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A Tissue-Independent Flexible Antenna With
Miniaturized Size for Injectable Implants
Yaozong Sui, Chengyu Hou, Yinuo Wang, Kwok L. Chung, Senior Member, IEEE, Chenghuan Wei, Zijie Li, Wei-
Hua Zong, Member, IEEE, Jianqing Wang, Fellow, IEEE
Abstract—This letter introduces a new implantable antenna
operating at the Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) 2.4-
2.4835 GHz band for use in muscle and fat. The antenna design
consists of an unsymmetric dipole with a rectangular ground
plane and a side-fed radiator. The radiator consists of a step-
shaped feedline and two wound arms of different lengths. The
longer arm excites a first resonance at 2.46 GHz in fat and a
second resonance at 2.85 GHz in muscle. The shorter arm is
added to tune the second resonance to 2.48 GHz. The measured
bandwidths in muscle and fat are 2.12-2.68 GHz and 2.23-2.62
GHz, respectively. The transmission performance between the
inner body and external body is examined using a receiving
antenna placed outside the body, achieving a maximum
transmission coefficient of -29.1 dB at 2.45 GHz. The proposed
implantable antenna is printed on a 70 μm thick polyimide
substrate with a small 2×7 mm2 footprint. Its narrow width,
ultrathin thickness, and flexibility make it suitable for use in
injectable minimally invasive implantations.
Index Terms—Implantable antennas, flexible antennas,
miniaturized antenna, injectable implants, Industrial, Scientific,
and Medical (ISM) band
I. INTRODUCTION
W IRELESS implantable devices have the capability
to continuously monitor vital physiological signals
within the human body and assist doctors in
effectively treating diseases. In recent years, significant
advancements have been made in implantable techniques. For
example, a cervical spinal stimulator has been developed to
improve motor control in the arms and legs [1], while an inner
retinal implant has been created to stimulate nerve cells and
induce visual perception [2], electrodes have been utilized to
interpret brain waves and achieve a brain-computer interface
Manuscript received September 11, 2023. This work was supported by the
Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province, China under Grant
ZR2020MF023. (Corresponding author: Wei-Hua Zong).
Yaozong Sui is with the College of Electronics and Information, Qingdao
University, Qingdao 266071 and Shanghai Longcheer Technology Co., Ltd,
Shanghai, 200030, China (email: 1749118817@qq.com).
Chengyu Hou, Yinuo Wang, Chenghuan Wei, Zijie Li, Wei-Hua Zong are
with the College of Electronics and Information, Qingdao University,
Qingdao 266071, China (e-mail: zongweihua@qdu.edu.cn).
Kwok L. Chung is with School of Computer Science and Engineering,
Huizhou University, Huizhou 516007, China (email: klchung@hzu.edu.cn).
Jianqing Wang is with the Department of Electrical and Mechanical
Engineering, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Nagoya, Aichi 466-8555, Japan
(email: wang@nitech.ac.jp).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this article are available
online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org
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1
(BCI) [3]. These innovations have greatly contributed to
medical treatment. When implanting devices in delicate
organs such as the spine [1], retina [2], or blood vessel [3], it
is crucial to minimize invasiveness in order to reduce negative
effects on the human body. A promising approach to achieve
minimal invasion is the use of syringes with thin needles to
inject implants [4]. The commonly used needle diameter is
approximately 3-4 mm [5, 6], necessitating the implant to have
a small width in order to be accommodated. Furthermore, in
minimal invasive implants, flexible devices printed on ultra-
thin substrates are preferred due to their advantages of low
profile, light weight, and flexibility when twisting.
In the context of implantable antennas, which serve as a
crucial component in wireless implantable devices, extensive
research has been conducted on miniaturized and flexible
antennas [7-22]. The antennas proposed in [7-10] have small
width less than 4 mm suitable for inserting inside an injector,
however they are printed on rigid substrates lack of flexibility.
The flexible antennas presented in [11]-[22] are with large
footprint unsuitable for injectable applications. The challenge
lies in designing a flexible antenna that can fit within the size
limitation of a syringe needle.
Another challenge in implantable antenna design is
frequency detuning, which occurs when the antenna is
implanted in different tissues. Miniaturized antennas
inherently have narrow bandwidth and are sensitivity to the
resonant frequency of the surrounding tissues. Most
implantable antennas are typically designed in high-water-
content tissues, which are characterized by high values of
relative permittivity (εr) and conductivity (σ). Examples of
such tissues include skin (εr =38.01, σ=1.46 S/m at 2.45 GHz),
muscle (εr=53.57, σ=1.81 S/m), stomach (εr=62.16, σ=2.21
S/m), and small intestine (εr=54.42 and σ=3.17 S/m), etc.
Designing an antenna that covers the working frequency band
in these tissues is relatively straightforward, as the frequency
detuning typically falls within an acceptable range. However,
in certain applications, frequency detuning becomes a serious
issue. For example, when subcutaneously implanted in a slim
body with thin fat (εr=5.28 and σ=0.1 S/m) or in an obese
body with thick fat, an antenna designed for muscle tissue may
fail to cover the working band when implanted in fat tissue
[23].
To address this frequency-detuning problem, researchers
have proposed tissue-independent antennas. Embedding
antennas in dielectric materials with considerable thickness is
an effective approach to improve robustness and efficiency
[24]-[27]. In one study, a folded slot dipole antenna printed on
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a polyimide (PI) substrate and is embedded in a 2.5 mm thick phantom as shown in Fig2. (a). To avoid the electrical
Polydimethylsiloxane material, effectively covering the connection between the inner pin and outer conductor of the
working band in both single-layered and multi-layered body feeding coaxial cable at the soldering point inside the
phantoms [26]. Another flexible antenna, described in [27] is conductive body tissue, the proposed antenna is covered with a
conformal housed within a capsule filled with epoxy resin, plastic film with εr =3 and 13 μm thickness. Fig. 2(b) shows
which helps improve tissue independence. This antenna simulated |S11|. As shown, the first resonant frequency in
exhibits a low reflection coefficient with materials having εr muscle is much lower than the first one in fat owing to
changing from 1 to 80 and σ from 0 to 2.4 S/m. In the muscle’s higher permittivity than fat. The proposed antenna
mentioned cases, loading with dielectric material proves to be works at the first resonance in fat and the second one in
an effective approach to design antenna immune to frequency muscle to cover ISM band. In fat, the first resonant frequency
detuning. However, this approach does increase the antenna’s is 2.46 GHz with -10 dB bandwidth of 2.38-2.53 GHz. In
volume and weight. muscle, the second resonant frequency is 2.48 GHz with
Alternatively, exciting multiple resonances is another bandwidth of 2.28-2.68 GHz.
effective approach to improve antenna’s bandwidth when
adapting to change surrounding tissues. For instance, in [28], a
printed dipole antenna with two folded arms operates at the
first resonance in low-water-content tissues and at the second
resonance in high-water-content tissues. A spiral antenna with
a lumped impedance matching circuit, described in [23],
operates at the first resonant mode in fat and the third mode in
muscle. Building upon this design, the authors of [23] propose
a frequency reconfigurable antenna using a varactor in the
impedance matching circuit [29]. The resonant frequency of
this antenna can be tuned adapting to surrounding tissues by (a) (b)
Fig. 1. Configuration of the proposed antenna. (a) 3-D view. (b) Top view
altering the varactor’s capacitance through a bias voltage. As a (the numbers in the figure refer to the numbers of the strips).
result, the proposed antenna achieves frequency robustness in
a wide range of tissues with εr changing from 5 to 60. TABLE I
However, the mentioned tissue-independent antennas are not DIMENSION PARAMETERS OF THE PROPOSED ANTENNA (UNIT: MM)
suitable for injectable implants due to their large sizes. Strip name Strip1 Strip2 Strip3 Strip4 Strip5 Strip6
Length (li) 1.5 3.9 1.6 0.4 1.4 1.1
In this letter, our objective is to design a flexible antenna
Width (wi) 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2
with a small footprint that covers ISM 2.4-2.4835 GHz band Strip name Strip11 Strip12 Strip13 Strip14 Strip15 Strip16
in both muscle and fat, making it appropriate for injection Length (li) 3.9 1.3 3.2 0.9 2.8 0.5
implant. Width (wi) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Strip name Strip17 Strip21 Strip22 Strip23 Strip24 Strip25
Length (li) 2.4 1.4 0.9 1 0.5 0.6
II. ANTENNA DESIGN AND ANALYSIS Width (wi) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
A. Antenna Configuration
The configuration of the proposed antenna is shown in Fig.
1. The antenna consists of an unsymmetric dipole with a
rectangular ground plane and a radiator. The radiator includes
eighteen strips which forms a feedline and two radiation arms
(Arm1 and Arm2). The antenna is fed at the left side with a
coaxial cable. The feedline is designed as step shape to obtain
wide bandwidth. Arm1 excites the first resonance covering (a) (b)
ISM band in fat, and Arm2 is added to tune the second Fig. 2. (a) The proposed antenna in a single-layered body phantom. (b)
resonance in muscle, which enables the antenna covering ISM Simulated |S11| of the proposed antenna.
band both in muscle and fat. A 70 μm-thick PI (εr=3.5 and
B. Antenna Working Principle
tanδ=0.08) is chosen as substrate. The proposed antenna has a
compact size of 2×7 mm2 with a 1.6×2 mm2 ground plane. The Fig. 3 shows simulated current distributions of the proposed
dimensions of each strip are listed in Table I, where wi and li antenna at 1.18 GHz (the first resonant frequency in muscle),
refer to the width and length of Stripi, respectively. 2.46 GHz (the first resonant frequency in fat), and 2.48 GHz
Simulations are performed using the EM field simulator (the second resonant frequency in muscle), respectively. As
ANSYS High Frequency Simulation Software (HFSS). The shown in Figs. 3(a) and (b), the currents mainly distribute on
proposed antenna is designed inside a 100×100×100 mm3 box- the feeding strips and Arm1 which indicates that the first
shaped body phantom filled with single tissue of muscle (εr resonances in muscle and fat are mainly excited by the feeding
=53.57, σ=1.81 S/m) and fat (εr=5.28, σ=0.1 S/m), respectively. strips and Arm1. Fig. 3(c) shows that the second resonance in
The implantable antenna is arranged at the center of the body muscle is excited by Arm1 and Arm2 since the currents

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 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/LAWP.2023.3339781
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distribute both on both arms.
To further illustrate each arm’s function, two reference
antennas, ANT1 (without Arm2) and ANT2 (without Strip23-
Strip25) are simulated and compared with the proposed antenna
in Fig.4. As shown, the first resonant frequencies of the three
antennas have slight difference and the second resonance
differs much both in muscle and fat. ANT1 has the highest
second resonant frequency and the proposed antenna has
lowest one. With total length of 23.8 mm, ANT1 excites the
first resonance at 2.46 GHz in fat and the second resonance at
2.85 GHz in muscle. Arm2 with length of 3.6 mm is added to
tune the second resonance in muscle to 2.48 GHz to cover
ISM band.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 3. Current distributions of the proposed antenna. (a) 1.18 GHz in muscle.
(b) 2.46 GHz in fat. (c) 2.48 GHz in muscle.
(a) (b)
Fig. 4. Influence of Arm2 on |S11|. (a) In muscle. (b) In fat.
C. Antenna Performance Analysis
Considering antenna implanted subcutaneously, three-
layered body phantom composed of skin, fat and muscle is
adopted to investigate antenna’s performance. Two body
phantoms are adopted, a slim shape with 5 mm thick fat and
an obese shape with 15 mm thick fat. The thicknesses of the
two phantom’s skin layers are both 2 mm as shown in Fig. 5.
An antenna implanted with the same depth may be surrounded
with different tissues in the two bodies. If the antenna is
implanted with d< 2 mm, 2 mm<d< 7 mm and d> 17 mm, it
locates in the same tissue in the two bodies which is skin, fat
and muscle, respectively. In the case of 7 mm<d< 17 mm, the
antenna is in muscle in the slim body, and in fat in the obese
body. Fig. 6 shows simulated |S11| of the proposed antenna
implanted with different depths. As shown, the proposed
antenna covers ISM band in both bodies when implanted in a
same tissue (d=4, 6 mm both in fat, d=18, 25, 50 mm both in
muscle) and in different tissues (d=11, 16 mm, muscle of the
slim body, fat of the obese body). When the proposed antenna
is implanted in fat in the three-layered body phantoms (for
slim body d=4, 6 mm, for obese body d=4, 6, 11, 16 mm), the
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proposed antenna works at the first resonance, just like the
antenna in the single-layered fat-filled phantom. When the
proposed antenna is implanted in muscle in the three-layered
body phantoms (for slim body d=11, 16, 18, 25, 50 mm, for
obese body d=18, 25, 50mm), it operates at the second
resonance, just like the antenna in the single-layered muscle-
filled phantom. There is slightly frequency mismatch between
the |S11| figures of the antenna in single-layered and three-
layered phantoms. However, in all the mentioned cases, the
proposed antenna can cover the operating frequency band.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5. Antenna in three-layered body phantom. (a) Slim body. (b) Obese
body.
(a) (b)
Fig. 6. Simulated |S11| of the proposed antenna implanted in different body
with different depth. (a) Slim body. (b) Obese body.
To evaluate the radiation safety of the proposed antenna on
human body, average Specific Absorption Rate (SAR)
distributions of 10 g tissue at 2.45 GHz with 10 mW net input
power have been simulated in a single-layered body phantom,
as show in Fig. 7 (a) fille with muscle and Fig. 7 (b) with fat,
respectively. As shown, the peak 10 g SAR on muscle and fat
is 0.836 and 0.961 W/kg, respectively. To meet the IEEE
C95.1-2019 standard requirement of 2 W/Kg in case of 10 g
SAR, the maximum input power of muscle and fat phantom is
23.9 and 20.8 mW, respectively.
(a) (b)
Fig. 7. Simulated SAR (W/kg) inside a single-layered body phantom. (a) In
muscle. (b) In fat.
To evaluate power transmission between the inner body and
external body, a receiving (Rx) antenna is designed and
arranged outside body. The Rx antenna is a square patch
antenna etched with two slots printed on a 1 mm thick FR4
substrate as shown in Fig. 8 (a). The proposed implantable
antenna is imbedded in a muscle-filled single-layered body
phantom with a depth of 25 mm as a transmitting (Tx)
antenna. The body phantom is contained in a plastic box with
1 mm thickness. The Rx antenna is placed at a distance of H
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from the container’s surface. The two antennas are parallel to All the measurements were conducted in single tissue
each other with centers aligned. Fig. 8 (b) shows simulated S phantoms filled with fat and mimic muscle liquid, respectively.
parameter with different H, where port 1 connects to the Tx Layered body phantom containing mimic skin, fat, and muscle
antenna and port 2 connects to the Rx antenna. As shown, in liquid [30-32] or semi-liquid [33-37] forms will be
transmission coefficient |S21| increases with decrease of H, and investigated in the future work.
it reaches peak value of -26.35 dB at 2.45 GHz when H=0 Table II provides comparison of the proposed antenna with
mm. published implantable antennas. Compared with the
miniaturized antennas in [7]-[10], our work has virtues of
good flexibility and frequency robustness. Compared with the
tissue-independent antennas in [ 23], [26]-[29], the proposed
antenna has smaller physical size which enables it suitable to
be included in an injector.
TABLE II
COMPARISON OF THE PUBLISHED IMPLANTABLE ANTENNAS
Antenna size Freq.
Ref. Flex. Body phantom
(mm2)/(λ2) (MHz)
[7] 1×1/0.008×0.008 No 2400 Skin
[8] 1.4×1.8/0.008×0.0055 No 915 Skin
(a) (b) [9] 2.5×2.5/0.02×0.02 No 2400 Skin
Fig. 8. (a) Simulated model for transmission performance. (b) Simulated S- [10] 3×3/0.0091×0.0091 No 915 Muscle
parameter with different H (H’s unit: mm). [23] 25×11/0.0336×0.0148 No 403 Muscle, fat
[26] > 25.9×8.5/0.2115×0.0694 Yes 2450 Layered*
III. MEASUREMENT AND RESULTS εr∈ [1,80]
[27] > 8.7×8.7/0.0126×0.0126 Yes 434 σ∈[0,2.4]
The proposed implantable antenna and Rx antenna were
S/m
fabricated and measured to verify their performances. Figs. 9 [28] 16.7×5.375/0.1364×0.0439 No 2450 High⸙, low†
(a)-(b) show photographs of the fabricated antennas and [29] 20×10/0.0269×0.0134 No 403 εr∈[5,60]
measurement setups. The implantable antenna was measured This
inside muscle-mimicking liquid and porcine fat, respectively. 2×7/0.0163×0.0572 Yes 2450 Muscle, fat
work
The composition of the muscle-mimicking liquid is 73.2% (by *
Layered body phantom: in between fat and muscle of a three layers geometry
weight) deionized water, 0.04% salt (NaCl) and 26.7% and in between layers of muscle of a five layers geometry.
⸙
diethylene glycol butyl ether (DGBE) [30]. The proposed High-water tissues:stomach, cerebrospinal fluid, small intestine lumen, skin,
implantable antenna is covered with 13 μm thick plastic film muscle, deflated lung, liver, large intestine lumen, kidney, heart, white brain
to avoid electric connection between the inner and outer matter, grey brain matter.
†
conductors of the feeding coaxial cable caused by the Low-water tissues: Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue, visceral fat, cortical bone,
cancellous bone, bladder.
conductivity of body tissues. Measured S-parameters are given
in Figs. 9 (c)-(d). As shown, the bandwidths are 2.12-2.68
GHz and 2.23-2.62 GHz in muscle and fat, respectively, both VI. CONCLUSION
covering ISM band. Measured |S21| reaches its peak value of - In this letter, we present a flexible implantable antenna that
29.1 dB at 2.45 GHz when H1=0 mm. Considering that the overcomes size limitations and frequency detuning. Our
input power to meet SAR requirements is on the order of 1 antenna operates at different resonances in muscle and fat,
mW (0 dBm), the signal level at the receiver is on the order of achieved by incorporating two radiation arms with different
-30 dBm. This is much higher than the sensitivity of normal lengths. We evaluate its performance with body phantoms
receivers, thus ensuring sufficient communication quality. simulating skin, fat, and muscle. Our proposed antenna is
Radiation pattern was measured in muscle-mimicking liquid. demonstrated to cover ISM 2.4 GHz band in fat and muscle
Fig. 9(e) shows the measured and simulated gain patterns at tissues. To assess transmission performance, we design a Rx
2.45 GHz in xoz plane. As shown, measurement agrees with antenna. The fabrication and measurements validate our
simulation. The proposed implantable antenna obtains largest simulations. This work showcases its potential for injectable
gain of -28.5 dBi at θ =90°. minimally invasive implantable devices.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Fig. 9. (a) Antenna measured in porcine fat. (b) Antenna measured in muscle- mimicking liquid. (c) Measured |S11|. (d) Measured |S21| (H’s unit: mm). (e)
Measured and simulated gain patterns in xoz plane at 2.45 GHz.

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