CHAPTER I: Intro to Cell Bio

1. What does cell and molecular biology as reductionist mean?

Discovery of Cell: Microscopy (ESSAY PORTION)

2. Describe the 3 parts of the cell theory?

3. Explain how Spontaneous generation was disproved.
4. Explain how cancer cells maintain immortality.
5. What is the function of microvilli in digesting food?
6. What are organisms built according to?
7. What is the basis of biological evolution?
8. Why are egg cells big? Explain the process.
9. Explain Bacterial Conjugation.
10. How do cells maintain their integrity?
11. How Do Cancer Cells Form?
12. Explain the Picture:
13. Explain the Picture:

14. Explain the Picture:

15. How Do Vaccines Work on Virus?

16. How does the Sars-CoV-2 Work?
1. Robert Hooke
2. Made high quality microscopes.
a. Photosynthesis
3. First to describe different forms of
b. Cork Cells
bacteria.
c. Enzyme that maintains telomerase
4. Helped develop the cell theory.
enzymes.
5. Disproved Spontaneous Generation.
d. Cell Conjugation
6. 1st Human Cell Culture
e. HeLa Cell
7. Telomere
f. Elizabeth Blackburn
8. Infectious agent with singular RNA and
g. Matthias Schleiden & Theodore
no capsid
Schwann
9. A long extracellular filamentous
h. Cell turnover
polymer that extends from the surface
i. Virus
of plasmid donor cells, allowing it to
j. Antoine Van Leeuwenhoek
probe the environment and make
k. F-Pili
contact with the recipient cell.
l. F-Factor (Fertility)
10. Telomerase
m. Louis Pasteur
11. Who discovered the molecular nature
n. Metagenomics
of telomeres?
o. Hayflick’s Limit Theory
12. Field of genomics that study genetic
p. Virions
material directly recovered from
q. Viroid
environmental samples (soil, water, or
r. Protective cap of end of chromosomes
human gut)
13. Infectious particles of viruses.
14. Human cells divide to a certain number
till they stop or reach senescence.
15. What provides energy for all living
organisms?
16. Pathogen with DNA/RNA surrounded by
capsid.
17. process by which old or dying cells are
replaced with new functional ones.
18. is the process by which one bacterium
transfers genetic material to another
through direct contact
19. The DNA sequence the Donor
bacterium shares with recipient
bacterium.
CHAPTER I: Intro to Cell Bio removed, particles could come in and
cause microbial growth. This allowed
I. Cell and Molecular Biology is
him to prove that cells/organisms do
Reductionist.
not spontaneously appear in sterile
- We learn biology part by part to
environments.
understand the whole picture.
 Disproved spontaneous generation.

 Cell information/knowledge comes from Basic Properties of Cells

in vitro cells.
1. Cells are Highly Complex and Organized
- Most cell information comes from cell
studied outside the bodies. 1st Human Cell Culture
- Meaning we do not know how cells
function outside the human body. - George & Martha Gey JHU 1951
- Henrietta Lacks malignant tumor (HeLa
Discovery of Cells: Microscopy Cells)
- Still cultured in laboratories
1. Robert Hooke discovered cells by
- Became an issue on the rights and
viewing a part of a cork (bark of a tree)
treatment of African American people
- He observed the cell walls of a dead
in the medical field.
plant tissue.
- The family of Lacks sued the people and
2. Antoine van Leeuwenhoek made high
are receiving financial compensation
quality microscopes.
from those who continue to use and
- The first to examine animalcules in pond
reproduce HeLa cells.
water.
- The first to describe different forms of
bacteria from his teeth scrapings and
soaked pepper.

Cell Theory

1. Cells are the basic structural unit of Life.

2. Organisms are made up of one or more
cells.
3. Cells arise by division from preexisting
cells.

1&2: Matthias Schleiden and Theodore

Schwann.

3: Rudolf Virchow.

Swan-Neck Experiment

 Louis Pasteur boiled broth in a swan

neck flask. Because of the shape of the
neck no particles went inside the flask
and resulted in no microbial growth.
However, once the neck of the flask was
Why Cancer Cells Do Not Die? Binary Fission Meiosis
Mitosis
- Cancer cells can utilize telomerase to Gamete
keep producing telomeres to the end of Fusion
DNA during DNA replication. When cells Cell Conjugation
divide these shorten and shorten and - is the process
eventually will lead to chromosomal by which one
damage and will cause the cells to die. bacterium
But since cancer cells can keep transfers
producing telomeres they will just genetic
continue to divide and replicate. material to
- Elizabeth Blackburn discovered the another
molecular structure of telomerase. through direct
contact
Hayflick’s Limit Theory - during
conjugation,
- Refers to the cells limit in cellular one
division till they die or reach bacterium
senescence. serves as the
donor of the
Role of Microvilli in Digesting Food
genetic
- Microvilli help facilitate the absorption material, and
of nutrients by providing a bigger the other
surface area. serves as the
recipient. The
- Its skeleton is made of actin-filaments
donor
polymerized in an array.
bacterium
carries a DNA
2. Cells Possess a Genetic Program and sequence
the Means to Use It called the
- Organisms are built according to the fertility factor,
genetic info coded in genes. It is also or F-factor.
used in cellular reproduction, activity, - Central to this
and structure. process is the
conjugative F
What is the basis of Biological pilus, a long
Evolution? extracellular
- The molecular structure of genes allows filamentous
polymer that
for change in genetic information,
extends from
hence mutation.
the surface of
3. Cells can Produce More of Themselves plasmid
- Cell reproduces by division. donor cells,
- each daughter cells receive a complete allowing it to
set of genetic info. probe the
environment
and make
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes contact with
 the recipient
cell.
Why Egg Cells/Oocytes are Big
- During meiosis, the reduction of
chromosome for oocytes are
accompanied by an unequal distribution
of cytoplasm between the daughter
cells. The primary oocyte (diploid)
undergoes 1st meiotic division producing
a secondary oocyte and polar body. The
secondary oocyte then proceeds to
meiotic division and stops at metaphase
II.
- The unequal distribution of cytoplasm
and genetic material during meiotic
division ensures that the developing
oocyte retains sufficient resources for
embryonic development. The polar
bodies play a role in eliminating excess
genetic material, maintaining the
proper chromosomal content in the
mature oocyte.
4. Cells Acquire and Utilize Energy
- Energy for all living organisms is from
photosynthesis.
- Animal cells get energy from glucose.
- Cells convert glucose to ATP synthase
*Photosynthesis and ATP Synthesis.
Figure 1.5 *Explain*
- The energy of light is trapped by light-
absorbing pigments present in the
membranes of photosynthetic cells.
- Light energy is converted by
photosynthesis to chemical energy then
stored in energy-rich carbohydrates
such as sucrose or starch.
- In humans, glucose is released by the
liver into the blood where it circulates
delivering chemical energy into cells.
- In the cells, the glucose is turned into
ATP.
Cell Turnover
- The process by which old or dying cells
are replaced with new functional ones.
It is fundamental for tissue maintenance
and regeneration in multicellular
organisms.
- Refers to the cells continuous rebuilding
of the macromolecules and organelles.
- It is done to maintain the integrity of
cell components in the face of
inevitable wear and tear and enables
the cells to respond rapidly to changing
conditions.
5. Cells Carry Out a Variety of Chemical
Reactions
- All chemical changes that takes place in
cells require enzymes (molecules that
increase the rate of chemical reactions).
- Metabolism – the sum total of chemical
reactions in a cell.
6. Cells Engage in Mechanical Activities
7. Cells Are Able to Respond to Stimuli
8. Cells Are Capable of Self-Regulation

How Do Cancer Cells Form?

- A mistake when it duplicates its DNA
resulting in a debilitating mutation or a
breakdown in a cell’s growth-control
safeguards can transform the cell into a
cancer cell with the capability of
destroying the entire organism.

Hans Driesch Sea Urchin Experiment

- He separated the first two or four cells
of a sea urchin embryo and each of the
isolated cells would proceed to develop
into a normal embryo

Potency of Undifferentiated Cells

- Refers to the range of cell types that a
stem cell can give rise to

1. Totipotent
- Can give rise to all cell types in the body
(embryonic and extraembryonic tissues)
- Ex: Zygote, as it has the potential to
develop into an entire organism.
2. Pluripotent
- Can differentiate into cells from all three
germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and
endoderm.
- Ex: Embryonic stem cells (ESCs), can
generate any cell type in the body but
extraembryonic tissues like the
placenta.
3. Multipotent
- Can differentiate into a limited range of
cell types within a particular tissue or
organ.
- Typically found in adult tissues and are
responsible for maintaining and
repairing those specific tissues.
4. Unipotent
- Can only differentiate into one specific
cell type.
9. Cells Evolve oph

Endosymbiotic Theory - Organis - Can

- Lynn Margulis ms that produce
- Explains the origin of eukaryotic cells cannot their own
- Suggests that mitochondria (aerobic) produce energy
and chloroplasts (photosynthetic their and
own organic
bacteria to cyanobacteria), originated as
energy compoun
free-living bacteria that were engulfed
and ds.
by ancestral eukaryotic cells in a organic - Plants,
symbiotic relationship. compou algae,
nds. cyanobact
They eria.
rely on
autotro
phs.
- Human,
animal,
fungi.

Aerobic  Anaerobic

- organis - Organisms
ms that that can
need generate
oxygen energy
to without
generat oxygen.
e energy - Bacteria &
through Archaea
cellular
respirati
on.
- Eukaryo
tic
organis
ms

Organism based on Energy

Source
 Heterotr  Autotroph
Prokaryotes VS. Eukaryotes structural
support and
PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES protection to
Structurally Much more the cell
simpler complex
Evidence from
rocks 2.7 billion PROKARYOTE EUKARYOTES
years of age S
Bacteria Protist, Animals, No Nuclear Nuclear Envelope
Fungi, Plant Envelope
Lacks true nucleus Nucleus and Cytoplasmic
nucleotide Organelles:
Single, circular Double stranded 1. Endoplasmic
DNA molecule in Helical DNA Reticulum
nucleoid (region 2. Golgi
within the Complex
cytoplasm) & 3. Lysosome
Plasmids 4. Endosome
5. Peroxisome
6. Glyosixome
SHARED STRUCTURES/FEATURES Specialized
Plasma It regulates the Cytoplasmic
Membrane/Cell passage of Organelles for
Membrane substances in Aerobic Respiration
and out of the 1. Mitochondri
cell which in a
turn maintains 2. Chloroplast
the cells
integrity and Complex Cytoskeletal
provides a System
barrier 1. Microfilamen
internally and ts
externally. 2. Intermediate
Cytoplasm Houses cellular filaments
organelles and 3. Microtubules
structures, 4. Motor
serves as a proteins
medium for Flagella and Cilia
biochemical Phagocytosis
reactions, and Haploid Diploidy
provides Three Domains of Life
structural
support to the 1. Archaea
cell.  Methanogens
Ribosomes Site of protein  Halophiles
synthesis  Acidophiles
 Thermophiles
Cell Wall Provides
 2. Bacteria
 Mycoplasma – smallest known cells
 Cyanobacteria – nitrogen fixation Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
3. Eukarya
- Generated from adult stem cells that
- Eukaryotes are Closer to Archaea are reversed back into a pluripotent
state by introducing transcription
Bone Marrow Transplantation
factors through viruses.
- Radiation/toxic chemicals to kil cancer
cells
- But it also kills cells for formation of RBC
and WBC
- Bone marrow cells transplanted from a
healthy donor can regenerate the blood
tissue of the recipient because it
contains a small percentage of cells that
can proliferate and restock the patients
blood-forming bone marrow tissue.
- Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) – blood
-forming bone marrow tissue.
- replaces millions of RBCs and WBCs.

The Human Perspective: The Prospect of Cell

Replacement Therapy
Viruses and Viroids
 Stem Cells
- Undifferentiated cells capable of self- VIRUS VIROIDS
renewal and differentiation. - Pathogen - Small
- Multipotent with circular
 Adult Stem Cells DNA/RNA RNA
- Can be used to replace damaged or surround - No
ed by capsid
diseased adult tissue.
capsid - Infects
 Embryonic Stem Cells
- Arrests plants
- Cells in early embryo that give rise to all normal - Interfere
structures of the fetus. activities s with
- Pluripotent of host gene
and expressi
redirects ons
cells to
use
materials
1. Somatic tocell fuse with oocyte
2. Oocytemanufact
develops to blastocyst filled with
ES cellsure virual
3. ES cellsnucleic
is grown in culture
4. Induce ES cells to differentiate
5. Transplanted back to patient
 acids and 2. Once binded, it facilitates entry of
proteins the virus into the host cell. The viral
that turn membrane and host cell membrane
to virioins fuses allowing the virus to release
- Integrate its genetic material.
DNA into 3. Antibodies generated from the
DNA of
vaccinations/infections can
host cell
recognize and bind to the spike
(Provirus)
protein, preventing it from infecting
- Virions
(infectiou host cells. Neutralizing antibodies
s virus are a key component of the immune
particles) response against SARS-CoV-2.

How Vaccines Work on Virus

- Vaccines contains antigens (molecular
structures that can be recognized as
foreign), parts of the virus that can
stimulate an immune response. It can
include proteins on a virus’s surface or
inactivated virus particles
- The immune system recognizes the
antigens as foreign and activates an
immune response.
- The B cells produce antibodies that can
recognize and neutralize specigic
pathogens. Antibodies circulate in the
bloodstream and are ready to target the
virus once exposed to it.
- Memory cells (Memory B or Memory T),
remembers the specific virus. They
provide a rapid and effective response
upon exposure to virus.
- When later exposed to the virus, the
antibodies and memory cells work
together to neutralize the virus,
preventing entry into cells, and
eliminate infected cells.

How SARS-CoV-2 Works

1. Spike proteins bind to receptors on
the surface of the host cells (ACE2)
in the respiratory system.
CHAPTER 2: The Chemical Basis of Life
ESSAY:
1. Why are atoms whose outer electron
shell filled more stable?
- Because the distribution of electrons
around the nucleus is equal. Hence
electron to electron repulsion is lower.
2. Trend of Electronegativity in Periodic
table (Left to right, top to bottom)
Electronegativity generally decreases.
- This trend occurs because as you move
down a group, the atomic size
increases, and the outermost electrons
are farther from the nucleus. The
increased distance reduces the effective
nuclear charge felt by the outermost
electrons, making it harder for the atom
to attract additional electrons.
Therefore, electronegativity decreases.
3. Why non-polar cant dissolve in polar
Electronegativity generally decreases.
This trend occurs because as you move
down a group, the atomic size
increases, and the outermost electrons
are farther from the nucleus. The
increased distance reduces the effective
nuclear charge felt by the outermost
electrons, making it harder for the atom
to attract additional electrons.
Therefore, electronegativity decreases.
- Substances with similar intermolecular
forces are more likely to dissolve in each
other.
4. What is the bonding in DNA that allows
enzyme access?
- Noncovalent hydrogen bonding.
Because it is many, it becomes strong.
But hydrogen bonds are typically weak
which is why the two strands of the
DNA can still be separated to allow
enzymes.
5. How does free radicals cause aging.
- When free radicals react with
biomolecules they cause oxidative
modifications such as DNA mutation
and that accumulates damage
contributing to tissue aging and cellular
dysfunction.
6. Free radicals shouldn’t be completely
removed from the body, why?
- Because some free radicals are
important in some biological processes.
- Immune response: Immune cells
produce reactive oxygen species (ROS)
as part of killing pathogens
- Cell Signaling: Free radicals like nitric
oxide and hydrogen peroxide ar
important in signaling molecules in
cellular communication. Gene
expression, cell proliferation, etc.
7. Superoxide radicals are highly reactive
oxygen species (ROS) generated as
byproducts of cellular metabolism,
particularly in the mitochondria during
aerobic respiration.
- SOD catalyzes the dismutation (or
conversion) of superoxide radicals into
molecular oxygen (O2) and hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) through the following
reaction:
- 2 O2^- + 2 H^+ → H2O2 + O2
- By converting superoxide radicals into
less reactive hydrogen peroxide, SOD
helps to reduce the levels of superoxide
radicals and prevent oxidative damage
to cellular components.
8. Why does salt dissolve in water?
- In solution, water molecules form ion-
dipole interactions with ions, where the
charged ions are surrounded by
oriented water molecules.
- The partially positive hydrogen atoms of
water molecules are attracted to
negatively charged ions (anions), while
the partially negative oxygen atoms are
attracted to positively charged ions
(cations).
- This hydration process disrupts the
electrostatic attractions between ions in
the solid state and weakens the ionic
bonds, allowing the ions to become
separated and dispersed in the water.
9. Oil & Water (Why oil forms/ fat droplets
form in aqueous solution?)
Hydrophobic interaction.
- When hydrophobic molecules or
regions are introduced into an aqueous
environment, they disrupt the ordered
hydrogen-bonded network of water
molecules.
- Water molecules near hydrophobic
surfaces or regions experience a
decrease in the number of hydrogen
bonds they can form with other water
molecules.
- This disruption results in a decrease in
entropy, as water molecules near
hydrophobic surfaces are less able to
adopt multiple orientations and form
hydrogen bonds compared to bulk
water.
Hydrophobic Collapse:
- To minimize the disruption to the
hydrogen-bonded network and
maximize entropy, water molecules
tend to cluster around hydrophobic
molecules or regions.
- This clustering or "collapse" of water
molecules around hydrophobic surfaces
reduces the surface area of the
hydrophobic region exposed to water.
- By minimizing their contact with water,
hydrophobic molecules or regions
decrease the free energy of the system,
making hydrophobic interactions
energetically favorable.
10. The Life-Supporting Properties of Water
- The structure of water is suitable for
sustaining life.
- It is asymmetric – both H atoms are on
one side. Both covalent O–H bonds are
highly polarized.
- All three atoms readily form H-bonds.
11. Why are aromatic compounds/ cylic
structures more stable?
- nakakamove freely electrons hence
different bonding pwede single and
doble which can create resonance
structures, these structures are
hypothetical arrangements that
stabilizes and lowers the energy of the
molecule.
- Kasi delocalized yung electron, yung
overall charge nung molecule is
nalolower kasi naspread out yung
electron density.
12.
Types of Chemical Bonds - They react with biomolecules they
cause oxidative modifications such as
a. Covalent Bond
DNA mutation and that accumulates
- Sharing of electrons
damage contributing to tissue aging and
- Partial positive and partial negative
cellular dysfunction.
Electronegativity - Can also accelerate telomere shortening
associated with cellular aging and
- Ability to take an electron. senescence.
- Depends on number of proton in  Superoxide dismutase (SOD)
nucleus - Enzyme that destroys free radical
POLAR NONPOLAR superoxide radical (O_2-)
Asymmetric Symmetric - Catalyzes superoxide radical into oxygen
distribution of distribution of and hydrogen peroxide (h202)
electric charge electric charge  Diet reduce DNA damage
- Caloric restriction decreases production
b. Noncovalent Bond of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and
oxidative stress.
1. Ionic Bond - Consuming less means less radicals.
- Weaker than covalent bonds
- Metal (cation) loses electron to
nonmetal atom (anion) 2. Hydrogen Bond
- Are weakened in the presence of water. - CHON (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Nitrogen)
Table Salt in Water
- When covalently bonded hydrogen has
- Solvents like water can disrupt and a partial positive charge and attracts
weaken the electrostatic attractions electrons of a second atom.
between ions. - H-bonds determines the properties of
- Ions become surrounded by water: water
Hydrogen are oriented on anions ;
Oxygen oriented on cations Noncovalent hydrogen bond between
- This is possible because the attraction DNA and Proteins
between ions and water than attraction - Hydrogen bonds by themselves are
of ions in crystal lattice weak which allows for the strands of the
- Depends still on the strength of the ion- DNA to be separated allowing enzymes
dipole interactions. If ionic bond is to enter
stronger it is less soluble. - Hydrogen bonds when many are stron
enough to hold the DNA
Free Radicals

- Unstable atoms or molecules with

unpaired electrons 3. Hydrophobic Interaction
- Highly reactive species - An interaction wherein nonpolar
molecules associate with each other to
Free Radicals on Aging try and minimize exposure to polar
molecules.
 Fat in Beef Broth
- Entropy driven process
- When nonpolar molecules are placed in
water, the water rearranges to form a
cage-like structure around the
molecules. When the hydrophobic
molecules are introduced the hydrogen
bonded network is disrupted decreasing
the entropy of the water molecules. So,
to restore the entropy, the water
reorganizes to minimize contact with
the nonpolar structure.
- The water arranges itself around the
solute in a way that maximizes the
number of hydrogen bonds formed.
4. van der Waals forces
- attraction between nonpolar molecules
due to transient dipoles
Explanation: Electron cloud fluctuations.
Pag yung electrons gumagalaw and sakto na
may regions na nagiging partial positive and
negative meron transient dipole.
proteins (hydrogen bonding yung
backbone na N-H at C—O) and nucleic
acids.
Acids, Bases, and Buffers
1. Acids
- Donates protons (H+)
2. Base
- Accepts protons (H+)
Amphoteric molecules
- Acts as acid and base; WATER
3. Buffers
- Resist changes in pH by neutralizing
acids or bases.
- Usually contains weak acid and
conjugate base
Buffers in Biological Process
Blood is buffered by carbonic acid and
bicarbonate ions that holds blood at 7.4
When H+ ions rise

Van der Waals forces in atoms - Bicarbonate ion reacts with the ion to
create Carbonic acid
- large numbers of attractive forces can - HCO3⁻ + H⁺ ⇌ H2CO3
be formed if two macromolecules have
a complementary surface. When OH- ions rise

- Neutralized by Carbonic acid

The Life Supporting Properties of Water Carbonic acid + OH- = H2O and Carbonate
ions
1. Asymmetry
- Dahil dito mas nakakainteract siya with H2CO3 + 2OH⁻ → 2H2O + CO3²⁻
polar molecules effectively; yung sa
hydrophobic interaction for example;
allows for hydrogen bonding The Nature of Biological Molecules
2. Highly polarized O-H bonds
Carbon can be;
- Makes it excellent as a solvent for ions,
sugars, amino acids, and nucleic acids. - Linear
3. All atoms readily form H bonds. - Cyclic
- Important for capillary action, water - Branched
transport in plants, stabilization of
Why are cyclic structures more stable? - Small molecules that participate in
metabolic pathways within cells
- nakakamove freely electrons hence
- Molecules produced or consumed along
different bonding pwede single and
the process leading to the end product
doble which can create resonance
but no function per se.
structures, these structures are
 Primary metabolites – directly involved
hypothetical arrangements that
in growth, development, and
stabilizes and lowers the energy of the
reproduction
molecule.
 Secondary metabolites – not directly
- Kasi delocalized yung electron, yung
involved; other accessory functions;
overall charge nung molecule is
defense, kulay
nalolower kasi naspread out yung
Ex:
electron density.
- Anthocyanin – pigmentation
Hydrocarbons - Capsaicin – seed germination and
pest/herbivore repellant
- Carbon and Hydrogen
Industry dealing with secondary metabolites
Functional groups
- Proteomics
- Groups of atoms giving organic
- metabolomics
molecules different characteristics and
properties Molecules of miscellaneous function

Macromolecules - Vitamins
- Steroids
- Large structural and functional
- Amino acid hormones
molecules in cells that contain dozens to
million carbon atoms

Polymers: Four Types of Biological Molecules

- Protein, Nucleic acids, polysaccharides 1. Carbohydrates

- Constructed from monomers (small
organizational unit) by polymerization
(chemical bonding of monomers to
form polymer).
Building Blocks:
- Simple sugars and sugar polymers
- (CH2O)n
- Acts as antigen for cell-to-cell
recognition; kumakabit sa proteins sa
plasma membrane

Carbohydrates Monosaccharides
(simple sugar)
Proteins Amino acids
Lipids Fatty acids and
glycerol
Nucleic acids Nucleotides

Metabolic intermediates (metabolites)


PATIENTS WITH DIABETES
- Sugar in open chain form reacts with
hemoglobin and create A1C, used in
blood test to track progress of diabetes.
Three polysaccharides w/ identical sugar
monomers
a) Glycogen – storage of sugar in liver
- Eat cupcake – glucose rise – pancreas
creates insulin – react with muscle and
liver telling to store sugar in blood –
liver will create glycogen – create
glucagon (Glycogenesis)
b) Starch – stores glucose
c) Cellulose – plant cell walls
d) Chitin – made of sugar; cell wall of fungi
2. Lipids
- Nonpolar molecules
- Fats are made of glycerol linked by
three ester bonds to three fatty acids.
- Phospholipid bilayer
Kinks in Molecules
- Caused by double bonds
- Unsaturated fatty acids with double
bonds introduces kinks.
- These kinks disrupts the close packing
of lipid molecules in the membrane
bilayer, reducing membrane fluidity
Saturated – no double bonds
Unsaturated – double bonds
Unsaturated is Healthier
- Because of double bonding it is liquid
temp and is easier to breakdown in
blood vessels less capable to cause
blockage.
Behavior of Soap in Dead Molecules
- Soap (fats) is amphipathic (hydrophobic
and hydrophilic).
- Soap reacts to cell membrane of
bacteria making it possible to disrupt
ung membrane
- Hydrophobic tails are attracted to oils
and fats & disrupt the membrane of
bacteria (emulsification).
- Hydrophilic heads are attracted to water
attaching to it
Steroid created by ER (sER)
Muscle fiber – Mitochondria
- Because of contraction and need of
energy.
Hormones:
Cholesterol Role in Bilayer
- In high temp, pinagsisiksik by filling the
gaps, to prevent excessive fluidity
- In low temp, increases fluidity by
creating gaps or disrupting packing of
the molecules.
Testosterone, Estrogen
3. Proteins
- Polymers of amino acid
- Linked by polypeptide chain ; peptide
bonds
Proteins Dictate Action & Behavior of Cells

- To say na may injury, need mo white

blood cells

Sira sa skin barrier ----- mga cell mag

rerelease signal --- blood vessel accept
signal ---- blood vessel release substance to
proteins ----- protein tells nucleus to
activate DNA ---- DNA will produce proteins
in attached ribosome palabas -----
madedetect ni WBCs ----- WBCs magbabago
shape kasi need lumabas grom blood
vessels
Protein Structure
- Refers to how several levels of proteins
are identified
- How function and behavior are known
- Heme region should be inside to bind
with oxygen. Di sya pwede ma expose sa
aqueous area.
Molecular chaperones

Primary Structure - Sa may creation of amino acids, may

mga sinasamang chaperones para ma
- Amino acid chain
guide sila sa tamang folding nila.
Sickle Cell As an Adaptation Towards
Denaturation
Malaria
Self-assembly
- May amino acid chain na nabago – non
polar valine pumalit sa glutamic acid  Histone Modification – gene expression,
- Blocks blood vessels of humans pag masyado tight or maluwang yung
- Adaptation sa may presence ng malaria chromosome mag aadjust ka
- Malaria targets RBCs a) Acetylation
- Pag nag bago shape ni RBC di - Mag aattach ng acetyl and iloloosen
matatarget b) Deacetylation
- recessive - Removes acetyl and tightens
c) Methylation
Secondary structure
- Chromatin structure regulation and
- Creation of certain regions of the expression
protein
Protein Folding and Alzheimer’s Disease
- Alpha helix and beta -pleated sheet
- Folded/pleats beta-amyloid peptides misfold and aggregate
into insoluble plaques. These beta-amyloid
Tertiary structure
aggregates are toxic to neurons, disrupting
- 3D cellular function and leading to neuronal
dysfunction and death.
Quaternary structure
Part of DNA
- Consists of two or more polypeptide
chains 1. Nitrogenous bases
- Presence of subunits - Pyrine: A & G
- Pyrimidine: T,C,U
2. 5-Pentose Sugar
4. Nucleic acids 3. Phosphate Group
- Store and transmit genetic information
- DNA & RNA

Myoglobin: First Globular Protein Whose

Tertiary Structure Was Determined

- Function is to store oxygen for muscles

CHAPTER III: Bioenergetics, Enzymes and
Metabolism

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1.

2.

3.

4.

5. The study of various types of energy

transformation

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.
ESSAY PORTION

1. .
CHAPTER III: Bioenergetics, Enzymes and Metabolism

LESSON PORTION
Bioenergetics
- The study of various types of energy transformation
Law of Thermodynamics and the Concept of Entropy
1. Energy
- The capacity to do work
2. Thermodynamics
- Study of changes in energy that accompany events in the universe.
First Law: Conservation of Energy
- Energy can neither be destroyed nor created. It can only convert from one form to another.
Types of Energy Transformations
 Transduction
- Conversion of energy from one form to another
- Cells are capable of energy transduction
- Chemical energy is stored in certain biological molecules such as ATP.
- Ex: Chem energy to Mechanical energy when heat is released during muscle contraction
- Ex: Fireflies and luminous fish convert chemical energy to light
- Ex Sunlight into chemical energy (PHOTOSYNTHESIS)
System and Surroundings

Endothermic Reaction vs. Exothermic Reaction

Endothermic Reaction Exothermic Reaction
Surrounding is hotter than system System is hotter than surrounding
Heat enters system Heat exits system

Second Law: Entropy

- Events in the universe tend to proceed from a state of higher to lower energy spontaneously
without any input of external energy
- The state of entropy of the entire universe, as an isolated system, will always increase over time.
The changes in entropy can never be negative.
Entropy – disorder; a measure of randomness
- Every event is accompanied by an increase in the entropy of the universe.
- Ex: Sugar dissolves, the freedom of movement and random movement causes them to become
equally distributed. The entropy is at a maximum.
Entropy in Living Systems
 Living organisms can decrease their own entropy by increasing entropy of environment.
 When simple molecules turn into complex, entropy decreases. Entropy of environment must
increase; this happens by releasing heat.
Enthalpy vs. Entropy
Enthalpy Entropy
Denoted by h Denoted by s
Total heat content in a thermodynamic system Measure of the level of disorder in a
under constant pressure. thermodynamic system.

Process:
Metabolism