Mary Ryan

PDHPE Prelim Notes

What does health mean to individuals? 2

1. Meanings of Health 2

2. Perceptions of health 2

What influences the health of individuals? 3

1. The determinants of health 4

2. The degree of control individuals can exert over their health 4

3. Health as a social construct 4

What strategies help to promote the health of individuals? 4

1. What is health promotion 4

2. Responsibility for health promotion 5

3. Health promotion approaches and strategies 5

4. The Ottawa Charter as an effective health promotion framework 5

5. Principles of social justice 6

How do the musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems of the body influence and respond to movement? 6

1. Skeletal System 6

2. Muscular System 7

3. Respiratory system 8

What is the relationship between physical fitness, training and movement efficiency? 10

1. Health Related Components of Fitness 10

2. Skill Related Components of Fitness 10

3. Aerobic and anaerobic training 11

4. Immediate physiological responses to training 11

How do biomechanical principles influence movement? 11

1. Motion 11

2. Balance and Stability 12

3. Fluid mechanics 13

What are the main priorities for assessment and management of first aid patients? 13

1. Setting priorities for managing a first aid situation and assessing the casualty 13

2. Crisis management 14

How should the major types of injuries and medical conditions be managed in first aid situations? 15

1. Management of injuries 15

2. Management of medical conditions 16

What does the individual need to consider in administering first aid? 17

1. Physical environment 17

2. Infection control and protection 18

3. Legal and moral dilemmas 18

4. Support following first aid situations 18

What does exercise mean to different people? 19

1. Meanings of exercise 19

2. The value that people place on exercise and fitness 19

What are the ways people choose to exercise for fitness? 19

1. Individual fitness activities 19

2. Group fitness activities 20

What influences people’s choice of fitness activities? 20

1. Settings for exercise 20

2. Advertising and promotion 20

3. Motivators and barriers to participation 21

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Preliminary Core 1: Better Health for Individuals

What does health mean to individuals?

1. Meanings of Health
Definitions of Health
Health: state of complete physical, mental, emotional, social and spiritual wellbeing.
Dimensions of Health
Physical: directly associated with body
Mental: functioning of brain
Emotional: mood or emotional state
Spiritual: purpose and meaningful relationships
Social: maintaining meaningful relationships and social etiquette
Connected: e.g. breaking leg is physical and social dimensions
The relative and Dynamic Nature of Health
➔ Relative: perception is changed based on what it is compared to
➔ Dynamic: health has the ability to constantly change, this can be acute or chronic.
➔ Health Continuum: poor-----average----optimal
To see where you sit you have to evaluate physical, mental, emotional, social and spiritual health.

2. Perceptions of health
Perceptions of their health
Influenced by:
○ Experience, education, family and friends
○ 5 dimensions
○ Differing personal circumstances
Perceptions of others
➔ Generalised perceptions of health to specific groups
➔ Can cause us to judge inaccurately
➔ Perceptions of health = certain outcomes as people are more likely to pay attention to something if they think it’s wrong
➔ Perceptions influence whether a person chooses to improve all dimensions of their health
➔ Narrow perceptions of health can lead to poor individual health choices
Implications of different perceptions of health
Different perceptions will lead to different levels of exposure to risks such as disease.
Perceptions of health as social constructs
Social Construct: is something that develops due to society and how it shapes a particular thing/idea/concept. Factors that
contribute to our social construct of health include;
● economic status
● education
● employment
● cultural background
● religious views
● family and peers
● geographical, social and political environment in which we live
● individual experience and personality
Impact of the media, peers and family
Media: increase in exposure means it affects perception more. Explicit – the biggest loser raises awareness about health. Implicit –
photoshop, frequently viewing ‘perfect’ people.
Peers: values are often shared due to the importance placed on this opinion.
Family: construct the basis of your beliefs, knowledge, wealth, environment in relation to health.

3. Health behaviours of young people

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The positive health status of young people
Australian institute of health and welfare (AIHW). The health of young people is improving.
Protective behaviours and risk behaviours
Protective: Any action or inaction that reduces the risk or protects a person from disease, injury and death.
➔ Physical Activity: At least 60 mins a day, add variety
➔ Healthy Eating: Reducing unnecessary intake, 5.5 servings of veges and 2 fruits
➔ Body Weight: BMI, fit in a healthy weight range
➔ Drug Use: Assertiveness and refusal skills, supportive families
➔ Sexual Activity: Wearing protection, be involved with someone trustworthy
➔ Social Networks and Support: Limiting time and recognising the reality behind media
➔ Sun protection: skin checks, sunscreen
➔ Mental health: supportive relationships, coping skills and stress management strategies and connectedness with peers
Risk: Any action or inaction that increases the risk of disease, experiencing injury or death.
➔ Physical Activity: screen time, sitting down for extended periods
➔ Healthy Eating: processed food consistently, skipping meals
➔ Body Weight: poor dietary habits
➔ Drug Use: experimentation, addiction
➔ Sexual Activity: STIs and pregnancy
➔ Social Networks and Support: negative influence, addiction
➔ Sun protection: fair skin, exposure to UV – cancer
➔ Mental health: history of self-harm in family, broken family

What influences the health of individuals?

1. The determinants of health
Individual factors
Knowledge: a person’s knowledge levels of health will affect what they do
Skills: things people are good at
Attitudes: outlook on situations
Genetics: genes given to child from parents
Sociocultural factors
Family: influence values, habits and health behaviours due to role modelling
Peers: greatest influence during teens and young adult years, risk behaviours
Media: physiological influence through advertising, coverage of health issues, perceptions on body image majorly influence
Religion: sense of belonging, purpose in life
Culture: traditions and customs people are surrounded by
Socioeconomic factors
Education: levels of education will influence understanding of health
Employment: labour exchange for money –influence availability and benefits
Income: money received from different streams – affordability of health services
Environmental factors
Geographical location: physical location
Access to health services: affordability, distance, time etc
Technology: technology will lead to higher levels of education and can help to cure

2. The degree of control individuals can exert over their health

Modifiable and non-modifiable health determinants
Modifiable: Determinants that can be changed or controlled so they have a different level of influence on health. E.g. employment
Non-modifiable: Determinants that cannot be changed or altered. E.g. genetics
The changing influence of determinants through different life stages
Major influences:
Children: environmental and socioeconomic
Young people: sociocultural and individual
Adults: socioeconomic and individual
Elderly: socioeconomic, individual and environmental

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3. Health as a social construct
Recognises the interrelationship of determinants
Example, employment determines income and income is closely linked to health. Can be difficult to assess them on their own
because they are sometimes so closely related.
Challenges the notion that health is solely an individual’s responsibility.
1970’s/80’s – attempts to improve health were based on the assumption that if people were provided the right info, they would
choose better health behaviours and suggest poor health is a result of ignorance, lack of willpower and laziness.

What strategies help to promote the health of individuals?

1. What is health promotion

Aims to ensure that influencing factors such as social, economic, behavioural, environment and lifestyle all contribute to health in a
positive way. Involves: Good governance, Health literacy, Healthy cities

2. Responsibility for health promotion

Individuals
Responsibility to keep themselves and their family healthy and to keep informed.
Community groups/schools
Responsibility to provide access to education, resources and skills.
Non-government organisations
Responsibility to Influence the governments and decision-makers, provide research and data to the public. (lobby groups,
specialised group etc)
Government
➔ Federal: creates policies, responds to international agreements and provides funds.

➔ State: deliver primary health services, implementation of initiatives e.g. NSW Tobacco Action Plan

➔ Local: implement state and federal initiatives, mainly smaller jobs like promoting physical activity
International organisations
➔ WHO: key to global research on health-related issues

➔ United Nations: creates agreements/treaties to better the health of humanity e.g. Paris agreement

3. Health promotion approaches and strategies

Lifestyle/behavioural approaches (quit smoking programs, health education)
Based on the belief that giving knowledge and skills will improve people’s health.
Relies on health education and public health messages to raise awareness about lifestyle behaviours such as smoking, alcohol use,
nutrition and exercise. No consideration of social and environmental factors.
Preventative medical approaches (childhood immunisation, cancer screening)
Treats and prevents disease at the biological level.
Three areas of prevention:
➔ Primary- whole populations with no risk factors e.g. immunisation

➔ Secondary- targets groups with risk factors e.g. breast screening

➔ Tertiary- actions that target people who have developed the disease and are trying to prevent a recurrence or chronic
illness from developing further e.g. rehabilitation
Public health approaches (health-promoting schools and workplaces)
Influenced by the policies of WHO, they take a more holistic approach to health and recognise the role played by factors outside
the of the individual and the immediate health system.

4. The Ottawa Charter as an effective health promotion framework

Made in 1977 by WHO to work towards health for all citizens leading to increased productiveness socially and economically by
2000.
DRSBC

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Developing personal skills
Providing information and enhancing life skills, leading to greater control over life
e.g. mandatory PDHPE curriculum (kindy - year 10)
Reorienting health services
The health sector must look beyond providing clinical and curative services, but also
looking at health promotion.
e.g. RIDER
Strengthening community action
Encouraging self-help, social support, participating in health-related matters.
e.g. Fatality Free Friday
Building healthy public policy
Legislation for better health, healthier goods and service, enjoyable environments
e.g. close the gap
Creating supportive environments
Encouragement of reciprocal maintenance - take care of one another and the environment.
e.g. smoke free areas

5. Principles of social justice

Individuals need to be provided with sufficient resources and support to empower them to improve their health in order to achieve
social justice.
Equity
Allocation of resources according to the needs of individuals and populations.
Diversity
The variety, or difference, between individual and groups of people. (ATSI – close the gap)
Supportive environments
Has significant influence on the person and their ability to make change or improve their health. Environment creates
opportunities.

Preliminary Core 2: The Body in Motion

How do the musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems of the body influence and respond to movement?

1. Skeletal System
The structure of the skeletal system
Major components of the skeletal system:
➔ Major Bones: Cranium, clavicle, scapula, the vertebral column (neck to tailbone: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccyx),
rib cage, sternum, humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges, pelvis, femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals,
metatarsals and phalanges.
➔ Ligaments: Tough, fibrous bands of connective tissue which connect bone to bone

➔ Tendon: Tough, fibrous bands of connective tissue which connect bone to muscle

➔ Joints
The function of the skeletal system
➔ 5 Types of Bones: flat, long, short, irregular and sesamoid

➔ Purpose (Mama Makes Cheesy Pizza):

● Movement and support- muscles attachment (irregular & flat), leverage for movement (long) and support (short).

● Mineral storage- calcium, potassium, sodium & phosphorus.

● Cell production- red & yellow bone marrow

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● Protection – of major organs and tendons (flat, irregular & sesamoid)

Classifications of Joints
➔ Fibrous Joints

● Definition: bones that are connected by strong inflexible fibrous tissue.

● Mobility: none, these bones stay in place.

● Example: the skull

➔ Cartilaginous Joints

● Definition: bones that are connected by cartilage.

● Mobility: slightly moveable

● Example: 1st sternocostal joint (first rib and sternum connection)

➔ Synovial Joints

● Definition: bones don’t touch but are in a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid.

● Mobility: freely moveable

● 6 Types + examples: Ball and socket (hip), Hinge (knee), Pivot (atlas and axis – neck), Condyloid (wrist), Gliding
(intercarpals) and Saddle (thumbs).

Movement of joints
➔ Joints and flexibility

● Joints: where two or mor bones meet

● Flexibility: range of movement available at joint

➔ Movement actions + examples

1. flexion and extension (bicep curl)
2. adduction and abduction (arms)
3. rotation and circumduction (head left to right, bowling cricket ball, respectively)
4. Plantar and Dorsiflexion (pointing toes down, pointing toes up, respectively)
5. Supernation and Pronation (palms up, palms down, respectively)
6. Eversion and Inversion (foot moves outwards, foot moves inwards, respectively)
7. Elevation and Depression (shoulders up, shoulders down, respectively)

2. Muscular System
Major Muscles
➔ Skeletal muscles:
The muscles that attach to the skeletal system (bones and tendons) to help create movement.

➔ Front view major muscles (7)

● Deltoid – shoulder abduction

● Pectorials (major & miner) – shoulder adduction

● Biceps – elbow flexion

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● Abdominals – flexion & rotation midsection

● Quadriceps – knee extension

● Adductor group – hip adduction

● Tibialis anterior – ankle dorsiflexion

➔ Rear view major muscles

● Trapezius – shoulder elevation

● Triceps – elbow extension

● Latissimus dorsi – shoulder adduction and abduction

● Gluteus maximus – hip extension

● Hamstrings – knee flexion

● Soleus – ankle plantar flexion

● Gastrocnemius – ankle plantar flexion

Muscle relationships
➔ Agonist and antagonistic pairs

● Agonist: contracts when movement is performed

● Antagonist: lengthens to allow for movement

➔ Stabiliser muscles
Keep joints stable during movement

➔ Example

● Ankle: plantar flexion and dorsiflexion

- Plantar flexion
> Agonist: gastrocnemius
> Antagonist: tibialis anterior
- Dorsiflexion
> Agonist: tibialis anterior
> Antagonist: gastrocnemius

Types of muscular actions

➔ Isotonic contractions

● Occur when there is a constant in or around the targeted joint

- Concentric – the muscle produces force and shortens
- Eccentric – the muscle is used to control, and it lengthens
> Example – kicking a soccer ball

➔ Isometric contractions

● It is static; thus, muscles do not change in length or move at the joint

> Example – wall sit

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3. Respiratory system
Structure and function
Function: primarily gas exchange
Structure:
➔ nasal cavity – warms and moistens air, filters dust and microbes

➔ pharynx – divides into oesophagus and the larynx

➔ larynx – (voice box) contains vocal cords creating speech when air is exhaled

➔ trachea – (windpipe) smooth muscle allows it to expand and contract and supported by cartilage

➔ bronchi – two branches from trachea made of smooth muscle, supported by cartilage

➔ bronchioles - branch off from bronchi and carry air further into lungs

➔ alveoli - branch off from bronchioles, covered in capillaries where gas exchange occurs

➔ diaphragm – involuntary smooth muscle which contracts and relaxes to facilitate breathing

➔ pleura – lines chest cavity, diaphragm and lungs. Space in between them holds fluid to reduce friction when breathing

Lung function (inspiration, expiration)

Inspiration: increases the volume of air in the lungs, decreases the pressure
Expiration: decreases volume of air in the lungs, increases the pressure

Exchange of gases (internal, external)

Diffusion: gases will move from areas of high concentration to low concentration to achieve balance.
Internal: systemic circulation, diffusion of oxygen and co2 through the capillaries of cells throughout the body
External: occurs in pulmonary circulation, transports co2 out of the body and oxygen in through alveoli.

4. Circulatory system
Components of blood
➔ Plasma: 55% of blood
- made up of 90% of water
- function: carries cells around the body, keeps muscles hydrated during exercise
➔ Red blood cells (erythrocytes):
- produced in bone marrow
- function: carry o2 around body via haemoglobin, carry by-products away from muscles during exercise
➔ white blood cells (leukocytes):
- 1 WBC: 700 RBCs
- Larger than RBC
- Produced in bone marrow
- Function: fight infection and disease, white blood cells increase during exercise
➔ Platelets:
- very small, less than 1: 700 RBCs
- function: form blood clots to prevent infection and blood loss, prevent bleeding of muscle tears

Structure and function of the heart, arteries, veins, capillaries

➔ Heart:
● Structure and function:
- “right side”: receives deoxygenated blood and pumps it into the lungs
> Right atrium: receives blood from veins (vena cava)
> Tricuspid valve: prevents backflow
> Right ventricle: pumps blood away from the heart into arteries (pulmonary artery)
> Pulmonic valve: prevents backflow
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- Septum: separates two sides
- “left side”: receives oxygenated blood and pumps it out to the rest of the body (has a thicker muscular
wall).
> Left atrium: receives blood from veins (pulmonary vein)
> mitral valve: prevents backflow
> Right ventricle: pumps blood away from the heart into arteries (aorta)
> Aortic valve: prevents backflow
➔ Arteries:
● Structure: thick elastic, muscular and connective tissue layers as blood is fast flowing and the atery needs to
recoil with heartbeat
● Function: Carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body
➔ Veins:
● Structure: thin elastic, muscular and connective tissue layers.
● Function: transports deoxygenated blood to heart
➔ Capillaries:
● Structure: one cell thick
● Function: location of gas exchange

Pulmonary and systemic circulation

Closed circuit
Pulmonary: the flow of blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart. (right side)
Systemic: the flow of blood from the heart to body tissue. (left side)

Blood pressure
The force exerted by blood on the walls of the blood vessels, the flow and pressure of blood in the arteries rises with each
contraction of the heart and falls when it relaxes and refills. Can be Systolic or Diastolic:
➔ Systolic: highest pressure (recorded during exercise)

➔ Diastolic: lowest pressure (recorded at rest)

What is the relationship between physical fitness, training and movement efficiency?

1. Health Related Components of Fitness

Health related components of fitness
Relates to health and wellbeing
1. Cardiorespiratory endurance: how long the body can sustain transportation of oxygen to the working muscles – e.g.
marathons
2. Muscular endurance: ability of muscles to repeatedly contract over time – e.g. rowing
3. Muscular strength: ability to exert force against resistance in a single contraction – e.g. weightlifting
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4. Flexibility: range of movement around joints – e.g. gymnastics
5. Body composition: relative proportion of fat, muscle and bone content – e.g. high muscle, low fat for a cyclist

2. Skill Related Components of Fitness

Skill related components of fitness
1. Power: ability of muscles to exert maximum force in a short period of time – e.g. long jump
2. Speed: ability to move from one point to another quickly – e.g. sprinting
3. Agility: ability to change direction with speed and control – e.g. playing rugby
4. Balance: ability to keep the body’s centre of mass over base of support (achieve equilibrium) – e.g. stalk stand
5. Coordination: ability to move two bodies parts at the same time efficiently and accurately – e.g. squash
6. Reaction time: time taken to move in response to a stimulus – e.g. swimming

3. Aerobic and anaerobic training

The FITT principle
➔ Anaerobic and aerobic training

● Anaerobic:
- Uses anaerobic energy (glycogen stores)
- More frequent rest periods and training sessions
- Higher intensity
- Can be used for short periods of time
● Aerobic
- Uses aerobic energy (oxygen)
- Less frequent rest periods and training sessions
- Lower intensity
- Can be used for long periods of time

➔ FITT principle

● Frequency: number of times training occurs within a certain period of time

● Intensity: effort invested (measured by maximum heart rate)

- Anaerobic goal rate: 70% - 85% of maximum heart rate
- Aerobic goal rate: 80% - 100% of maximum heart rate
● Time: duration of exercise
- Anaerobic goal rate: maximum 30 minutes
- Aerobic goal rate: minimum 20 minutes
● Type: Anaerobic or aerobic

4. Immediate physiological responses to training

Heart rate
Heart rate increases according to exercise intensity and level of cardiovascular fitness; thus, it is a good predictor of performance.
Ventilation rate
The amount of air that can be breathed out in a minute (average is 6 litres.
Stroke volume
Amount of blood ejected from the heart with each beat/min.
Cardiac output
Amount of blood ejected/min (HR x SV)
Lactate levels
Increase in lactic acid in the muscles as a by-product of anaerobic energy production.

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How do biomechanical principles influence movement?
1. Motion
Introduction to biomechanics
➔ Biomechanics: the laws of mechanics relating to human movement

➔ Importance: gives an understanding of how and why the human body moves, leading to:
1) Performance enhancement
2) Injury prevention
3) Equipment improvement

Displacement
An object’s overall change in position (m)

Velocity
The rate at which an object changes position (m/s)

displacement
velocity=
time

Acceleration
The rate of change of velocity per unit of time (m/s2, m/s/s)
➔ Speeding up: positive acceleration

➔ Slowing down: negative acceleration

➔ Constant speed: 0m/s2

Linear Motion
1. Motion – occurs as a result of a force. Three types:

1) Linear motion – motion that travels in a line.

� Rectilinear – moving in a straight line
� Curvilinear – moving in a curved line

2) Angular motion – movement around a fixed point or axis of rotation.

� Exterior – rotates around an exterior object/point
� Interior – fixed point inside the athlete

3) General motion (combination) – most movement is a combination of linear and angular motion.

Momentum and Impulse

1. Momentum
➔ Definition: the quantity of motion an object has
➔ Cause: when force is applied to an object with mass
➔ Formula: momentum = mass x velocity
➔ Units: Kilogram metres per second (kg x m/s)
2. Impulse
➔ Definition: the change in momentum
➔ Formula: impulse = force x time
➔ Greater impulse = greater change in momentum

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2. Balance and Stability

Balance and stability
➔ Static and dynamic balance
● Balance: the ability to remain in a steady or stable position. There are two kinds:
- Static – e.g. stalk stand
- Dynamic – e.g. surfing
● Equilibrium: equal distribution of weight or force on each side of the body

➔ Base of support
● Area beneath object that makes contact with supporting surface
● Greater the base of support = greater the stability

➔ The centre and line of gravity

● Centre of gravity: centre of the mass or the point in the human body where gravity appears to be acting on
● Line of gravity: straight line down the centre of gravity to the ground

3. Fluid mechanics
Flotation, centre of buoyancy
Flotation: To float the volume displaced is heavier than the body displacing it.
Buoyancy: the force exerted on an object that is wholly or partly immersed in a fluid
Centre of buoyancy: point of mass of the water displaced by an immersed object in it

Fluid resistance
Drag creates friction when moving through a fluid (water/air). Reducing this drag will increase efficiency.

The magnus effect

Use of spin on a ball and the changes in force that cause the ball to move in the air. Section of high-pressure air flow, opposite side
has low pressure.

4. Force
Newtons Laws
➔ First law: Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that state of motion unless an external force is
applied to it. Such as when a ball is rolled
➔ Second law: The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net
force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
➔ Third law: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Weights being lifted

How the body applies force

Greater force production = greater performance

How the body absorbs force

Transferring the force to our muscles, where contractions in the opposite direction absorb the force. Some force is also absorbed
by our bones and body tissue. E.g. receiving a pass

Applying force to an object

Can be a push, pull, or drag which results in the objects acceleration or change velocity or direction.

Preliminary Option 1: First Aid

What are the main priorities for assessment and management of first aid patients?

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1. Setting priorities for managing a first aid situation and assessing the casualty
Situational analysis
Check for danger and remove or limit this danger.

Priority assessment procedures

Act quickly and calmly ensuring breathing and heart rate are regular for the patient.
First person at the scene is responsible for initial support of patient.
Second person should contact emergency services and gather information and first aid equipment.

DRSABCD (non-responsive)
➔ Danger: to you, others and the patient.

➔ Response: ‘are you okay’ ‘can you hear me’ ask if the patient can squeeze your hand.

➔ Send for help: call emergency services.

➔ Airways: head tilt, open, put in recovery position if anything needs to be cleared.

➔ Breathing: head tilt, place ear over patients mouth, feel for breathing of chest, listen for breath.

➔ CPR: commence if there are no signs of life. 30:2 ratio. Start with breaths first if water is involved.

➔ Defibrillator: follow the instructions it gives

STOP (responsive)
When doing a secondary body assessment:
➔ Stop: victim moving and attempt to prevent further damage.

➔ Talk: how the victim feels and if it hurts anywhere else and their history of injuries

➔ Observe: the victim and look out for anything that is not normal, such as the way the victim is holding themselves.

➔ Prevent further injury: further damage. For a major injury, support through RICER (rest, ice, compress, elevation and
referral)
When commencing check for signs and symptoms.

2. Crisis management
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)
● If possible, switch people every 5 cycles to reduce fatigue. Keep going until physically cannot.

● 1/3 of chest depth

● Head tilt

● Use 2 fingers on a baby

Bleeding
● never takes precedence over resuscitation

● personal protection and should include at the least gloves, sterile dressings and use of disposable equipment

● management:

➔ pressure: allows for clotting

➔ elevation: above heart level so it’s harder for blood to get to the cut

➔ rest: reduces blow flow

➔ monitor for signs of shock and call ambulance if needed

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Shock
● Signs: enlarged pupils, cool and clammy skin, rapid pulse, rapid breathing, nausea or vomiting

● Symptoms: thirst, fatigue, chest pain

● Management:

➔ Call 00

➔ Elevate the legs

➔ Treat cause of shock

➔ if breathing and unconscious, place in recovery position

➔ reassure

➔ monitor closely

➔ regulate body temperature

Neck and spinal injury

● signs: Loss of bladder or bowel control; Difficulty with balance and walking; Impaired breathing after injury.

● symptoms: Extreme back pain or pressure in your neck, head or back; Weakness, incoordination or paralysis in any part of
your body; Loss of movement.
● Management:

➔ Immobilization of patient

➔ Call 000

➔ Monitor

➔ Support head

➔ Regulate body temperature

● Moving the casualty: only should occur if they are in a life-threatening situation otherwise.

Medical referral
The patient needs to be sent to hospital if any of the following happened:
● CPR was required

● The patient was unconscious at some stage

● Conditions such as a heart attack or spinal injury were suspected

Care of the unconscious casualty

DRSABCD

How should the major types of injuries and medical conditions be managed in first aid situations?
1. Management of injuries
Cuts and lacerations
➔ Sign: Skin tissue is torn/cut

➔ Treatment (depends on type and severity):

- put on gloves, check wound for foreign matter
- apply pressure to stop bleeding
- bring sides of wound together, apply non-stick dressing and bandage
- elevate the limb

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Fractures
➔ Signs/symptoms: rapid or weak pulse, pain at the site, tenderness, loss of power to the limb, associated wound or blood loss,
associated organ damage, nausea, deformity.
➔ Treatment:
- Check for warmth or pulse
- treat any wounds
- pad bony areas, apply adequate splint and secure
- Reassess pulse, apply appropriate sling if required.
Dislocations
➔ Signs/Symptoms: sudden pain in affected joint, loss or power and movement, deformity and swelling of the joint, tenderness,
may have temporary paralysis of the injured limb.
➔ Treatment: RICER
Head injuries and concussion
➔ Signs/Symptoms: head wounds, deformation of the skull, altered level of consciousness, evidence of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
leaking from ears, unequal pupils, headache, racoon eyes, nausea/vomiting, confusion, double vision.
➔ Treatment: call 000, apply cervical collar if trained, and treat any wounds, complete rest, put in recovery position while
supporting the spine, allow Cerebrospinal fluid to drain freely
Eye injuries
➔ Signs/symptoms: redness, irritation, impalement, swelling of eyelid

➔ Treatment:
- Minor: irrigate the eye and wash, refer to medical aid, cover the affected eye if appropriate.
- Major: lay the casualty flat, call 000, cover the affected eye, reassurance. Welder’s flash: apply cool compresses and
cover the eyes with pads, urgent medical attention if pains or spots persist.
Nasal injuries
➔ Signs/symptoms: bleeding, clear fluid, pain, swelling, bruising

➔ Treatment (varies): nosebleed – pinch just below the bone, sit down and slightly lean forward. Apply ice.
Burn injuries
1st: affect first layer of sign
➔ Signs/symptoms: redness, pain, dryness and no blisters

➔ Treatment: run under cool water for minimum 20 minutes

2nd: reaches the second layer of skin
➔ Signs/symptoms: red, blisters, painful and may be swollen

➔ Treatment: run under cool water for minimum 20 minutes, don’t break blisters, apply unscented moisturiser, non-stick
bandages and pain reliever.
3rd: destroy the first and second layer of skin
➔ Signs/symptoms: white/charred burn, shock, no sensation, dry and leathery skin and swelling.

➔ Treatment: call 000, treat for shock, cover in loose, sterile, non-stick bandage
Teeth injuries
Treatment: hold the tooth by the crown not the root, rinse the tooth with saline solution or milk or wrap in cling wrap, if the
casualty is co-operative, replace the tooth gently in its socket, bite down gently on a gauze pad to keep the tooth in place, if it
cannot be re-inserted place back in milk, use a gauze pad to bite down and control the bleeding.
Electrocution
➔ signs/symptoms: difficult or absent breathing, absent, weak or irregular pulse, evidence of burns, evidence of fractures,
entrance and exit wound burns, collapse and unconsciousness.
➔ Treatment: call 000, inform electrical authorities if high voltage involved, if no signs of life commence DRSABCD, cool and
cover with non-stick dressings, reassurance

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Chest injuries
Include fractured ribs, flail chest and penetrating chest wounds.
➔ Signs/symptoms: history of trauma to the chest, pale skin, pain at the site, rapid shallow breathing, guarding of the injury,
blueish skin, object still in place, open wound to the chest.
➔ Treatment:
- fractured rib - bind the upper arm on the injured side of the body using a collar and cuff sling, seek medical aid
- flail chest - call 000, apply a firm pad over the flail section, apply a firm bandage in place, position the casualty in a
position of comfort, if unconsciousness position on side, reassurance
- penetrating chest wound - call 000, stabilise with pad around entry wound, put them in position of comfort, reassurance,
observe for breathing difficulties
Abdominal injuries
Can be caused by blunt trauma or penetrating trauma and involve bleeding and exposure of internal organs.
➔ Signs/Symptoms: history of the incident, pale skin, evidence of the wound, rapid/weak pulse, shock, rapid/shallow breathing,
abdominal rigidity, guarding of the abdomen, obvious protrusion of organs, anxiety, nausea
➔ Treatment:
- blunt trauma - call 000, stop any bleeding, stabilise any object where it is and pad around the wound, if permitted lay
casualty on back and elevate legs bent at the knees, reassurance.
- evisceration: call 000, cover organs with a non-stick dressing, places supporting bandage over wound, place casualty
flat with legs bent, reassurance.
2. Management of medical conditions
Heart attack
➔ Signs/Symptoms: discomfort in the middle of the chest, possible pain in arm and neck, irregular pulse, shortness of breath,
shock
➔ Treatment: DRSABCD, urgent medical help

Stroke
➔ Signs/Symptoms: slurred speech, blurred vision, irregular pupils, loss of movement, possible seizures, possible loss of
consciousness
➔ Treatment: DRSABCD, urgent medical help

Diabetes
➔ Signs/Symptoms: aggressiveness, thirst, hunger, irritability, increased urination
- Hypoglycaemia (low blood sugar): rapid pulse, sweating, trembling, hunger, aggression, dizziness.
- Hyperglycaemia (high blood sugar): rapid pulse, drowsiness, thirst, frequent urination
➔ Treatment: call 000, if conscious try to get them to eat 5-7 jellybeans or drink 150ml soft drink, repeat if no improvement after
5-10 mins, assist with medication after recovery and encourage carbs, DRSABCD.

Epilepsy
➔ Signs/Symptoms: seizures, rigid body, tight jaw, mouth frothing, loss of bladder control, loss of consciousness

➔ Treatment: DRSABCD

Asthma
➔ Signs/Symptoms: tightness in chest, sweating and paleness, fast, shallow breathing, hunched body posture, excessive throat
clearing, laboured breathing, difficulty exhaling, increased heart rate, wheezing
➔ Treatment: reassurance, assist with medication, monitor breathing, provide water, create relaxed environment, medical help
if condition deteriorates.

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Anaphylaxes
➔ Signs/Symptoms: breathing difficulty, swelling, difficulty talking, loss of consciousness, wheezing, welts and vomiting

➔ Treatment: DRSABCD, minimise. Factors

Poisoning
➔ Signs/Symptoms: headache, blurred vision, vomiting, breathing difficulty, drowsiness, abdominal pain, tight chest, change in
skin colour, nausea
➔ Treatment: DRSABCD, determine type of poison, urgent medical help 13 11 26

Bites and stings

➔ Signs/Symptoms: swelling, redness, pain, itchiness

➔ Treatment: varies according to type, look up symptoms and seek medical advice, reassurance, immobilise

Exposure to heat and cold

Hyperthermia (hot)
➔ Signs/Symptoms: dehydration, fatigue, flushing, thirst, excess sweating, fainting, inability to sweat normally, light-headedness,
low blood pressure, or nervous system dysfunction
➔ Treatment: move to a cooler place and seek emergency care
Hypothermia (cold)
➔ Signs/Symptoms: coma, confusion, dizziness, elevated heart rate, fainting, fever, headache, muscle cramps.

➔ Treatment: Remove wet clothing, wrap in blankets, warm beverages and warm bath
Heat exhaustion
➔ Signs/Symptoms: heavy sweating, rapid breathing and a fast, weak pulse

➔ Treatment: cool down, ice, DRSABCD, shade, loosen clothing

What does the individual need to consider in administering first aid?

1. Physical environment
Traffic accidents
Risk factors: traffic, fallen electricity wires, fire risk, glass and debris.
Protective strategies:
➔ Limit risks of traffic

➔ DRSABCD

➔ Do not remove the casualty unless one or a number of the following conditions is present:
1. there is evidence of increasing shock and the casualty is upright in the car
2. the casualty is unconscious, and an adequate airway cannot be maintained
3. the casualty’s position prevents access to control bleeding
4. there is danger of fire.

Water environment
Risk factors:
➔ rescuers own abilities

➔ the threat the drowning person imposes on the rescuer

➔ hazards in the water

➔ weather conditions

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➔ water temperature
Protective strategies:
➔ calling for help

➔ using equipment to assist in the rescue

➔ entering the water with care

Electricity
Risk factors:
➔ deadly nature of electricity and how it is conducted

➔ potential for further harm

Protective strategies:
➔ not touching cars or objects that are in contact with fallen power lines

➔ switch off power source

➔ removing the electric object with a wooden object

2. Infection control and protection

HIV/AIDS and Blood-borne viruses (Hepatitis B and C)
To catch it, the blood of the infected needs to mix with the blood of the person not infected.
Protective strategies: use disposable gloves, cover exposed wounds, do CPR with a mask, wash hands afterwards, immunisation

3. Legal and moral dilemmas

Legal implications
‘A duty of care arises, when, at law, there is a sufficient relationship between one person and another.’
First aider should:
● use reasonable care in assessing the priorities of the situation based on their level of training

● take steps to call for further medical assistance

● keep the casualty stabilised until medical assistance arrives

● follow established treatment and management protocols

● not misrepresent themselves or take unnecessary risks

● First aiders should document written records of exactly what happened should they be involved in providing emergency
first aid

Moral obligations
duty of care: moral obligation to help those in need
responsible citizenship: suggests that we should help and provide assistance to the best of our ability

Common sense versus heroics

Basic first aid training reinforces the principles of commonsense and the prevention of further injury. Assess the danger before
acting.

4. Support following first aid situations

Debriefing
During debriefing, it is important to:
• take the time to ensure that the full picture is gathered
• make all descriptions as accurate as possible
• remain impartial and describe the incident exactly as it occurred

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Counselling
Help is available from various counselling organisations including hospitals, medical support centres and state government
organisations such as NSW Health for first aiders and witnesses.

Preliminary Option 3: Fitness Choices

What does exercise mean to different people?

1. Meanings of exercise
Exercise as a form of physical activity
Physical activity is movement that results in energy expenditure. Forms:
➔ Incidental e.g. packing the dishwasher
➔ Traditional e.g. swimming
➔ Recreational e.g. fishing, dancing
➔ Competitive e.g. Olympics
Exercise generally aims to improve health and fitness; thus, traditional and competitive PA are likely to be categorised as exercise
as there may be the intent to improve fitness levels in the process.
Exercise and its relationship to fitness
Exercise is repetitive, thus, improves health and skill related components through this repetition.

2. The value that people place on exercise and fitness

Changing attitudes to fitness
The technological revolution over the last 30 years has had a major influence on daily physical activity. Our leisure time has
increased, but so has physical inactivity.
Although the 1970’s was a period of fitness boom and technology has also made workouts and knowledge of fitness more
accessible.
Fitness as a commodity
Grew as a commodity in the 1970s, as there was a peak in interest. Ever since, people have searched for a ‘quick fix’ in order to
meet societal expectations, resulting in the growth of this new industry, offering a range of products which are often offers false
hope to the average consumer.

What are the ways people choose to exercise for fitness?

1. Individual fitness activities

The challenge for the individual is to find an exercise type that meet their fitness needs and that is enjoyable.

Power walking
Low impact, safe, cheap and convenient.
Running
High impact, cheap and convenient.
Swimming
Range of impact, full body, helps with recovery, has led to immergence of Aquarobics.
Cycling
Over the last decade it has become more popular as state governments have made it safer for bikers on roads, more convenient
for full time workers.
Weight Training
Improves specific fitness components, can be competitive, isometric and isotonic
Tai chi
Spiritual and physical health, holistic
Pilates
Core muscles, improved body balance, posture and alignment, strength and flexibility.
Yoga
Holistic, strength, flexibility, balance, muscle tone

2. Group fitness activities

Provide the individual with the opportunity for a social game without being part of a formal competition.

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Aerobics
Incorporates various conditioning exercises performed to music at low or high impact. Improves cardiovascular efficiency, strength,
flexibility and agility.
Aquarobics
Water increases difficulty, good for: people with back or joint problems, the elderly, pregnant and overweight.
Pump/spin/step classes
Provides supportive environment and can be catered towards the needs of different individuals.
Circuit training
Improves both fitness components and skill levels, can include a variety of anaerobic and aerobic exercise.
Team games
Social aspect makes the exercise less challenging, holistic, commitment.
Exercise for specific groups
➔ Pregnant: e.g. yoga. Helps joints and strength for carrying a baby

➔ Children: modified activities help reduces risks and improve ability to develop skills

➔ Aged: low intensity activities reduce risks whilst giving physical, social and psychological benefits

What influences people’s choice of fitness activities?

1. Settings for exercise
Exercise at home
Benefits: accessible, low cost, less timely, convenient, safer
Disadvantages: less social, could lose motivation, lower knowledge
Community facilities
Benefits: outdoors, social, low cost
Disadvantages: time, higher risks involved
Fitness centres and personal trainers
Benefits: trainers, specified, greater knowledge, greater improvement, motivated
Disadvantages: commitment, expensive, timely
Exercise clubs
Benefits: social, good for people with social anxiety as they can join with friends, competitive
Disadvantages: costly, timely, commitment, higher risks if contact, travel to get to games
Cultural groups
Practicing cultural traditions keeps them alive.

2. Advertising and promotion

How do you know who to believe?
Generally, well-recognised brands and products endorsed by Australian fitness industry or health organisations such as Heart
Foundation are reliable.
Promotional techniques
Targeting specific groups and offering limited offers are some promotional techniques used. Do research.
Accuracy of information
Promotions appeal to the senses of the target market, ask questions, reviews, talk to people.
Ethics of advertising
Advertising can be misleading and may even be false, must understand product/service should meet expected quality.

3. Motivators and barriers to participation

Access to facilities
Discouraging due to time commitment and inconvenience. Major barrier for adolescents. Buses are a good strategy.
Convenience
If it’s closer, they are less likely to lose encouragement. Location will affect what exercise that person does e.g. nippers
Cost
Low SES groups can’t afford luxury of clubs or gyms. Government strategy ‘Active Kids voucher’.

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Feelings about fitness and exercise
Many individuals have negative feelings about fitness; they may find it unpleasant. These feelings may also result from the
pressure of society and may result in individuals being overwhelmed.
Exercise as a priority
The priority on where we place fitness is influenced by a range the determinants of health, susceptible to change.
Influence of other responsibilities
Family and work commitments are reported to be the main barrier to exercise. Scheduling can help to work around this.

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