BRIDGE ENGINEERING

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Contents
 Bridge and Functions of bridge
 Classification of Bridge
 components of a bridge
 Forces on Abutments
 Girder Bridge
 factors affecting the span of bridge
 the loads to consider while designing the road bridges and culvert
 clearance diagram for high way traffic
 centrifugal force effect on a curve of road
 different type of concrete bridges
Contents….
  Hydraulic data which required for Hydraulic design of
bridges
 Economical span of bridge
 Structural differences between simply supported bridges
and rigid frame bridges
 methods for determination of Design Discharge and
scour depth.
 Standard specifications for Road Bridge as Per IRC code
 various loading and forces acting on Bridges
Bridge
 A bridge is a structure built to span physical
obstacles such as a body of water, valley, or road, for
the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle.
 Designs of bridges vary depending on the function of
the bridge, the nature of the terrain where the bridge
is constructed and anchored, the material used to
make it, and the funds available to build it.
Functions of bridge
 Many different designs that all serve unique purposes
and apply to different situations.
 The function of bridge it can be used as Aqueduct bridge
(canal over a river), Viaduct (road or railway over a
valley or river), Pedestrian bridge, Highway bridge,
Railway bridge, Road-cum-rail or pipe line bridge.
 Designs of bridges vary depending on the function of the
bridge, the nature of the terrain where the bridge is
constructed and anchored, the material used to make it,
and the funds available to build it.
Classification of Bridge

According to form (or) type of superstructures

 Slab bridge

 Beam bridge

 Truss bridge

 Arch bridge

 Cable stayed (or )suspended bridge

According to material of construction of superstructure

 Timber bridge

 Concrete bridge

 Stone  bridge

 R.C.C bridge

 Steel  bridge

 P.C.C bridge

 Composite bridge

 Aluminum bridge
According to inter-span relationship
Simply supported bridge

Cantilever  bridge

Continuous  bridge

According to the position of the bridge floor relative to superstructures

Deck through bridge

Half through or suspension  bridge

According to method of connection of different part of superstructures

Pinned connection  bridge

Riveted connection  bridge

Welded connection  bridge

 
According to length of bridge
 Culvert  bridge(less than 6 m)

 Minor bridge(less than 6 m-60m)

 Major bridge(more than 60 m)

 Long span bridge(more than 120 m)

According to function
• Aqueduct bridge(canal over a river)
• Viaduct(road or railway over a valley or river)
• Pedestrian bridge
• Highway bridge
• Railway bridge
• Road-cum-rail or pipe line bridge
components of a bridge
 Decking: A bridge deck or road bed is the roadway, or the
pedestrian walkway, surface of a bridge.
 Bearings: A bridge bearing is a component of a bridge
which typically provides a resting surface between bridge
piers and the bridge deck.
 Abutments: The Structure upon which the ends of a Bridge
rest is referred to as an Abutment.
 Foundations: Foundation types depend primarily on the
depth and safe bearing pressures of the bearing stratum, also
restrictions placed on differential settlement due to the type
of bridge deck.
 River draining works.
 Approaches.
 Handrails, parapets, crash barriers.
Forces on Abutments
The Structure upon which the ends of a Bridge rest is referred to
as an Abutment. The most common type of Abutment Structure is a
Retaining Wall.
Earth pressures exerted on an abutment can be classified according
to the direction and the magnitude of the abutment movement.
 At-rest Earth Pressure: -When the wall is fixed rigidly and does not
move, the pressure exerted by the soil on the wall is called at-rest
earth pressure.
 Active Earth Pressure: - When a wall moves away from the
backfill, the earth pressure decreases (active pressure)
 Passive Earth Pressure: -When it moves toward the backfill, the
earth pressure increases (passive pressure).
Girder Bridge
A girder bridge, in general, is a bridge that utilizes girders as the
means of supporting the deck. 
A bridge consists of three parts:
 the foundation (abutments and piers),
 the superstructure (girder, truss, or arch), and
 the deck
In modern girder steel bridges, the two most common shapes are plate
girders and box-girders.
 A plate girder is a girder that has been fabricated by welding plates
together to create the desired shape. Plate girder can be used for spans
between 10 meters and more than 100 metres (33 feet to more than
330 feet).
 A box girder or "tub girder" is, as the name suggests, a box shape. They
consist of two vertical webs, short top flanges on top of each web, and a
wide bottom flange connecting the webs together. A box girder is
particularly resistant to torsion and, while expensive, are utilized in
situations where a standard girder might succumb to torsion or toppling
effects.
Factors Affecting The Span
Of Bridge
 Geographical dispersion, if the branches of a business are widely dispersed,
then the manager will find it difficult to supervise each of them, as such the
span of control will be smaller.
 Capability of workers, if workers are highly capable, need little supervision,
and can be left on their own, e.g.: Theory Y type of people, they need not be
supervised much as they are motivated and take initiative to work; as such
the span of control will be wider.
 Capability of boss, an experienced boss with good understanding of the
tasks, good knowledge of the workers and good relationships with the
workers, will be able to supervise more workers
 Value-add of the boss, a boss that is adding value by training and developing
new skills in the workers will need a narrow span of control than one who is
focused only on performance management (this is the reverse of the
capability of workers point above)
 Similarity of task, if the tasks that the subordinates are performing are
similar, then the span of control can be wider, as the manager can
supervise them all at the same time.
 Volume of other tasks, if the boss has other responsibilities, such as

membership of committees, involvement in other projects, liaising

with stakeholders, the number of direct reports will need to be smaller
 Required administrative tasks, if the boss is required to have regular

face to face meetings, complete appraisal and development plans,

discuss remuneration benefits,
 write job descriptions and employment contracts, explain employment

policy changes and other administrative tasks then the span of control
is reduced.
The loads to consider while designing the road bridges and culvert

The various load which are consider while designing the road bridge and culverts
are:-
 Dead Load

 Live Load

 Snow Load

 Impact and Dynamic Load due to Vehicles

 Wind Load

 Longitudinal due to friction resistance of expanses Bearing

 Centrifugal Force due to Curvature

 Horizontal force due to water current

 Buoyancy force

 Temperature Effect

 Earthquake effect

 Erection stress
Clearance Diagram For High Way Traffic
Centrifugal force effect on a
curve of road
 The presence of horizontal curve imparts centrifugal force
which is a reactive force acting outward on a vehicle
negotiating it.
 Centrifugal force depends on speed and radius of the
horizontal curve and is counteracted to a certain extent by
transverse friction between the tyre and pavement surface.
 On a curved road, this force tends to cause the vehicle to
overrun or to slide outward from the centre of road curvature.
For proper design of the curve, an understanding of the forces
acting on a vehicle taking a horizontal curve is necessary.
 Various forces acting on the vehicle are illustrated in the figure
 They are the centrifugal force (P) acting outward, weight of the vehicle
(W) acting downward, and the reaction of the ground on the wheels (RA
and RB). The centrifugal force and the weight is assumed to be from the
centre of gravity which is at h units above the ground
 The centrifugal force P in kg=m2 is given by
P= Wv2/gR
Different Type Of Concrete Bridges

 Arch Bridges: -Arch bridges derive their strength from the fact that vertical loads on the
arch generate compressive forces in the arch ring, which is constructed of materials well
able to withstand these forces.
 Reinforced Slab Bridges: -For short spans, a solid reinforced concrete slab, generally
cast in-situ rather than precast, is the simplest design. It is also cost-effective, since the
flat, level soffit means that falsework and formwork are also simple.
 Beam and Slab Bridge: -Beam and slab bridges are probably the most common form of
concrete bridge. They have the virtue of simplicity, economy, wide availability of the
standard sections, and speed of erection. The precast beams are placed on the supporting
piers or abutments, usually on rubber bearings which are maintenance free.
 Box Girder Bridge: -For spans greater than around 45 metres, prestressed concrete box
girders are the most common method of concrete bridge construction. The main spans
are hollow and the shape of the 'box' will vary from bridge to bridge and along the span,
being deeper in cross-section at the abutments and piers and shallower at midspan.
 Cable-Stayed Bridges: -For really large spans, one solution
is the cable-stayed bridge. As typified by the Dee Crossing
where all elements are concrete, the design consists of
supporting towers carrying cables which support the bridge
from both sides of the tower. Most cable-stayed bridges are
built using a form of cantilever construction which can be
either in-situ or precast.
 Suspension Bridges: -Concrete plays an important part in the
construction of a suspension bridge. There will be massive
foundations, usually embedded in the ground, that support the
weight and cable anchorages.
Arch Bridges Reinforced Slab Bridges
Beam and Slab Bridge Box Girder Bridge
Cable-Stayed Bridges Suspension Bridges
Hydraulic data which required for Hydraulic design
of bridges

Develop flood flow magnitude–frequency relationships and/or flood hydrographs

that shows flood flows the encroachment is required to convey. Typically, the
hydrologic evaluation is based on discharges up to Q100. For bridge scour
evaluations and high-risk areas (i.e. urban areas) discharges up to Q500 are
required.
 Typical floodplain cross-sections are surveyed as looking left to right downstream
and extend out to the 100-year flood limits. The cross-sections are located along a
line normal to the high-water floodplain and low water channel.
 Locate the immediate upstream cross-section approximately one bridge length
upstream from the bridge. Use a minimum upstream distance of 100 ft. and a
maximum distance of 500 ft.
 Locate the bridge-opening cross-section at the immediate downstream side of
bridge from left abutment to right abutment. Include low structure elevation and
existing bridge deck grade elevations at both abutments. For new alignments,
obtain a channel cross-section at project centerline extending up to high bank.
 Locate the downstream cross-section approximately one-half
floodplain width downstream from the upstream cross-
section. Use a minimum distance, downstream of the bridge,
of 300 ft. and a maximum distance of 1500 ft.
 Hydraulic controlling features such as natural contractions,

downstream confluent streams, railroad structures, adjacent

hydraulic structures, head cuts, and other obstructions have a
variety of survey requirements. Obtain the appropriate data
to hydraulically evaluate obstruction impacts.
 For complex floodplain analysis obtain additional cross-

sections and/or total station survey.

Economical span of bridge

 The span for which the total cost of bridge will be

minimum is known as the economic span.
The ratio of Cost of super structure and Cost of
Sub structure = 1
Economical Span = √P / a, 
Where -    a = p / l2, p = Cost of pier (Super
structure),   l = Span,  P = Cost of Pier (Sub
Structure),     a = Constant of variation.
 The cost of building one typical span can be broadly divided
into following two components:
 Cost of Substructure
 Cost of Superstructure
Structural differences between simply supported bridges and rigid frame bridges

Simply supported bridge

 Beam bridges are the simplest structural forms for bridge spans
 supported by an abutment or pier at each end. No moments are
transferred throughout the support, hence their structural type is
known as simply supported.
 Because no moments are transferred, thrust, as from an arch bridge,
cannot be accommodated, so leading to innovative designs, such as 
lenticular trusses & bow string arches, which contain the horizontal
 forces within the superstructure.
 These bridges can be two logs stretched across a backyard stream
and have a long board that is put on top of the logs to make a
bridge.
 Rigid frame bridges
 A Rigid-Frame Bridge is a bridge in which the superstructure
and substructure are rigidly connected to act as a continuous
unit.
 Typically, the structure is cast monolithically, making the
structure continuous from deck to foundation.
 The connections between members are rigid connections which
transfer Bending Moment, axial forces, and Shear Force.
 A bridge design consisting of a rigid frame can provide
significant structural benefits, but can also be difficult to design
and/or construct.
Methods for determination of design discharge and scour depth.

The various method for determination of design discharge:-

Using Empirical method
Ingles method
 
Q = 7000A/√A+4
 
Where Q = discharge, A = catchment area
Dickens’s Formula
 
Q = C [A] 2/3
 

Where C = constant which value from 800 to 1600.

 Rational method
It is most widely used method for analysis of runoff response for small catchment area. Peak
discharge is usually due to overland flow rather than stream flow.
 
Q = 0.278 CIA
 
Where Q= peak discharge, C = runoff coefficient, I = Rainfall Intensity, A = catchment area.
 
Area velocity method
Manning’s Formula
 
V = 1/n R2/3 S1/2
 
Where R = hydraulic mean depth, S = hydraulic gradient or slope, V = velocity
 
 Unit hydrograph method
A unit hydrograph (UH) is the hypothetical unit response of

a watershed (in terms of runoff volume and timing) to a unit

input of rainfall.
It can be defined as the direct runoff hydrograph (DRH)

resulting from one unit (e.g., one cm or one inch) of effective

rainfall occurring uniformly over that watershed at a uniform
rate over a unit period of time.
As a UH is applicable only to the direct runoff component of

a hydrograph (i.e., surface runoff), a separate determination

of the base flow component is required.
 A UH is specific to particular watershed, and specific to
a particular length of time corresponding to the duration
of the effective rainfall.
 That is, the UH is specified as being the 1-hour, 6-hour,
or 24-hour UH, or any other length of time up to the time
of concentration of direct runoff at the watershed outlet.
 Thus, for a given watershed, there can be many unit
hydrographs, each one corresponding to a different
duration of effective rainfall
 Any available record.
Standard specifications for Road Bridge as Per IRC code

Indian Roads Congress Bridge Code

The Indian Roads Congress (IRC) Bridge Code as available now cons1sts
of e1ght
 Sections as below
 Section I- General features of design
 Section II - Loads and stresses
 Section Ill -Cement concrete
 Section IV - Brick, stone and block masonry
 Section V-Steel road bridges
 Section VI - Composite construction
 Section VII- Foundations and substructure
 Section IX – Bearings
 The Government Roads comprise of National Highways (NH), State Highways
(SH), Major District Road (MDR), Other District Roads (ODR), and Cross Drainage
Works like bridges, Causeways, Culverts, Road Over Bridge (ROB) and Road
Under Bridge (RUB). 
 NH: Main highways running through the length and breadth of the Country
connecting major ports, State Capitals, large industrial and tourist center.
 SH: Arterial routes of a State linking District Headquarters and important cities
within the State and connecting them with NH or Highways of the neighboring
States.
 MDR: Important roads within a district serving areas of production and markets and
connecting those with each other or with main highways
 ODR: Roads serving rural areas of production and providing them with outlet to
market centers, taluk headquarters, Block Development headquarters or other main
roads.
 
 The roads are again grouped as Single lane (3.5 m),
intermediate lane (5.5 m), Double lane (7m with kerb or
7.5 m without kerb) and multiple lanes (addl. 3.5 m for
each lane) depending upon the width of Carriageway. On
village roads, the width may be restricted to 3 m. Roads
are broadly classified as Rural Roads and Urban Roads.
 To design and construction of the roads, Standards
prescribed in Indian Road Congress (IRC) Specifications
and Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
(MORT&H) Specification are to be observed.
 Some of the IRC Specifications frequently used for road
construction are
 IRC 37:2001 –Guidelines for the design of Flexible Pavement

 
 IRC: SP-20:2002: Rural Roads Manual

 
 IRC 81:1997 & 81:2001- Guidelines for Strengthening Road

pavements using Benkelman Bean Deflection Technique.

 
 IRC 58:1974 - Guidelines for the Design of Rigid Pavements for

Highways 
 IRC 15:1981- Standard Specification and code of Practices for
construction of concrete roads
 
 IRC 86:1983 – Geometric Design Standards for Urban Roads
in Plains]
 
 IRC 73:1980 – Geometric Design Standards for Rural (Non-
urban)-Highways
 
 IRC 64:1990 - Guidelines for capacity of Roads in Rural Areas
 Width of Carriageway
 The width of carriageway required will depend on the intensity and
volume of traffic anticipated to use the bridge.
 The width of carriageway is expressed interms of traffic lanes, each lane
meaning the width required to accommodate one train of Class A vehicles.
 Except on minor village roads, all bridges must provide for at least two-
lane width.
 The minimum width of carriageway is 4.25 m for a one-lane bridge and
7.5 m for a two-lane bridge.
 For every additional lane, a minimum of 3.5 m must be allowed.
 Bridges allowing traffic on both directions must have carriageways of two
or four lanes or multiples of two lanes.
 Three-lane bridges should not be constructed, as these
will be conducive to the occurrence of accidents.
 In the case of a wide bridge, it is desirable to provide a
central value of at least 1.2 m width in order to separate
the two opposing lines of traffic.
 In such the case the individual carriageway on either
side of the verge should provide for a minimum of two
lane of traffic.
 If the bridge is to carry a tramway or railway in addition,
the width of the bridge should increase suitable.
 Clearances
 Wherein the maximum width and depth of a moving vehicle are
assumed as 3300 mm and 4500 mm, respectively.
 The left half section of each diagram shows the main fixed
structure between end posts of/on arch ribs, whereas the right half
section shows the intermediate portions.
 For a bridge constructed on a horizontal curve with super-elevated
surface the minimum vertical clearance is to be measured from the
super-elevated level of the roadway.
 The horizontal clearance should be increased on the Inner side of
the curve by an amount equal to 5 m multiplied by the super-
elevation.
Various loading and forces acting on bridges

 Bridge loading standard: Highway bridge deck shave to be

designed to withstand the live loads specified by the Indian
Road Congress (IRC).The standard IRC loads specified in IRC:
6-2000 are grouped under four categories as detailed below:
 IRC Class AA Loading: Two different types of vehicles are
specified under this category Grouped as tracked and wheeled
vehicles. All the bridges located of National and State
Highways have to be designed for this heavy loading. The IRC
Class AA tracked vehicle (simulating an army tank) of 700 kN
and a wheeled vehicle (heavy duty army truck) of 400 kN are
shown
  IRC Class70R Loading: This loading consists of three types of vehicles.

 Tracked vehicle of total load 700 kN with two track search weighing 350 kN.
 
 Wheeled vehicle comprising 4 wheels, each with a load of 100 kN totaling 400 kN.

 Wheeled vehicle with a train of vehicles on seven axles with a total load of 1000
kN.

 IRC Class A Loading: This type of loading consists of a wheel load train comprising
a truck with a trailer of specified axle spacing and loads.

 IRC Class B Loading: Class B loading is similar to Class A loading except that the axle
loads are comparatively of lesser magnitude. This type of loading is adopted for temporary
structures and timber bridges.
 Impact Factors: - Impact factors are generally applied to
the moving wheel or distributed loads to enhance their
magnitude; to include their dynamic effects on the bridge
deck. The impact factor is always inversely proportional to
the length of the span and is different for reinforced
concrete and steel bridges.
 For IRC Class AA Tracked Loading, span of 9 m. or more,
the impact factors for the following bridges is given below.
 RC Bridges-10% up to a span of 40 m.
 Steel Bridges-25% up to a span of 23 m
 
FORCES ACTING ON BRIDGE PIER

 Dead load of superstructure and pier itself.  

 Live load of traffic passing over the bridge .The effect of eccentric loading due to live
load occurring on one span only need to be considered.  
 Impact effect  
 Effect of wind on moving loads and on the superstructure.  
 Longitudinal force due to tractive effort of vehicles.  
 Longitudinal force due to braking of vehicle.  
 Longitudinal force due to resistance in bearing. In order to reduce the net longitudinal
force in bearings, it is usual to make bearing of two spans located on a pier to be of
same type i.e. expansion or fixed bearing. Still a variation of about 10% in frictional
coefficient of sliding bearing may be assumed. Also the resistance in two adjacent
bearing would differ when live load occupies only one of the adjacent spans.  
 Seismic effects.
 Buoyancy force.
LOAD COMBINATION.
 

 As per I.R.C.-78, CL-706.1, following load combination cases

are considered,
 CASE-I:-DL+LL+ water current forces +combinations are

considered as mentioned by I.R.C.  

Braking forces + Temp, shrinkage forces + buoyancy force 
 CASE-II:- CASE-I for one span dislodged condition  

 CASE-III:- CASE-I + Seismic force (Longitudinal direction)  

 CASE-IV:- CASE-I + Seismic force (Transverse direction)  

 CASE-V:- CASE-I + wind force (Longitudinal direction)

 CASE-VI:- CASE-I + wind force (Transverse direction)

 For each case, following force actions, at base of pier are
to be determined,
 Total Axial Load  
 Total Force in longitudinal direction
 Total Force in lateral direction  
 Total Moment in longitudinal direction  
 Total Momentin lateral Direction
While considering different load combinations, As per
IRC-78, permissible stresses are increased by 33.5% for
wind combinations and 50% for seismic combination.
THANK
YOU