more and more. The head of any organization
may be expected to spend more than 80% of his/her time on some
form of communication or the other. What this means is that how
effectively, efficiently, creatively and productively that person
communicates will decide his overall effectiveness, efficiency,
creativity and productivity to a corresponding extent. The
communication process in any organization is so vital for the
achievement of its objectives. How a communication system is
managed in an organization ie., how effective it is, has a profound
impact on the ultimate effectiveness of the total organization.
Numerous studies have confirmed the impact of communication,
organizational productivity, efficiency and effectiveness. In one
such study, the reasons for wide variations in productivity among
twenty seven branches of a package delivery organization were
explored. As part of the study communication data were collected
from the 975 employees from the branches. Comparison of
productivity and communication data revealed positive correlation
between high performance and open communication between
superiors and subordinates.
In a survey conducted among nearly a hundred business
organizations with the objective of determining how much of top
management has to say is actually understood, the following facts
were revealed.
1. At the vice presidential level managers understand about two
thirds of what they hear from the top
2. At the general supervisor level managers understand 56 per
cent of the top level information.
3. At the manager level managers perceive only 40 per cent.
4. Foremen perceive 30 per cent
5. Persons on the production line understand 20 per cent
The above findings throw light on the need and potential for
management for improving communication skills.
The ABCs of Communication
Like any other process, communication also has its ABCs and it is
interesting to note that the ABCs of communication are:
A: Attractiveness
B: Brevity
C: Clarity
The Process of Communication
Whatever is being communicated is called ‘Message’. The person
from whom the message originates, the one who initiates the
process of communication is called the Sender. The person for
whom the communication is meant is called the Receiver.
Communication cannot take place in a vacuum. It has to have a
medium or channel. After receiving the message, the ‘Receiver’ will
react or respond to the sender when provision for that exists. This
part of the communication process may be termed Feedback. When
there is no provision for ‘Receiver to Sender Feedback’, it may be
called one-way communication.
This, in most cases, may increase the distortion between the
intended message and the one that is received. There are various
barriers to effective communication which may affect the process at
any stage and they can be collectively designated by the term
‘NOISE’.
Communication Categories
Based on the presence or absence of two important attributes of
communication viz., effectiveness and impressiveness, all
communication can be grouped in to one of the following
categories:
a. Effective and Impressive
b. Effective but Unimpressive
c. Ineffective but Impressive
 d. Ineffective and Unimpressive
Needless to mention, the best of the above lot is the first category
and the last one is the worst. It should be one’s aim to make
his/her communication effective and attribute each is present while
the other is lacking. If a choice is to be made between the second
and third categories, definitely the preference must be for the
second one. In other words, if we have to prioritize, effectiveness
has primacy.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE ORGANIZATIONAL

COMMUNICATION
There are many barriers that can impede the process of
communication resulting in a communication breakdown. Some of
the common barriers to effective communication are described
below. However, it should be remembered that the list is not
exhaustive.
a. Transmission Alterations: This refers to the changes that the
original message undergoes when it passes through various people.
The greater the differences between the people involved with
respect to various factors like cultural background, social class,
educational level, age group, experience etc. the greater will be the
alterations that the message undergoes. One effective way to
overcome the barrier – or at least reduce its ill effects – would be to
ask the receiver to repeat what he/she has understood. This will
provide the sender with an opportunity make corrections to the
perceived message if found necessary. When one has the role of the
receiver and if the sender is not making any effort on the lines
suggested above, the receiver may take the initiative for making the
required clarification.
b. Physical Limitations: The difference between perception and
reality may be termed perceptual error. Our sensory limitations –
those of sight, sound, touch, taste and smell-restrict perceptual
clarity.
c. Inattention: This is related to the receiver, care should be taken
to give proper attention to the message. When in sender’s role, one
should start communicating only after ensuring required level of
attention on the part of the receivers. Despite physical proximity
with the sender, the receiver’s level of attention may come down or
his/her thoughts may take side excursions while the sender is
talking. The sender should recognize this as a natural and normal
phenomenon and make efforts to regain receivers’ attention at
periodic intervals.
d. Selective Listening: When receivers tend to “block out”
information, especially when it is contradictory to what one
believes, it results in selective perception. It is a common practice
for people to ignore or distort information that conflicts with ones
prescribed notions.
e. Mistrust of the Source: Over a period of time, we develop various
levels of trust, confidence or faith in the words of the sender. It may
be termed source credibility. To be an effective communicator, one
should develop himself/herself as a credible source of information.
f. Exaggeration: People may resort to exaggeration to dramatize
ones presentation or to make it more attractive, humorous etc.
However, in the long run, one who is known to exaggerate always
looses credibility.
g. Distortion: Distortion of the original message may occur due to
various factors. Distortion may be accidental or intentional. In
earlier case, the end result is undesirable and harmful.
h. Uniqueness: No two phenomena, no too things, no two human
beings are exactly alike. Because of the uniqueness of individuals,
their experiences, and as a result of this, their perceptions differ.
e. Badly Expressed Messages: Badly expressed messages may be
the result of inadequate preparation, inadequate control over the
medium, mannerisms of the sender etc. Even a wrong punctuation
can result in badly expressed messages which may not convey any
meaning or may convey an unintended message.
i. Unclarified Assumptions: When one hears, sees or reads
something he/she may make certain assumptions, which have no
relation with reality. When one makes decisions or takes action
based on wrong assumptions, the result will be disastrous.
j. Abstractions: The process of leaving something out to derive
meaning and people give differential emphasis to different factors.
Because of this, different people, when bombarded with the same
stimulus or set of stimuli, may give different responses based on
different conclusions.
k. Absentmindedness: Mental pre-occupation resulting in
absentmindedness can be a very important barrier to effective
communication. When in the role of the receiver, one should
safeguard himself/herself from it and when in the sender’s role,
should watch for signs of absentmindedness on the part of the
receiver and take steps to ensure proper attention and involvement.
l. Time Pressure: People in positions of authority and responsibility
may not have enough time to communicate with everybody. Time
Pressure can result in improper and insufficient communication.
Time pressure may even lead to short-circuiting which means
people being left out of the formal channel of communication, who
normally would have been included.
Improving Communication Skills
Remember the old addage, “Reading make a full man”, writing an
exact man and conference a ready man” and practice it to be a wise
communicator.
Though there are various forms of communication, more often than
not, we communicate orally. Oral communication involves:
1. Listening
2. Speaking
Improving Communication
There is no magic formula for ensuring effective communication as
it is too complicated a process. However, communication can be
bettered. An awareness of the barriers to effective communication
will help in two ways:
1. Avoiding the barriers or reducing their ill effects in one’s
communication
2. Anticipating communication malfunctions in others which
helps to overcome many barriers in communication.
In ones effort to become a better communicator, he/she must not
only strive to be understood but also to understand. The task is
twofold. First, the message must be improved. So should be the
understanding of what other people are trying to communicate to
them. Some techniques that will aid in the accomplishment of these
tasks are discussed below:
1. Receiver Orientation: To improve communication, one should
speak the language of the receiver. Care should be taken to use
words and usages that suit the listener’s intelligence and
background.
2. Attention to the ABCs: As a guiding principle for effective
communication it should always be remembered to give proper
attention to the ABCs viz., attractiveness, brevity and clarity.
3. Appropriateness: Appropriateness in communication means a lot
of things. There should not be too much or too little of
communication. It should not be too formal or too informal. It
should sound serious or humorous depending on the topic being
discussed, the nature of the receiver, time availability etc.
4. Use of Humour: Communication process is akin to the
functioning of machinery with moving parts which requires
lubrication for smooth friction-free operation. An effective
‘lubricant’ for the process of communication is humour. However,
care should be taken to use it judiciously to avoid unintended or
negative results.
5. Use of Right Appeal: The effectiveness of communication will be
greatly enhanced when the right appeal is used. The skill of the
communicator lies in identifying the right appeal for each situation
and then using it.
6. Repetition: The universally acknowledged principle of learning
viz., repetition can greatly contribute to communication
effectiveness. Repetition will ensure that even if one part of the
message is not understood, there are other parts, which will carry
the same meaning.
7. Effective Timing: A host of message compete for people’s
attention simultaneously. Many are not even decoded or received
just because of the impossibility of taking them all in. Messages are
best understood and received when they face least competition
from other messages. Improper timing can result in distortions and
value judgements which are harmful.
8. Simplifying Language: Many people, especially teachers and
trainers have the habit of resorting to technical jargon that
transforms simple concepts into complex puzzles. Complicated
language is a very important barrier to effective communication. It
has to be recognized that effective communication involves
transmitting understanding as well as information.
9. Effective Listening: Effective listening is as important to
communication as effective speaking. Managers must not only seek
to be understood but also to understand. By proper listening, one
can encourage other to express true feelings, hopes, aspirations
and emotions. More than just listening, ‘listening with
understanding’ is what is required.
Conclusion
The discussed communication notions attempted to convey the
basics in the process of communication and means and techniques
for effective communication. The principles described apply to oral
and written communication and is equally significant whether
communication is vertical, horizontal or diagonal. Some of the
techniques suggested for improving communication may find
difficulty in being translated in to action for want of time. However,
it is hoped that the discussion has thrown enough light on the
challenge of effective communication and its requirements.
Managers have to be effective in both transmission and reception.
They must communicate effectively in their endeavour to
understand and be understood, which will go a long way in
improving their effectiveness and efficiency as managers.

7.2. CONFIDENCE
Confidence is the word that we hear many times from people
around us. But do we really know the meaning of confidence and
what exactly is confidence?
The self confidence is one of the most important that are required
by human to get success. Getting success in today’s world, in any
field has not been so easy. Everyone wants to be successful but
only few of us get success. Why? Because they some qualities
required to get success which some people don’t have and one
such important quality is confidence. There are many ways to build
a self -confidence.
Definition: Confidence is one’s confidence, one’s belief, one’s
knowledge and one’s abilities. Self -confidence is very important in
every field of life. Some people are very confident about their
abilities and some are not. Some will start and complete work
immediately with confidence and others will think about
unnecessary which prevent them from being bold and achieve
whatever out they set to do.
Steps to build self confidence
The following are the steps to build confidence:
Identify your insecurities
Insecurities for some thing and fear to failure are the main things
due to which most of the people lost confidence. So first trying to
find out things which gives the feeling of insecurity, recognizing the
things which gives feeling of fear. And write these things on a paper,
Sitting back being calm and think about the necessity of these
things life. Someone will find that most of things which are making
a person without confidence are not really required to be thought
of. Once these points are identified then it will be easier to find
solution on these problems.
Learning for individual mistakes and failure
Mankind is prone to mistakes. Everyone commits mistakes in life
and everyone has a chance to improve those mistakes. The most
important thing about mistake is that they gives someone chance
to reconsider his decision and rebuild his work. Also every person
faces failure in his/her at different points in life. Getting failure or
doing a mistake is not crime in anyway and one should not feel over
exposed due to some mistakes or failures. It is very good practice
to adopt mistakes and failures as normal life conditions. But
another thing very important about mistakes and failures is that
one must learn from his past mistakes and failures. Mistakes and
failures give us chance to learn that’s why they are equally
important as success.
Being satisfied with our possessions
Everyone doesn’t get everything in life. Some of us are very
conscious about the things which we don’t have only. They will not
think what they have but they will think only in terms and what they
don’t have and attach their failures and mistakes with what they
don’t possess. It is not good practice in life and one must avoid this
practice.
Be Positive always/Be optimistic
One can take things in two ways: either in positive way which best
way or in negative way, perhaps the worst way. Think of the positive
side of anything to face in life. If take everything negatively it will
adversely affect the mental as well as physical health. Being
positive means thinking only about plus points of particular things
and it will give more energy and confidence in life.
Help others
Helping others will boost self- confidence. It brings the feeling of
something like completeness and joy. Someone also feels like great
human.
Accept. Accept things. Accept the past mistakes, failures, bad
performances, wrong decisions and wrong relationships. It will help
to remove the burden from the heart and mind, that will eventually
improve self -confidence.
Take small steps
Small steps are easy to complete. These steps will give someone
the knowledge and helps to improve confidence. It is better to split
the work in smaller tasks that can be easily completed.
Monitor the way of thinking
If someone wants to increase the level of self- confidence then he
or she should monitor the way of his/her thinking. It is like
controlling the mind, divert a mind with negative thoughts to a mind
with positive thoughts, after some time of practice. It requires keen
and effective practice so that every single moment to control
individual’s thoughts. The aim is to make habit thinking positive.
And eventually positive thinking will help to increase confidence.
Be happy within you
There is no need to see other persons or other things to get real
happiness. If a person is feeling completeness within himself, he or
she will be happy with him or herself. Increasing or Improving self-
confidence is not scientific experiment and these are some tricks to
boost confidence. It is continuous process that must be monitored
by individual person.

7.3. LEADERSHIP
Leadership is an integral part of management and plays a vital role
in managerial operations. If there is any single factor that
differentiates between successful and unsuccessful airlines like any
other companies, it could be considered as dynamic and effective
leadership. Perhaps, it would be a valid assumption to state that the
major cause of most business failures would be ineffective
leadership. All managers, in a way, are business leaders, even
though management primarily relies on formal position power to
influence people whereas leadership stems from a social influence
process. However, management is an integral component of
technical as well as social processes.
A question which many a novice in Management ask and experts
echo is whether “Manager” and “Leader” are synonymous terms.
Are the functions of the ‘Manager’ the same as those of the Leader?
Are the two roles the same? Or, are they different? If they are – are
there or rather aren’t there areas of functional similarities? To what
extent do they differ in direction and/or magnitude?
Before attempting to answer the million dollar question “Are all
leaders managers or are all managers leaders? It will be prudent to
clarify the concepts of leadership and management.
An extremely simplistic yet profoundly meaningful definition of
leadership states it as the “Phenomenon of one person influencing
the thinking or action or both of another person or groups of
persons”.
Management has been defined in various ways by different authors.
In fact, there exists almost as many definitions for management as
there are authors on the topic. There is neither the scope nor the
need to examine the various definitions of management in this
chapter. However, two of them may be considered. One of the
earliest universally accepted definitions of management considered
it as the “process of getting things done through and by people”.
One of the modern definitions of management describes it as “the
process of ensuring effectiveness and efficiency in achieving goals or
objectives”.
It is clear that whenever one influences the thinking or action or
both of another person or a group, he/she is a leader and the
phenomenon of leadership exists. This is so irrespective of what the
“influence” aims or achieves. Even if the followers are “influenced”
for some antisocial activities, the phenomenon involved is
leadership and the one exhibiting it is a leader. Managers have to
influence their “people” for achieving organizational objectives,
which, we assume, to be morally right and legally straight. So, all
managers have a leadership role to play. But all that every leader
does may not be very “Managerial”. In short, all managers are
leaders, but all leaders need not necessarily be managers. It should
be remembered that this statement is made considering the roles of
“leaders” and “managers” and not with reference to any individual
with a managerial title or acceptance as a leader.
Categories of leaders: Based on the functions they perform, leaders
can be classified into:
1. Entrepreneurial leaders
2. Administrative leaders
3. Political leaders
1. Entrepreneurial Leaders: As the term indicates, these are
leaders who build organizations, these institution builders perform
the tasks of initiation and structuring. They organize the required
resources and put them in to effective and efficient use to create
institutions of various sizes, nature and scope eg. Trade unions,
hospitals, schools, colleges, places of worship, cultural
organizations etc. Entrepreneurial leaders are highly motivated self
-starters who can get along reasonably well with a wide range of
people with whom they can co-operate and from whom they can
get co-operation. They will not be dispirited with setbacks and will
not take “no” for an answer.
2. Administrative leaders: These are leaders whose performance
will be at its peak when they are put in charge of running
organizations they work for the maintenance and growth of the
organizations, they plan, organize, staff, direct and control the
organizations which may be expected to “safe” in their hands. They
ensure that right men occupy right positions and that tasks are
carried out effective and efficiently. They undertake environmental
scanning and do SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and
Threats) analysis, based on which they define and redefine the
mission of their organizations, set targets and objectives and
formulate policies and strategies. They have a clear idea of what
the organization should be at present and where it should be in the
future.
3. Political leaders: “political leaders” are meant those who act as
representatives or spokesmen of their groups and strive for the
redressal of the grievances of their groups in general and its
members in particular. Many of them act on an ‘ad hoc’ basis not
being very visible normally but appearing on the scene all of a
sudden when a problem crops up, the tackling of which requires
their attention. They may even leave the scene once the issue has
been settled.
Leadership Styles
Based on “how” a leader performs his/her tasks, various leadership
styles can be identified, viz.
a. - autocratic: authoritarian paternalistic
b. - democratic
c. - laissez faire (free rein)
The basis for the above classification is two fold, viz.,
i) - mode of decision making
ii) - manner of implementation
(i) Autocratic leadership style: As the term suggests, this is a
leader-centred style where followers are reduced to insignificance.
The autocratic leadership style itself has two variations, viz.,
authoritarian and paternalistic.
(a) Authoritarian Leadership Style: The authoritarian leader takes
all decisions by himself/herself and will try to implement them even
resorting to the use of force or coercion. The authoritarian leader is
only concerned about the “tasks” but not the “people” with whom
the tasks have to be achieved. If his/her followers/subordinates
approach him/her with a problem, they face in implementing the
leaders decisions or carrying out his/her orders, the leader takes
the stand, I am not bothered about your problems. You --------
expedite and report”.
Paternalistic leadership style: Leaders who exhibit this style
assume the parental role for themselves. They also take all
decisions like the authoritarian leaders, but when it comes to
implementation they resort to tact and diplomacy rather than force
and coercion. The paternalistic leader considers his followers as
immature children incapable of making decision and needing about
the task as well as the people. If subordinates approach a
paternalistic leader with their problems, they can expect empathic
understanding and consideration. The paternalistic leader may be
expected to sit with the subordinates to sort out their problems and
help them reach or identify solutions.
Democratic leadership style: The style of leadership which
recognises and respects every member of the group or team as an
individual with capabilities, rights and responsibilities and a
potential contributor to the group processes including task
achievements, is called democratic leadership style. Where
democratic leadership style is followed, decision making and
implementation are consultative and participative processes. It
should be appreciated that the situation is not akin to one, where
say, in a group of w00, what 51 people suggest is accepted and the
opinions and suggestions of the remaining 49 are rejected
mercilessly. That at best be termed majocracy. Where democratic
leadership style is practised, one is free to express his/her opinions
as everybody’s opinions and their right to express them are
respected. A member gets an opportunity to understand why
his/her suggestions are not accepted as the group’s decision, even
when that is the case. The ultimate group decision is everybody’s.
When one had a say in the making of a decision, a high level of
commitment may be expected to be exhibited by the group
members for its achievement.
Laissez faire or free rein leadership style: Whether one follows
autocracy or democracy as a leadership style, the leader will be
performing the basic functions of providing direction and control to
the group. The autocratic and democratic leaders differ only in the
manner in which they perform the direction and control functions.
Apart from this, there are leaders who follow a policy of “no
intervention” in group processes. Their style is called “Laissez
faire” or “free rein”. There are behavioural scientists who even
object to considering this as “leadership” as the “leader” does not
discharge the basic functions of direction and control. However, one
may find many in leadership positions practising this style.

SOURCES OF LEADER INFLUENCE ON FOLLOWERS

What provides a leader with the capacity to influence followers?
Why will subordinates respond to the influence attempts of a leader
by doing that the leader intends or wishes them to do? In other
words, what is the source of the leader’s power over subordinates?
Five distinct sources of leader power or influence have been
identified. Any particular leader may have at his or her disposal any
combination of these different sources of power.
Reward Power refers to the leader’s capacity to reward followers. To
the extent that a leader possesses and controls rewards that are
valued by subordinates, the leader’s power increases. Rewards at a
leader’s disposal fall into two categories. Rewards such as praise,
recognition and attention are sources of personal power possessed
by the leader as an individual. In addition, a leader also usually
controls certain organizational rewards, such as pay raises,
promotions and other perquisites. These are sources of power that
depend upon the leader’s position in the organization.
Coercive power is the flip side of reward power and refers to the
leader’s capacity to coerce or punish followers. Sources of coercive
power also break down into personal and positional components.
Leaders personally possess coercive power to the extent that
followers experience criticism or lack of recognition from their
leader as unpleasant or punishing. In addition, leaders possess
coercive power to the extent that their position permits them to
administer organizational sources of punishment such as demotion,
with holding of pay increases or firing to followers.
Legitimate powerrefer to the power a leader possesses as a result
of occupying a particular position or role in the organization. In
every organization, certain types of requests and directions issued
by leaders to subordinates are viewed to be legitimate and valid.
Subordinates are obligated to comply with such requests because
of the norms, policies, and procedures accepted as legitimate by all
members of the organization. Legitimate power is clearly a function
of the leader’s position in the organization and is completely
independent of any of the leader’s personal characteristics. Expert
power refers to power that a leader possesses as a result of his or
her knowledge and expertise regarding the tasks to be performed
by subordinates. Subordinates are most likely to respond positively
to a leader’s attempts to influence their behaviour if they view the
leader as a competent and in possession of knowledge and
information regarding effective task performance that they
themselves lack. The possession of expert power by a leader
obviously depends upon the personal characteristics of the leader
ie., his or her personal expertiseand is not determined by the formal
position that the leader occupies in the organization.
Referent power is dependent upon the extent to which subordinates
identify with, look up to and wish to emulate the leader. The more
that subordinates admire and identify with the leaders, the greater
the leader’s referent power over subordinates. Referent power, like
expert power, is totally dependent upon the personal
characteristics of the leader and does not depend directly upon the
leader’s formal organizational position.
CURRENT ISSUES IN LEADERSHIP
In addition to focusing on the different powers mentioned above,
leadership researchers have also recently identified a number of
new and important issues that deserve our attention.

LEADERSHIP AS MUTUAL INFLUENCE

The very term leadership naturally serves to draw our attention to
leaders themselves and focuses our interest on the ways in which
leaders influence their followers. As a result, research on leadership
has tried to understand how different types of leaders and different
types of leader behaviours cause follower to react in different ways.
An important contribution of recent research on leadership has
been to point out the shortsightedness of this view of leader-
follower relations. While it is no doubt true that leaders can and do
influence their followers, it is also true that leaders and followers
engage in interaction with one another, which necessarily implies
the existence of mutual influence. In other words, not only is it true
that leaders influence followers, but it is equally true that followers
influence leaders.
Constraints on Leadership Behaviour
In thinking about leadership as mutual influence process we are
taking in to account the fact that the behaviour of subordinates has
a casual influence upon the behaviour of the leader. In other words,
leaders do not decide how they are going to behave in total
isolation from their subordinates. Leader must select and adjust
their leadership style in light of how their subordinates are
performing and responding. But acknowledging that the behaviour
of subordinates can influence how leaders behave raises the
question of what other factors may be influencing and constraining
what leaders do. In fact, it turns out that leaders are far from totally
free and unencumbered in choosing their leadership style.

SUBORDINATE BEHAVIOUR
As was pointed out in our discussion of leadership as a mutual
influence process, the evidence is quite clear that the performance
of subordinates has a critical casual impact upon that a leader does
and how he or she behaves toward followers.
Characteristics of Subordinates
In addition to what subordinates do and how they perform, other
identifiable traits, or characteristics, of subordinates may influence
the leader’s behaviour as well as the behaviour of the subordinates
themselves. For example, a leader may behave differently toward
males and females, older and younger people, and those with
similar as opposed to different personal backgrounds from his or
her own.
Characteristics of the Leader
The leader’s abilities and personal characteristics obviously
influence and constrain what the leader does and how he or she
behaves toward subordinates. On the ability side, task relevant
knowledge and skill, as well as supervisory skills and sensitivities,
will have an important impact. In terms of trait, personality
characteristics such as assertiveness, dominance, and self-
confidence all have an influence on leadership behaviour.
Leaders Superiors
How leaders treat their subordinates is strongly influenced by how
the leaders themselves are treated by their own immediate
superiors. Superiors serve both as role models for the leadership
behaviour of individuals toward their own subordinates and as
sources of rewards and punishments. Leaders with immediate
superiors who preach, practice, and reward a participative
management style, for example, are unlikely to treat their
subordinates in a directive and authoritarian fashion.
Leaders Peers
As in almost all thing, peers have an important influence upon how
leaders behave. Peer pressure has a strong homogenizing impact
upon leadership behaviour in an organization. Other managers in an
organisation are likely to apply both direct and indirect pressure on
individual leaders to behave toward their subordinates in a fashion
that is consistent with that practised by other managers at that
level in the organisation.
Leadership qualities: A good leader must have the following
qualities: Courage
i) Self-control
ii) A keen sense of justice and fairness
iii) Definiteness of plans
iv) The habit of doing more than being paid for
v) A pleasing personality
vi) Sympathy and understanding
vii) Mastery of details
viii) Willingness to assume full responsibility
ix) Co-operation

7.4. GROUP DISCUSSIONS

Introduction
Group Discussion is essentially an interactive oral process. The
group members need to listen to each other and use voice and
gesture effectively,use clear language and persuasive style.
Group Discussion (GD) is structured: the exchange of ideas in a GD
takes place in a systematic and structured way. Each of the
participants gets an opportunity to express his/her views and
comments on the views expressed by other members of the group.
Group Discussion involves a lot of group dynamics, that is, it
involves both -person to person as well as group to group
interactions. Every group member has to develop a goal oriented or
group oriented interaction. A participant needs to be aware of
needs of other group members and overall objectives of the
discussion.
Definition: Group discussion may be defined as a form of
systematic and purposeful oral process characterized by the formal
and structured exchange of views on a particular topic, issue,
problem or situation for developing information and understanding
essential for decision making or problem solving.
The dictionary meaning of the word Group Discussion is to talk
about a subject in detail. So, group discussion may refer to a
communicative situation that allows its participants to express
views and opinions and share with other participants. It is a
systematic oral exchange of information, views and opinions about
a topic, issue, problem or situation among members of a group who
share certain common objectives.

IMPORTANCE OF GROUP DISCUSSIONS

Discussions of any sort are supposed to help us develop a better
perspective on issues by bringing out diverse viewpoints. Whenever
people exchange differing views on an issue, they get a clearer
picture of the problem and are able to understand it. The
understanding makes them better equipped to deal with the
problem. This is precisely the main purpose of a discussion.
A Group Discussion helps problem solving, decision making and
personality assessment. Whether one is a flight attendant, a trained
cabin crew applying for job openings in airlines ,a professional
Aircraft engineer or an Air Traffic Controller one needs effective
Group Discussion skills.

7.5. PRESENTATIONS
An oral presentation should be delivered with confidence, by
looking at what tobe considered before, during, and after a talk.
Before a presentation, the success of a good presentation lies in the
preparation. It is essential to take time to think about:
i). The audience: who are they, how many and what do they already
know?
ii). The occasion: Is it formal or informal? A lecture, a debate, a
speech?
iii). The point: what is the purpose of the talk?
iv). The environment: what is the size and layout of the room, and
what facilities will be available like overhead projector (OHP)? Once
this has been considered, it’s time to gather, select and structure
the material.
v). Gathering: There are many sources of information available. It is
only required to assess it authority (who wrote it?), currency (how
up-to-date is it?) and accuracy of a source before relying on it to
support a point in a presentation.
KISS Keep It Simple Short!: The presentation should not be too
much wordy. There should be one slide per minute and Not too
much text.

STRUCTURING
A clear structure to the presentation will not only provide a
presenter with a clear path to follow,but also help his audience to
know and understand main points and secondary information which
come under each of headings of the presentation. During
presentation, it is important to control the body language suitably
because non-verbal communication speaks as much as our words
and voices.

7.6. PERSONAL HYGIENE & GROOMING STANDARDS, HAIR

& SKIN CARE
All cabin crew should be well-groomed, and clean at all times, as
this gives them a sense of well-being and confidence to do their job
efficiently.
The hands of the cabin crew staff should be given special attention,
as they are constantly under the scrutiny of the passengers. Nails
should be trimmed, and kept clean. Playing with one’s hair and face
should be avoided.
Chewing gum should be avoided in all public areas of the airport.
Minimum jewellery should be worn by the service staff. A wrist
watch, finger ring and plain earrings (for girls only) should be
permitted.
If an a cabin crew member has a skin problem, a doctor should be
consulted immediately
Uniform should be clean and well-pressed. Shoes should be
properly polished and well-fitting.
Good Conduct
All service staff should be well-mannered and respectful to guests,
and to senior members of the staff. They should be calm and
pleasant, even in the most tiring circumstances. They should be
able to satisfactorily solve any problem that may arise. In case of
difficulty, a senior and experienced member of the staff should be
consulted. Tact, punctuality and honesty are admirable qualities
among service personnel.

7.7. MOTIVATION
Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or
psychological need that activates a behaviour or a drive that is
aimed at a goal.
“Motivation is the act of stimulating someone or oneself to get
desired course of action, to push right button to get desired
reactions.”
The following are the features of motivation:
i) Motivation is an act of managers
ii) Motivation is a continuous process
iii) Motivation can be positive or negative
iv) Motivation is goal oriented
v) Motivation is complex in nature
vi) Motivation is an art
vii) Motivation is system-oriented
viii) Motivation is different from job satisfaction
1. Motivational factors : There are several factors that motivate a
person to work. The motivational factors can be broadly divided
into two groups: I. MONETARY FACTORS: ™ Salaries or wages:
Salaries or wages is one of the most important motivational factors.
Reasonable salaries must be paid on time. While fixing salaries the
organization must consider such as:
• Cost of living
• Company ability to pay
• Capability of company to pay etc,
Bonus: It refers to extra payment to employee over and above
salary given as an incentive. The employees must be given
adequate rate of bonus.
Incentives: The organization may also provide additional incentives
such as medical allowance, educational allowance, house rent
allowance (HRA) and other types of allowance. Special individual
incentives: The company may provide special individual incentives.
Such incentives are to be given to deserving employees for giving
valuable suggestions.
2.Non -monetary factors: ™
Status or job title: By providing a higher status or designations the
employee must be motivated. Employees prefer and proud of higher
designations. Appreciation and recognition: Employees must be
appreciated for their services. The praise should not come from
immediate superior but also from higher authorities. ™
Delegation of authority: Delegation of authority motivates a
subordinate to perform the tasks with dedication and commitment.
When authority is delegated, the subordinate knows that his
superior has placed faith and trust in him. ™
Working conditions: Provision for better working conditions such
as air-conditioned rooms, proper plant layout, proper sanitation,
equipment, machines, motivates the employees. ™
Job security: Guarantee of job security or lack of fear dismissal can
also be a good way to motivate the employees. Employees who are
kept temporarily for a long time may be frustrated and may leave
the organization. ™
Job enrichment: Job enrichment involves more challenging tasks
and responsibilities. For instance an executive who is involved in
preparing and presenting reports of performance, may also asked
to frame plans. ™ Workers participation: Inviting the employee to be
a member of quality circle, or a committee, or some other form of
employee participation can also motivate the workforce.
Cordial relations: Good and healthy relations must exist throughout
the organization. This would definitely motivates the employees. ™
Good superiors: Subordinates want their superiors to be intelligent,
experienced, matured, and having a good personality. In fact, the
superior needs to have superior knowledge and skills than that of
his subordinates. The very presence of superiors can motivate the
subordinates.™
Other factors: There are several other factors of motivating the
employees:
i) Providing training to the employees.
ii) Proper job placements.
iii) Proper promotions and transfers.
iv) Proper performance feed back.
v) Proper welfare facilities.
 vi) Flexible working hours.
Motivational Theory: Maslow’s-Hierarchy of Needs Theory: This
theory was proposed by Abraham Maslow and is based on the
assumption that people are motivated by a series of five universal
needs. These needs are ranked, according to the order in which
they influence human behaviour, in hierarchical fashion
i) Physiological needs are deemed to be the lowest- level needs.
These needs include the needs such as food & water. So long as
physiological needs are unsatisfied, they exist as a driving or
motivating force in a person’s life. A hungry person has a felt need.
This felt need sets up both psychological and physical tensions that
manifest themselves in overt behaviours directed at reducing those
tensions (getting something to eat). Once the hunger is sated, the
tension is reduced, and the need for food ceases to motivate. At
this point, assuming that other physiological requirements are also
satisfied the next higher order need becomes the motivating need.
ii) Safety needs: the needs for shelter and security become the
motivators of human behaviour. Safety needs include a desire for
security, stability, dependency, protection, freedom from fear and
anxiety, and a need for structure, order, and law. In the workplace
this needs translates into a need for at least a minimal degree of
employment security; the knowledge that we cannot be fired on a
whim and that appropriate levels of effort and productivity will
ensure continued employment.
iii) Social needs include the need for belongingness and love.
Generally, as gregarious creatures, human have a need to belong.
In the workplace, this need may be satisfied by an ability to interact
with one’s co-workers and perhaps to be able to work
collaboratively with these colleagues.
iv) Ego and esteem needs become the motivating needs. o Esteem
needs include the desire for self-respect, self-esteem, and the
esteem of others. When focused externally, these needs also
include the desire for reputation, prestige, status, fame, glory,
dominance, recognition, attention, importance, and appreciation.
The highest need in Maslow’s hierarchy is that of self-actualization;
the need for self-realization, continuous self-development, and the
process of becoming all that a person is capable of becoming.

Figure 34: Maslow’s Pyramid of Needs

7.8. EFFECTIVE INTERVIEW TECHNIQUES

In today’s environment, professionals must take advantage of every
opportunity to reach their target audience with positive messages
about their issues and causes. When jobseeker or when people are
brought into the news media spotlight, their actions and words can
have a positive or negative impact. The trick is to do more than
“hold their own” with the media. They must seize the moment to
communicate their message instead of simply answering questions.
If they panic and engage in self-doubt,they can easily lose control
of the situation. But if they stop, take a deep breath and remember
one fact, they can immediately begin to turn any encounter with the
news media to their advantage.
Types of Interviews
1. Structured or non-structured: A structured interviewing style is
based on questions designed to probe past behaviour in specific
situations. It focuses on experience, behaviours, knowledge, skills
and abilities related to the position. Used to get an idea of how an
individual will manage duties based on their past behavior.
Note: Past behavior is the best predictor of future performance
Behavioural questions are more probing and more specific than
traditional interview questions
Examples of Behavioural interview Questions:
1) “Tell me about your greatest achievement? “What did you do
when…?”
2) Tell me about a time when you had to adjust to a co-worker’s
working style in order to successfully complete a project.
3) Describe a situation when working with others produced better
results than if you had completed the project on your own.
4) Can you share with me a time when demonstrated your ability
to work as an effective team member?
2. Traditional Interview: Traditional interview questions are more
hypothetical rather than focusing on past events.
Example of Traditional: “Tell me about yourself?” “What would you
do if…?”
3. One-on-one or panel/group
1. Responsive or reactive (stress interview)
2. Phone (pre-screening)
3. Informational
Pre-interview Preparation
1. Documents : Copy of resume for each interviewer , Pen and
paper, Interview Agenda, Copy of job posting , References , Portfolio
which optional depending on career
2. Professional Attire: Wearing a professional suit is more
preferable.
A day or two before the interview:
• Try on your intended outfit (fit)
• Check for stains, rips, missing button, creases, etc.
• Coordinate accessories such as tie, belt, socks, shoes, jewelry,
etc.
• Set aside in a “safe” spot ν Dress one step above
3. Prepare Route:
Start the journey earlier in order to reach at interview place on
time.
Confirm address, including suite number, and interviewer’s
name(s)
 Print a map of the route/write directions
Trial run before day of interview
Check for construction signs
Locate available parking lot options
Set aside change/credit card if needed
4. Prepare answers to possible questions
• Use recent examples where you excelled
• Identify your skills throughout your response ν Use industry
terms, acronyms or industry slang
• Avoid casual language
• Be objective, not subjective…just the facts
• Include amounts, dollars, time frames, percentages, numbers,
etc.
• Length: 1-3 minutes
• Practice, practice, practice!
i) Tell me about yourself.
ii) What is your greatest achievement?
iii) Tell me about a time you save time or money.
iv) What is your greatest strength?
v) Can you me about your computer skills?
vi) Tell me about a time where you had to handle a challenging
co-worker or customer.
vii) Can you describe a time when you went above and beyond
the call of duty?
 viii) What do you believe is your professional weakness?
ix) Where do you see yourself in five years? ϒ

x) Why do you want to work for this company?

Technique for Answering to Questions of Interview: Using the
STAR technique
Five Stages of an Interview
1. Opening - rapport building
2. Questions about jobseeker’s experience and skills
3. Exploring professional style (fit)
4. Interviewee questions
5. Closing - final message

7.9. RESUME WRITING

A presentation of professional objectives, academic achievements
and experience background.
Contents of a Resume
i) Personal – Name, address, phone, email
ii) Job Objectives/Career Interest
iii) Education – Degree, school and location, GPA and Graduation
Date
iv) Experience – Work/Career Related
v) Honors, Activities, Hobbies
vi) Skills, Abilities - Computer, foreign languages, etc.
vii) References
How is it used? Resume is used to
 a) Support interviews
b) Send with Cover letters
c) Send with applications
d) Follow-up to phone calls
c) Send with Thank You letters
Cover Letter: Business letter written to a potential employer which
accompanies a resume.
Cover letter has the following importance:
Asking for information
Applying for a posted job vacancy
To discuss possible employment
To confirm an interview
As a keep in touch letter
As an acceptance of job offer letter
As a rejection of job offer letter
As a request for a deadline extension
Sample Phrases of used in Cover letter to hook an employer:
“I read, with a great deal of interest, your advertisement in the
January 20 issue of _____________.”
“Your ad captured my attention.”
“The skills you require appear to match my professional strengths.”
“I would welcome the opportunity for a personal interview to
further discuss my qualifications.”
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 About the Author

Emmy Arsonval Maniriho is currently the lead strategy and planning

at the Mastercard Foundation in Africa, based in Accra, Ghana. Prior
to joining the Foundation, he was an advisor to the vice-chancellor
of the University of Rwanda. He was also a part-time assistant
lecturer in the Department of Transport and Logistics at the
University of Rwanda, College of Business and Economics, where he
taught transport-and-aviation-related courses.
With his vivid dream of becoming an expert in the aviation industry
and his thirst for knowledge in many fields, he obtained an MBA in
Airline and Airport Management, master’s degree in Human Rights,
PGD in NGO Management, BA in Journalism and Communication,
diploma in Theology and diploma in United Nations and
International Understanding. He is also pursuing PhD in
Management, and his research focuses on air transport’s
contribution to sustainable development.
He was the senior reviewer of ICAO Scientific Review, Analytics and
Management Research. He gained experience in the international
aviation regulatory framework when he was an air transport intern
at the International Civil Aviation Organization’s Air Transport
Bureau (ATB), in its Economic Regulatory Framework (ERF) section,
and worked closely with Aviation Data and Analysis (ADA) section.
He thus has a broad knowledge of ICAO’s Standard and
Recommended Practices (SARPs), ICAO’s policies on charges for
airports and air navigation services, aviation safety, open sky
policies and the liberalization process of the aviation market.
Emmy Arsonval published a number of aviation-related books which
are available on Amazon, namely Strategic Airport Planning and
Marketing, Cabin Crew Training Manual, Airlines and Airport
Operations, Understanding Air Traffic Control and Human Factors in
Aviation, Fundamentals of Aircraft Maintenance Management,
Trainingshandleiding Voor cabinepersoneel Van
Luchtvaartmaatschappijen (Dutch Edition), Babelcube Inc, 2021,
and Strategische Luchthavenplanning en Marketing (Dutch Edition),
Babelcube Inc, 2021.
He thus has extensive experience in tertiary and TVET education,
management of international organizations, strategy and policy
alignment, strategic management, policy analysis, policy
formulation and policy implementation. He also has strong
knowledge in leadership, negotiations and diplomacy gained when
he was a scholar of Leadership, Exchange and Diplomacy at
Cleveland Council On World Affairs, Ohio, USA. He also has
international experience gained from working for statutory
international organizations in Canada, Rwanda and Belgium.
Emmy is a polyglot because he has an excellent command of
Kinyarwanda, English, French and Swahili.