Gradation of aggregate is the distribution of particle sizes in a

given sample of aggregate. It affects the properties and

performance of bituminous and non-bituminous layers of
flexible pavement. Some of the effects are:

- *Stability and strength*: Gradation influences the

interlocking and frictional resistance of aggregates, which
determine the stability and strength of the mix. A well-graded
aggregate blend can achieve a dense and strong mix with
minimum voids and optimum bitumen content. ¹⁴
- *Durability and fatigue resistance*: Gradation affects the
durability and fatigue resistance of the mix by influencing the
air voids, voids in mineral aggregate (VMA), and voids filled
with bitumen (VFB). These volumetric parameters are related
to the resistance of the mix to moisture damage, rutting,
cracking, and aging.
- *Workability and compaction*: Gradation affects the
workability and compaction of the mix by influencing the
cohesiveness and fluidity of the bitumen-aggregate mixture.
- *Permeability and frictional resistance*: Gradation affects
the permeability and frictional resistance of the mix by
influencing the surface texture and macrotexture of the
pavement. A well-graded aggregate blend can achieve a low-
permeable and high-frictional mix with minimum noise and
splash. ¹⁴
Skew Bridge
A skew bridge is a bridge built at an angle other than a right
angle to the feature it crosses, such as a river, road, or railway
line¹. This is often necessary to maintain a relatively straight
alignment of a roadway above or below the bridge¹. The skew
angle is the angle between the axis of support (pier or
abutment) and a line normal to the longitudinal axis
(centerline) of a bridge³.

The design of skew bridges requires special attention because

their behaviour differs significantly from that of normal
bridges. In normal bridges, the deck slab is perpendicular to
the supports, and the load placed on the deck slab is
transferred to the supports, which are placed normal to the
slab. However, load transference from a skew slab bridge is a
more complicated problem because there remains always a
doubt as to the direction in which the slab will span and the
manner in which the load will be transferred to the support

The effect of skew in deck slabs having skew angles up to 20

degrees is not so significant, and in designing such bridges,
the length parallel to the centre line of the roadway is taken as
the span². When the skew angle varies from 20 degrees to 50
degrees, the skew effect becomes significant, and the slab
tends to span normal to the supports².
Class B Bridge
Class B loading is used in the design of temporary bridges,
such as timber bridges¹. It is considered as light loading¹. The
members of any bridge designed for class B loading have a
specific impact percentage, which is determined from an
equation applicable for spans between 3 meters and 45
meters³.

The Indian Roads Congress (IRC) has categorized vehicle

loadings into three types: Class AA, Class A, and Class B¹.
Class B is the lightest among these. When designing a bridge,
it's important to consider the type of loading it will be
subjected to, as this affects the bridge's strength, durability,
and safety¹.

THROUGH BRIDGE
A through bridge is a type of bridge where the roadway or
track passes between the supporting elements, such as trusses,
girders, or arches³. This design is used when the road bed is
suspended below the trusses or arches that make up the load-
bearing structure of the bridge². The roadway then passes
through the trusses or arches, instead of over them².

Through bridges can be made from materials such as steel or

reinforced concrete, in which the base of an arch structure is
below the deck but the top rises above it¹. It can either be
lower bearing or mid-bearing¹. Thus, the deck is within the
arch, and cables or beams that are in tension suspend the
central part of the deck from the arch¹.

The design of through bridges varies widely, and many types

are still in use today. Truss bridges, suspension bridges, and
arch bridges are some of the most common². Bridges that have
trusses or arches that extend both above and below the deck
are called half-through bridges².

A submersible bridge
A submersible bridge is a type of movable bridge that lowers
the bridge deck below the water level to permit waterborne
traffic to use the waterway. This is different from a lift bridge
or table bridge, which operate by raising the roadway.
Two submersible bridges exist across the Corinth Canal in
Greece, one at each end, in Isthmia and Corinth1. They lower
the centre span to 8 meters below water level when they give
way to ships crossing the channel.
The primary advantage of a submersible bridge over the
similar lift bridge is that there is no structure above the
shipping channel and thus no height limitation on ship traffic.
This is particularly important for sailing vessels. Additionally,
the lack of an above-deck structure is considered aesthetically
pleasing.
However, the presence of the submerged bridge structure
limits the draft of vessels in the waterway. The term
submersible bridge is also sometimes applied to a non-
movable bridge that is designed to withstand submersion and
high currents when the water level rises. Such a bridge is
more properly called a low water bridge