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Gas Turbine Internal Air Systems

Alejandro Christie
Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire MK43 0AL, United Kingdom, a.d.christie@cranfield.ac.uk

Abstract

Internal air systems [also referred to as secondary air systems - SAS] are an essential part of modern gas turbines. These
systems are a subset of a larger group of engine air systems. SAS functions are restricted to the provision of cooling flows,
sealing of bearing chambers/flow paths and control of bearing axial loads. These systems are integral to engine performance
and also heavily impact upon it as up to 25% of core mass flow may be utilized. It is therefore essential that gas turbine
engineers have an understanding of how these systems operate. The objectives of this paper are to review the working
principles, extraction/delivery methods, configurations and general parameters affecting system performance and sizing. Each
function is initially discussed in isolation. The JT8D engine is then used to illustrate how airflows are integrated to fulfil
multiple functions simultaneously. A brief discussion is given as to how SAS seals impact upon performance during speed
transients. Concepts such as preswirl, deswirl and hot gas ingestion are reviewed. Consideration is also given to penalties
associated with the use of SAS.

Keywords: internal air system, secondary air system, bleed flow, turbine cooling

Nomenclature In order to fulfil system requirements, air is bled from

the compressor and channelled through cavities in the
CI - Combine Ingress rotor drum as well as between the rotor and casing. Once
ECI - Externally Induced Ingress specific functions are satisfied, the air is either dumped
HGI - Hot Gas Ingestion overboard or returned to the main gas path where it can
p - Static Pressure contribute to engine thrust/power.
RCI - Rotationally Induced Ingress
SAS - Secondary Air System 1.2. Historical Development of Blade Cooling
t - Static Temperature
V - Velocity

1. Introduction

1.1. Overview

In a gas turbine, airflows which do not directly

contribute to engine thrust are referred to as 'engine air
systems' [1]. In some instances, these systems use up to
25% of the core mass flow. Internal air systems [also
referred to as secondary air systems (SAS)] are highly
integrated and multi-functional. These systems are a
subset of the larger group of engine air systems and their
functions include provision of cooling flows to Figure 1: Development of Cooled Turbine Blades [3]
components, control of bearing axial loads and sealing of
Significant gains in performance have been realized
bearing chambers and flow paths [2]. In various
through increased turbine entry temperatures. These
instances, airflows fulfil several of these function
gains have been seen in terms of increased engine thrust
simultaneously.
to weight ratio and reduced specific fuel consumption.

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This has resulted in engines which have allowed for
extended aircraft flight range and payload capacity.
Blade cooling has been the principle factor which has led
to this achievement [4]. Blade cooling technology is a
principal component of internal air systems.
Figure 1 gives a concise overview of the
development of Blade Cooling technology. Rolls-Royce
embarked upon work in this area as early as 1947. The
1950's saw the first engine runs utilizing cooled blades
and these systems were finally put into service in the
early 1960's. Improvements in cooling technologies have
since been largely geared towards increasing turbine
entry temperatures whilst reducing the percentage of core
air required for cooling [5].
2. Cooling System
2.1. Overview
The key function of the cooling system is to limit
component temperatures by cooling or heating them.
Over the last thirty years, TET's have doubled to
temperatures of around 1800°C, whilst HPT component
life has either remained the same or otherwise increased
[6]. This technology allows turbine blades, discs and
NGV's to operate within temperature envelopes above
that of the incipient melting point of the materials from
which they are made.
Cooling air is bled from the compressor and directed
into turbine blades via cavities or piping. Air is then
routed through channels within the blades/NGV's to
facilitate heat transfer. The blade metal temperature is
correspondingly kept within safe limits and finally the air
is ejected back into the main gas path. Blades are thus
able to operate at high turbine entry temperatures with an
acceptable creep life [7].
Temperature affects turbine discs in three principal
ways; diminished load bearing capacity at high
temperature, stress arising due to thermal expansion and
stress arising due to thermal gradients [8]. Whilst air
cools the rim of the disc to mitigate against temperature
and expansion effects, it is used to heat the bore in order
to reduce the thermal gradient [6] and resulting
component stresses.
2.2. Governing Principles
The interrelated parameters of static temperature,
static pressure and whirl velocity govern the supply and
effectiveness of the SAS for component cooling. Static
temperature and pressure are used as they represent the
actual conditions which the components experience. The
whirl velocity refers to the tangential velocity component
of the air as it passes through the engine.
Airflow through SAS cavities is as a result of the
pressure drop across the compressor and turbine. A pre-
defined mass flow is requisite to fulfil cooling
requirements and is a function of the pressure drop,
pressure loss [9] and orifice geometry. Designers aim to
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minimize frictional losses so that airflows maintain a
reasonable static pressure at the point of egress into the
main flow path.
Bleeds are taken from the earliest possible extraction
point in order to minimize performance losses [10].
However, the pressure drop across the channel must be
sufficient to facilitate the required mass flow, after taking
into account frictional losses [11].
Convection is the dominant heat transfer mechanism
employed in the cooling air system. Heat energy is
removed as air moves along turbine disc surfaces.
At the blade, various cooling methods or
combinations thereof are employed. These methods
include jet impingement, film cooling and use of
multipass channels. Complex internal geometries are also
utilized to enhance heat transfer by restarting boundary
layers, increasing internal surface areas and enhancing
turbulent mixing. Finally, air is ejected into the main gas
path through orifices in the blade and platform [Refer to
Figure 3].
Figure 2: Deswirler tubes in the HPC IAE V2500 two
shaft engine [2]
As air is bled through internal compressor cavities, it
is subjected to increased whirl. Increased whirl velocity
decreases the static pressure. One way of recovering this
pressure is to use de-swirler tubes as shown in Figure 2.
This allows for controlled radial inflow of cooling air
from the compressor.
The whirl velocity of the air is forced to the speed of
the tubes and thus the disc. As the air moves toward the
inner radius, the whirl component is reduced. Thus the
static pressure is maintained. This relationship is further
expressed by equation (1) which assumes a negligible
change in density at a constant total pressure.
1
𝑝∝ ... (1)
𝑉2
Conversely, on the turbine side of the engine, a
penalty on static pressure may be considered acceptable
when a corresponding reduction in static temperature is
achievable. This is seen as an acceptable trade-off as the
creep life of a high temperature component is highly
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sensitive to minute changes in temperature [of the order
of a 2X reduction in creep life for a temperature increase
of roughly 15K]. To this end pre-swirl nozzles are used.
Pre-swirl devices are used primarily on the 1st stage
HP rotor, where SAS demands are met by air which has
been bled directly from the diffuser. Since this air has no
swirl component, work is done by the 1st stage HP rotor
disc to increase its velocity to that of the disc.
Correspondingly, its temperature is increased as it is
pumped out radially into the root of the blade. Total
temperature increases along with both the static and
dynamic temperature.
void [13]. This HGI diminishes the service life of
rotating components such as discs and seals [14]. Sealing
of flow paths is therefore necessary to prevent ingress
into rotor drum cavities. "Platforms of rotor blades and
inner bands of nozzle guide vanes are designed to form a
radial or axial clearance seal at rim portion of the
cavities" [14]. The SAS also cools the disc hence seals
are fitted close to the rim of the disc to minimize the
cooling air requirement [15]. The optimum amount of air
must be determined as too much cooling air can have a
detrimental effect on turbine efficiency whereas too little
will be insufficient to prevent HGI [12].

Figure 5: Contours between vanes and blades of

experimental rig [12]
Figure 3: Use of Pre-swirl [1]
This SAS function exist solely to counteract HGI and
therefore it is appropriate to mention the three modes of
Pre-swirl nozzles simultaneously add a whirl
ingress. ECI occurs where localized main gas path flow
component to airflow whilst increasing its velocity. In
is instantaneously at higher pressure than the sealing
this way, the total temperature is constant and no work is
flow. RCI is another mode which occurs due to the radial
done to accelerate the airflow. Hence the static
pressure gradient that exist within the wheel space.
temperature of the air is reduced due to the increased
Radial outflow occurs near to the surface of the disc,
velocity of the stream as indicated by equation (2).
whereas the low pressure region in the wheel space
Equation (2) assumes constant Cp and total pressure .
1 causes HGI. Finally combined ingress CI refers to the
𝑡∝ ... (2) case in which ECI and RCI are of the same order of
𝑉2
magnitude .
3. Sealing of Flow Paths

Figure 4: Typical high-pressure turbine stage showing

rim seal and wheel-space. [12]
High pressure combustions gases in the annulus of the
turbine section migrates to the low pressure region
between the rotor and stator internal cavities. HGI is
further compounded by the ejection of resident cavity air
into the main gas path due to centrifugal and frictional
forces between the air and the rotating disc.
Correspondingly, there is an inflow of hot gas to fill the Figure 6: Typical disc sealing arrangement [1]

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Figure 7: Pratt and Whitney PT6 Compressor Rear Bearing Sump Arrangement [16]
Figure 4 shows a typical rim sealing arrangement.
However, even with a sealing system, local pressure
differences can cause localized HGI as depicted in Figure
5. Hence, "the designer of internal air systems wants to
know the following: the most effective seal geometry;
how much sealing air is required to prevent ingress;
when ingress occurs, how much hot gas enters the wheel-
space; and how does this hot gas affect the temperatures
on the rotating and stationary components" [12].
Figure 6 shows a typical arrangement utilized in flow
path sealing. The flowrate is metered using interstage
seals. Continuous groove interstage labyrinth air seals
and honeycomb seals are generally used in this type of
application. Empirical correlations and CFD are
extensively used to develop seal geometries which give
the required flow rate.
3.1. Seals
While it is not the intention of this paper to hold an in-
depth discourse on gas turbine seals, a brief overview is
useful. SAS flow control is indispensably linked to the
efficiency of the engine core and seals provide the
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dominant means of flow control [17]. To this end,
labyrinth seals are extensively used. Figure 8 illustrates
the basic design and function of a two toothed labyrinth
seal. D. Eser and J.Y. Kazakia [18] highlight the
parameters which govern metering of the flow across
these types of seals. Other types of seals employed in
SAS include brush seals, carbon seals, fluid and
abradable lined seals, hydraulic seals, ring type oil seals,
thread type labyrinth oil seals and continuous groove
labyrinth air seal [1].
4. Sealing of Bearing Chambers
4.1. Overview
Bearing chamber oil leakage may lead to excessive
loss of oil, engine fire, cabin odour or smoke [2]. To
prevent this from occurring, pressurized air is bled from
the compressor and directed into cavities surrounding the
sumps [bearing chambers]. "The sumps are encased in
protective air jackets that prevent excessive heat fluxes
from reaching the oil wetted walls, thereby preventing
coking and thermal deterioration of the oil" [19]. SAS air
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maintains a specified differential pressure across
labyrinth seal faces such that air is leaked into the
bearing chamber thus preventing the escape of lube oil.
Finally, the air is vented [16].
Figure 8: Flow through a straight through labyrinth seal.
[20]
4.2. Components
Aero engines typically employ a dry sump lubrication
system in which the SAS is used to provide oil seal
pressurization and sump ventilation. These functions are
considered to be subsystems of the lube oil system.
Figure 9 depicts a simplified layout of the CFM56
turbofan oil sump design.
A jet of oil is sprayed onto the main bearing. Air is
injected into the cavity surrounding the sump and is then
directed into the sump via air-oil seals. The air is then
vented through the hollow rotor shaft and into the
tailpipe region of the engine. The hollow shaft in this
design is referred to as the center vent and it generally
consist of a concentric internal tube which runs the
length of the shaft [refer to Figure 10]. Air entrained in
the scavenge oil is removed by the vortex deaerator in the
oil tank. It is to be noted that the tight air seal clearances
maintain the vent system air pressure and preferential
flow of sealing air to the oil sump. Only a small amount
of flow is allowed back into the main gas path. Also, the
sump pressure is maintained slightly above atmospheric
pressure. [16]
Figure 9: CFM56 turbofan oil sump design [16]
Figure 7 shows a different configuration of a typical
sump sealing arrangement. In this instance, air exits the
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bearing compartment via the scavenge oil system rather
than through a center vent tube [16].
Figure 10: CFM56 bearing pressurization [21]
4.3. Effects of Seals on Transient Performance
Seals meter the flow of air for all SAS functions.
During transient performance, thermal and centrifugal
effects lead to differential expansion between
components. Deviation from design point gapping can
negatively impact upon engine performance. As gaps
increase, the flow across seals correspondingly increase
resulting in a reduction in thrust [refer to Section 8]. To
better illustrate this point, two seals controlling the flow
from the HP compressor to the HP turbine of a particular
engine were investigated. Figure 11 shows that the gaps
significantly increased during a speed transient.
However, the turbine gap was proportionately greater
than that of the compressor and so it is seen in Figure 12
that the HPT seal had a greater effect on engine
performance during the speed transient. The overall
effect was a "slower dynamic response to the fuel
schedule". [22]
Figure 11: Transient seal clearances [22]
Figure 12: The effect of seal clearances [22]
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Figure 13: Control of Bearing Axial Load [2]
5. Control of Bearing Axial Loads
5.1. Overview
Pressure difference across components give rise to
forces which act in the direction of decreasing pressure.
As such, turbine loads act toward the rear of the engine
whereas compressor loads act toward the inlet.
Consequently the connecting shaft is in tension.
Additional loads are also imposed by internal air flows.
The net load [i.e. the summation of the compressor,
turbine and net internal load] is transmitted to the thrust
bearing or deep groove ball bearing [in the case of aero
engines].[2]
Load variations occur with changes in the operating
point of the engine; overloading and unloading the thrust
bearing. When unloading occurs, bearing elements skid.
This produces heat which leads to bearing failure [2][1].
Overloading can lead to fatigue failure however, aero
engine bearings rarely succumb to this failure mechanism
[23].
Figure 14: Industrial Turbine Thrust Balance [24]
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Figure 15: General Electric Bleed extraction [19]
Possible bearing failure modes are avoided by
optimization of the net thrust load. Designers pay
particular attention to the placement and geometry of
seals around the compressor and turbine as this is the
primary means of controlling the net axial internal load.
For a constant pressure, the force exerted by a gas on a
surface is proportional to area. Figure 13 illustrates that
the use of a larger axial surface area can result in a
significant change in axial load. Figure 7 gives an
example of the use of a balance chamber. Industrial
turbines utilize a balance piston. In this case, piping is
routed from an external manifold to the face of the
piston. Axial thrust is minimum at no load and increases
proportionately as the machine begins to take on load. A
large number of solutions have been proposed to reduce
the load on the thrust bearing. Quite a few employ the
use of valving and complex algorithms to maintain the
right amount of pressure on the balance piston as load
variations occur. In a patent by Alstom engineers, one
such layout in a proposed [24]. This proposal is seen in
Figure 14 and shows that compressor discharge air is
tapped from a point on the casing and routed back on to
the rear face of the last stage compressor disc. The
pressure is regulated by a control valve.
Figure 16: Rolls Royce AE3007 cooling circuit [2]
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Figure 17: Pratt and Whitney JT8D turbofan engine layout (front end) [19]

Figure 18: Pratt and Whitney JT8D turbofan engine layout (back end) [19]

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Figure 19: JT8D Bearing Locations [19]
5.2. Delivery Methods
Compressor air is generally extracted through orifices or
labyrinth seals to internal cavities. Alternatively, air can be
extracted to external manifolds and routed for re-entry to
the engine.
Figure 15 illustrates two ways which have been utilized
for air extraction to external cavities. It is seen that hollow
vanes are employed to channel air from the inner diameter
to an external manifold. Alternatively, round holes have
been used along the outer annulus wall at a later stage. Due
to the variation in pressure, each flow is channelled through
separate manifolds.
Figure 16 serves to illustrate the intricacy of modern
internal air systems at the turbine end of the machine. It is
characteristic for first stage NGV's to utilize combustor
liner cooling flows. Cooling flows are delivered to turbine
blades solely through internal cavities whereas NGV's can
be fed through either internal or external flows.
6. Engine Layout - Pratt and Whitney JT8D
Internal air systems are highly integrated. Bleed flows
from a single extraction point may be used to fulfil single
or multiple SAS functions. The two spool Pratt and
Whitney JT8D engine exemplifies this concept.
Air is bled from the sixth stage [last stage] of the LP
compressor [refer to Figure 17]. This air is extracted
through a gap between the bearing support and rear of the
sixth stage disc. This bleed is utilized to maintain pressure
at the seal of the no.1 bearing and at the front face of the
no.2 bearing chambers [refer to Figure 19]. A portion of the
air is directed through the LPC driveshaft. As seen in
Figure 18, this air is circulated around the turbine disc
before passing out to the main flow through the rear hub.
Thus this bleed performs bearing chamber sealing as well
as disc cooling.
Ninth stage air enters the inner cavity of the HP
compressor through holes in the interstage spacer. Holes in
the front hub of the rotor permits the passage of air to the
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no.3 bearing. This air provides a sealing flow to the rear
seal of this bearing. Airflow is also routed to the front face
of the seventh stage disc. In this way, ninth stage discharge
pressure is maintained on the seventh stage seal diameter
thus achieving a partial thrust balance. Hence it is seen that
this bleed performs bearing sealing as well as partial thrust
balance.
Thirteenth stage air is bled through a multi-edged seal.
Initially, this flow occupies a cavity formed between the
compressor hub and diffuser inner duct [refer to Figure 18].
It then moves through a cavity created by the combustor
inner case and the turbine shaft heat shield. This air is used
to provide pressure to the rear of the no.5 bearing. It also
supplies a cooling flow to the front and rear faces of the HP
turbine disc. Air is ejected through the blade to provide
cooling whist also being ejected through the rear interstage
seal to prevent HGI. As such, it is seen that this flow
carries out both bearing chamber sealing as well as turbine
blade and disc cooling.
7. Basic Sizing
Engine design is a highly iterative process. First order
calculations rely upon assumptions about the SAS. Higher
accuracy assumptions result in less iterations to achieve a
final design. Assumptions must therefore be based upon
actual values utilized in similar engines. However, in the
absence of this data, Walsh and Fletcher [11] have
provided typical magnitudes for first order calculations.
Percentages stated in this section are relative to the inlet
core mass flow.
Cooling Requirements and Rim Sealing:
 0.5% per disc face for HPT.
 0.25% per disc face per LPT and free power turbine.
This figure may increase to 0.5% if a low technology
rim is used.
Bearing Chamber Sealing:
 0.02 kgs-1 per bearing chamber.
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Control of Bearing Axial Loads:
 Given the scatter of values, it is not possible to apply
a generic value. This is greatly dependent on the
internal geometry of the engine.
8. Penalties Associated with the SAS
Figure 20: Comparison of cooled vs uncooled blades [4]
8.1. Cooling Penalties
Whilst performance benefits have been derived from
employing cooling systems, performance penalties have
been simultaneously incurred.
At a given TET, an uncooled blade will render a higher
thrust than a cooled blade. Thus, as the percentage of
cooling air increases for a given TET, the thrust output
correspondingly decreases. This is implicit in Figure 20. It
is therefore essential for designers to use the least possible
percentage of core mass flow to meet cooling demands.
Deswirlers add additional weight, cost and disc features
[2]. Preswirl nozzles reduce static pressure at egress points
to the main gas path hence reducing mass flow. However,
this must weighed against the benefit of the lower entry
temperature cooling flow.
8.2. Generic Penalties
Losses arise from complex fluid dynamic interactions
within internal passages. One such loss is the excess shaft
power required to drive the disc in order to overcome
frictional drag. This drag arises from shear stresses
between the disc and internal airflow which it is rotating
[25]. This power loss is referred to as windage and is
sometimes accounted for as a decrease in the overall
compressor efficiency [11].
Other losses include leakage, increased manufacturing
cost and additional compressor work required to generate
bleed flows [4].
"Direct performance gains arise from more effective use
of the air consumed by the secondary system – thereby
reducing parasitic losses. Indirect performance gains also
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accrue as a result of reducing spoiling in regions where the
secondary flow re-emerges in the main annulus, e.g. at
turbine rim seals."[26]
8.3. Transient Penalties
During acceleration transients, seal boundary conditions
change due to increased flow area. This results in a loss of
available turbine work due to drop in turbine mass flow.
Enthalpy of the flow is reduced due to mixing with the
cooling flow. Work is lost to facilitate pumping additional
cooling air radially [27].
8.4. Degradation
Degradation of the SAS can significantly impair
reliability and performance. One form of deterioration
occurs when dirt or sand clogs cooling holes on hot section
blading [28]. The reliability of these components is
diminished due to a reduction in creep life as cooling flows
are restricted. Increased seal clearances over time occur
due to rubs and degrade engine performance as more air is
bled from the core of the engine [29].
9. Conclusion
This paper provided a broad literary review of SAS
functions pertaining to component air cooling flows,
sealing of bearing chambers and flow paths as well as
control of bearing axial loads. Operational principles were
discussed along with transient performance, delivery
methods and penalties. The JT8D engine was used to
exemplify the multifunctional use of bleed flows. First
order values for flow requirements was addressed at a
cursory level.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Sharad Kapil for his time spent in
helping me to conceptualize this highly intricate engine
system.
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