Prepared By Dr TENEMEZA KENFACK
CHAPTER I: MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM
Introduction
About six hundred years before Christ, the ancient Greeks had discovered a
type of substance that was capable of attracting iron. The substance was
discovered in Magnesia and so it was called magnetite, from which we have
the word magnet. One thousand years later, it was noticed that, when this
type of substance is suspended so that it can rotate freely, it comes to rest in
an approximately north–south direction. This property of the substance was
used to make a simple compass for navigation and the substance became
known as lodestone, which means the leading stone. This chapter investigate
the properties of magnetic materials and the interaction between magnetism
and electricity.
Lesson 1: Magnets
Definition: A magnet is a substance that has the ability to attract some
substances placed closed to it. This property is called magnetism. Examples
of magnets are the bar magnet, flat magnet, ring magnet, horseshoe magnet,
electromagnet and natural rock magnetite.
Magnetic and non-magnetic material
Ferromagnetic materials or magnetic materials are material that can be
attracted by a magnet. They can be converted into magnets. That is, they can
be magnetized. Magnetic materials include: iron, nickel, cobalt and some
materials containing these elements, such as steel and magnadur.
Non-magnetic materials are materials that cannot be attracted by a magnet.
They cannot be converted into a magnet or cannot be magnetized. They
include: brass, copper, zinc, aluminum, glass, wood, plastics, and rubber.
Properties of magnets
1) Magnets attract ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel and cobalt.
2) All magnets have two poles: The North Pole and South Pole.
The magnetic poles are the region of a magnet where magnetic materials are
strongly attracted. There are not magnets with only one pole.
3) The magnetic force of a magnet is stronger at its poles than in its middle
4) The stronger the magnets and the closer two magnets are to each other,
the greater the magnetic force exerted on each other. In other words, the
force between magnetic poles decreases as their separation increases
5) When a bar magnet is suspended by a thread such that it balances
horizontally and free to rotate, its north pole will move towards the north
pole of the earth and its south pole will move towards the south pole of
the earth. This is because the earth is a giant magnet, and its geographical
north pole is its magnetic south pole and vice versa
6) There are three types of magnets: permanent magnets, temporary magnets
and electromagnets.
Permanent and temporary magnets
Hard magnetic materials are materials which are not easily magnetized and
once magnetized, cannot easily lose their magnetic properties. Examples are
steel, alcomax, magnadur, ticonal and alnico. These materials are used to
 Prepared By Dr TENEMEZA KENFACK
produce permanent magnet. These permanent magnets are used in
loudspeakers, directional compasses, electromotors and telephone earpieces.
Soft magnetic materials are materials which can easily be magnetized and
demagnetized. Examples are iron, nickel, cobalt. They are used to produce
temporary magnets. Temporary magnets are used in electromagnet,
transformer, and magnetic shielding.
Permanent magnets are magnets which retain their magnetism for a long
time. Temporary magnets are magnets which easily lose their magnetism
with time. Magnetic shielding is the protection substances from the unwanted
effect of a magnetic field.
The laws of magnetism
• Action of one magnet on the other: the basic law of magnetism
When two magnets are brought near one another, each exerts a force on the
other. The force can be either attractive or repulsive and can be felt even
when the magnets don’t touch. If the North pole of a magnet is brought near
the North pole of a second magnet, the forces is repulsive. Similarly, if two
South Pole are brought close, the force is repulsive. But when a north pole is
brought near a south pole, the force is attractive. The results are shown in
figure.
The conclusion of this simple experiment can be summarized in a simple
statement that is known as the basic law of magnetism. The law states that
“like poles of a magnet repel while unlike poles of a magnet attract.”
• Coulomb’s law of magnetism
The force of interaction acting between two magnetic poles is directly
proportional to the product of their pole strengths and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them.
Magnetic induction
Magnetic induction is the process by which magnetic properties are
transferred from one body to another without any physical contact.
When an unmagnetized magnetic material is brought near to a magnet, it is
attracted to the magnet because a temporary magnetism is induced in the
material.
Test for the polarity
The polarity of a substance may be tested by bringing one of its poles near to
one of the known poles of a suspended magnet.
If repulsion occurs, the substance is a magnet whose nearby pole is of similar
polarity to that of the suspended magnetic pole repelling it.
If attraction occurs, no firm conclusion can be drawn since the substance may
be either of the following:
▪ an unmagnetized piece of magnetic material whose nearby end has
been magnetized by induction.
▪ a magnet whose nearby pole is of opposite polarity to that of the
suspended magnetic pole attracting it.
In other words, if attraction occurs, it can be that the poles are dissimilar or
that one of them is un-magnetized. This means that repulsion is the only sure
test for polarity.
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Production of magnets: magnetization
1) Single and double touch methods: magnetization by contact
(a) Single touch (b) double touch
With single touch method, the same pole of a permanent bar magnet is used
to stroke an unmagnetized bar (iron or steel) so that it passes along the bar in
the same direction several times as shown in figure a. The pole produced at
the end of the bar when the stroking ceases is opposite to the stroking pole
used.
The magnet is lifted sufficiently high above the steel bar between successive
strokes to avoid weakening the magnetism already induced.
The maximum level of magnetization for a given material is called magnetic
saturation.
With double touch method, the unmagnetized bar is stroked from the center
outwards with unlike poles of two permanent bar magnets simultaneously as
shown in figure b. This would speed up the magnetization process. As for
single touch, the polarity produced at the ends of the bar when stroking
ceases is opposite to that of the stroking pole.
2) Electrical method: electromagnet
This is the most effective method of magnetizing a magnetic material such as
iron or steel.
A bar of magnetic material is placed inside a long coil of conducting wire
consisting of many turns called solenoid.
The direct current (d.c) in the solenoid is switched on for a moment and then
switched off.
The magnetic material is magnetized by the strong magnetic field generated
in the solenoid (magnetic effect of current).
The poles of the magnet produced depend on the direction of the current
flowing in the solenoid and can be determine by the Right-Hand Grip Rule.
Imaging your right hand gripping the solenoid such that your fingers curl
round the solenoid in the direction of current. Your thumb then points
toward the North pole of the magnet produce.
Generally, the South pole of the magnet produced will be on the same side as
the positive terminal of the battery.
Demagnetization
 Prepared By Dr TENEMEZA KENFACK
This is the lost or reduction of the magnetic effects of a magnet. A magnet
can be demagnetized by
1) Strong heating
Heating a magnet to a high temperature increases the vibrations of its atoms.
This will totally destroy any magnetization of the material
2) Hammering
Hammering a magnetic material in free magnetic field region will reduce its Applications of magnets
magnetization There are many uses of magnet in our daily life and in the industries.
3) Electric method However, the most important use of magnet is the magnetic compass which
The bar magnet is place inside a solenoid connected to an a.c (alternating is the most reliable method to find geographical direction. The commonly
current) supply. The current is switched on and the magnet slowly withdrawn known types of compasses are: laboratory compass, silver compass and
from the solenoid. mariner’s compass. Magnetic compasses are used to: identified the poles of a
magnet, identified magnetic materials, and determine the direction of
magnetic fields.
Magnets are used in TV screens, computer screens, telephones and in tape
recorders. They are used to construct the electrical motors and generators.
They are also used in refrigerators to keep the door close. Just to cite few
examples.
Q1. You are given an unmarked magnetized steel bar and bar magnet; its
The ac disrupts the magnetism in the magnet.
north and south ends are marked N and S respectively. State how would you
The magnet is held in an east-west direction so that the earth magnetic poles
determine the polarity at each end of the unmarked bar?
have no effect on the demagnetization.
Q2. Suppose someone handed you three similar iron bars and told you one
4) Storing without keepers
was not magnet, but the other two were. How would you find the iron bar
Storing a magnet without keepers (soft iron) will weaken its magnetism with
that was not magnet?
time.
To prevent magnets from losing their magnetism too quickly, we can store
Lesson 2: Magnetic field and magnetic field lines
them in pairs by using soft iron keepers across their ends.
A magnet can pick up a magnetic material or turns the magnetic needle of a
compass while it is still away from them. There is a magnetic force in the
space around the magnet that moves these objects.
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The magnetic field is the region around a magnet where its magnetic plane. The figure below shows how we can find the direction of magnetic
influence can be felt. It is denoted by B and its unit is Tesla. field lines of a bar magnet using a plotting compass.
Magnetic field is a vector quantity, and therefore has both magnitude and
direction like all other vectors.
Magnetic field is represented by lines of force or magnetic field lines that
indicate its strength and direction.

Properties of magnetic field lines

▪ They are vectors quantities
▪ Where the field lines are close together, the magnetic field is stronger and
Using a plotting compass to map out a magnetic field
weaker where the lines are spaced out
▪ Outside the magnetic the field lines are directed from the North pole to
The magnet is placed at the center of a large sheet of paper and its perimeter
the South pole of the magnet whereas inside the magnet they are directed
is outlined. The ends of the magnet are marked and a plotting compass is
from the South pole to the North pole of the magnet (an arrow is used to
positioned near to the North pole so that the curved south pole end of its
indicate the direction of the field)
needle surrounds the dot. The position of the north pole end of the plotting
▪ Field lines try to be shorter and are continuous
compass is marked by a dot on the paper. The compass is advanced such that
▪ The field lines from the same magnet never cross over
its south pole end now lies over the dot where the north pole end was
▪ Magnetic field lines are parallel to each other in the uniform magnetic
previously, and the new position of the north pole end is marked. This is
field.
continued until the dots reach the other end of the magnet or extend off the
paper. The dots are joined by a smooth line with an arrow to indicate the
direction of the field line. The process is repeated to produce several other
field lines.
Magnetic flux
Magnetic flux is the number of magnetic field lines passing through a given
Magnetic field lines around a bar magnet
area. It is a measurement of the total magnetic field. It is denoted by ϕ and its
Direction of magnetic field lines
unit is weber (Wb).
The magnetic field lines point in different directions at different places
around a magnet. The simplest way of determining the direction of the field
Magnetic flux pattern
lines is to place a plotting compass in the field.
The diagrams of magnetic field lines are known as magnetic flux patterns.
A plotting compass is a simple magnetic compass in which a small magnet is
They may be uniform (e.g., magnetic field lines due to the earth alone) or
supported between two glass faces so that it can turns free in a horizontal
non-uniform (e.g., magnetic field lines due to a bar magnet).
 Prepared By Dr TENEMEZA KENFACK
A neutral point is a point within a field where a small body will experience
The forces between bar magnets can be explained in terms of field lines as no force
shown in the diagrams below
A uniform magnetic fi eld is one in which the magnetic field lines are evenly
space and parallel. A uniform magnetic field exists in the central region
between plane, facing magnetic poles, as shown in the figure below.

Forces of attraction exist between dissimilar poles due to the longitudinal Uniform magnetic field
tension within the field lines joining them. The earth’s magnetic field

The core of the earth contains iron and nickel and therefore behave as a giant
magnet with the north magnetic pole the geographical south pole (southern
hemisphere) and the south magnetic pole the geographical north pole
(northern hemisphere).
However, the earth’s magnetic poles do not coincide exactly with earth’s
geographical poles.

Forces of repulsion exist between similar poles due to the lateral push
between the field lines passing close to each other.

Fig. Examples of flux patterns

 Prepared By Dr TENEMEZA KENFACK
The angle between the direction of the magnetic north and the direction of
geographical north at a particular point is called the angle of declination.
The angle of dip is the angle between the horizontal surface of the earth and
the direction of the earth’s magnetic field at a particular point of the earth’s
surface.
The earth’s magnetic field is of great importance since charged particles
given off by the Sun are trapped in this field and are hindered from causing
damage to life on Earth. Thus, a shield from high-speed, charged particles
exists around the Earth.
A magnet suspended near the earth surface always points in a north-south
direction. Hence, the Earth's magnetic field can be to identify the poles of a
magnet.
Lesson 3: Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism is the study of magnetic effects of electric current. The use
of electromagnetism in different fields of science and technology is very
wide. Motors and electric meters are based on the effect of magnetism
produced by the electric current in wires. Generators produce electric current
due to the movement of wires near very large magnets.
• Magnetic effects of electric current
In 1819, the Danish scientist, Hans Oersted, set up an experiment to show
that magnetism had nothing to do with electricity. Surprisingly, the
experiment proved the opposite. Current and magnetic field were inseparable.
His experiment proved that whenever a current pass through a conductor, it
produces a magnetic field around it. This is known as the magnetic effect of
current.
➢ An experiment to demonstrate the magnetic effect of current
▪ Apparatus
Two compass needles, a conductor wire, battery, and switch
▪ Setup
▪ Method or procedure
A compass needle is place above the wire and another compass needle is
place below the wire.
The direction of the Earth’s magnetic field (the direction of the north pole of
the needle) is noted for each compass needle.
The current is then switch on and the deflections the compasses placed above
and below the wire are noted.
▪ Observations
When the current is switch on, it is observed that the north pole of the
compass above the wire is deflected to the east, whereas the compass below
the wire is deflected to the west.
When the direction of the current through the wire is reversed, it is observed
that the deflections of the two compasses are also reversed.
▪ Interpretations
The compasses are deflected when place close to the conductor wire because
there exist a magnetic field around the wire. This magnetic field is due to the
current flowing in the wire and its direction is the same as that of the
compass needle.
Conclusion
Whenever current is flowing through a conductor, a magnetic field is created
in the region around the conductor. This is the basic principle of
electromagnetism.
• Magnetic flux patterns due to a current carrying conductor
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▪ Magnetic flux pattern due to current in a straight conductor
Experiment shows that the pattern of the magnetic field lines produced by a
current in a straight wire are in the form of concentric circles with the wire as
the center.
The directions of the magnetic field lines can be determined by using plotting
compasses placed at different points around the conductor, or by applying
Right-Hand Grip Rule II or Maxwell’s Right Hand Screw Rule.
According to the Right-Hand Grip Rule II, if a wire carrying a current is
gripped with the right hand with the thumb pointing along the wire in the
direction of the current, the other fingers point in the direction of the
magnetic field around the wire.
Plotting the field Right hand gripe rule
According to the Maxwell’s Right Hand Screw Rule, if a right-hand screw
advances in the direction of the current, then the direction of rotation of the
screw represents the direction of the magnetic field due to the current.
Maxwell’s screw rule
The magnetic flux pattern in a straight wire carrying current is usually given
in a plan view, where the conductor is represented by a circle. A dot in the
circle shows that the current is coming out of the plane. A cross in the circle
shows that the current is moving into the plane.
Top/plane view of the magnetic field patterns of a conductor carrying
current
When the direction of the current is reversed, the magnetic field lines
direction also is reversed
The magnetic field is strong in region around the wire and weakens with
increasing distance (the field lines around the wire are drawn closer to
another).
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▪ Magnetic flux pattern due to current in a flat coil
Applying the right-hand grip rule to both sides of the coil, it can be seen
that
the field lines all point in the same direction inside the coil.
the field line at the center of the coil is in the form of a straight line.
Outside the coil, the field lines of one section oppose those of the other
section.
The effect is that inside the circular coil, there exists a strong magnetic field
while the field outside the coil is very weak.
▪ Magnetic flux due to current in a solenoid
A coil of conducting wire consisting of many turns is called solenoid. When a
current pass through a solenoid, it behaves like a magnet that is, as if it has a
North pole at one end and South Pole at the other end.
Electric current in solenoid produces a magnetic field which is very similar to
that of a permanent bar magnet. This magnetic field is stronger inside the
solenoid than outside.
The magnetic field lines inside the solenoid are close and evenly spaced
showing a strong uniform field.
The field lines are uneven and more widely spaced outside the solenoid.
The direction of field lines outside the solenoid is opposite to the direction
of the field lines in the solenoid.
The polarity at the ends of the solenoid can be determined using any of the
following two simple rules.
(a) Look at the end of the solenoid from beside. If the current flow is
clockwise, the polarity on that side is South but, if the current flow is
anticlockwise, the polarity on that side is North.
(b) Grip the solenoid with your right hand so that your fingers follow the
direction of the current. The North end of the solenoid is indicated by
your thumb.
The strength of the magnetic field in a solenoid depends on the following
factors
▪ The size of the current (I) through the conductor
The magnetic field strength of a conductor carrying current is directly
proportional to the current flowing through the conductor. That is, 𝑩 ∝ 𝑰
The larger the current through the conductor, the stronger the magnetic field
it will produce.
▪ The number of turns per unit length of the conductor
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The higher the number of turns per unit length of the conductor, the
stronger the magnetic field produce. This means that the magnetic field set
up by a solenoid and a straight conductor of the same length and current
will be stronger in the case of the solenoid
▪ The distance from the conductor
The magnetic field strength decreases as the distance from the current
carrying conductor increases. This is because 𝑩 ∝ 𝟏⁄ 𝟐 where r is the
𝒓
distance from the conductor
▪ The permeability of the medium
Magnetic field set up when the core of the solenoid is made of soft iron is
stronger than when it is made of air or vacuum because the soft iron
concentrates the field line through it.
Lesson 3: Electromagnets
An electromagnet is a magnet produced by a current in a solenoid with soft
iron core.
An electromagnet is a temporary magnet; that is, it acts as a magnet when the
current is switched on and ceases to be a magnet when the current is switched
off.
Testing an electromagnet (or solenoid) with an iron nail as core.
As the current flows through the solenoid, a magnetic field is produced. This
magnetic field magnetizes the core which picks up magnetic material.
When the current is switched off, the solenoid and its soft iron core
immediately demagnetize and then release the magnetic material picked up
before. This means that, the magnetism is only temporary and is lost as soon
as the current through the solenoid is switched off.
Soft iron is used in electromagnets because:
▪ A soft iron core is able to concentrate magnetic field lines through it,
and thus a stronger magnetic field is produced.
▪ A soft iron core can easily be magnetized and demagnetized. That is,
it loses its magnetism as soon as the current stop flowing.
If the soft iron core is replaced with a steel core, the steel core becomes a
permanent magnet when current flows in the solenoid. When the current is
switched off, the steel core remains magnetized. Therefore, steel is not
suitable as the core of electromagnets.
Factor that affects the strength of an electromagnet
1. The size of current through the solenoid
The larger the size of the current in the solenoid, the stronger the
electromagnet.
2. Number of turns of the wire of the solenoid
The greater the number of turns of the wire of the solenoid, the stronger the
electromagnet
3. The core material
An electromagnet whose core is made of a very soft magnetic material is
strong than one whose core is made of iron only.
4. The shape of the core material
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V-shape, U-shape or C-shape electromagnets are more powerful than a
straight electromagnet because both poles can be used to pick up or attract
magnetic materials.
After a certain current and number of turns is reached, further increase in
current or number of turns does not make the electromagnet anymore
stronger. The point beyond which an increase in current or number of turns
does not further increase the strength of an electromagnet is called the
saturation point.
Advantages of electromagnets over permanent magnets
▪ Electromagnets can be switched on and off while permanent magnet
cannot.
▪ The strength of an electromagnet can be varied by varying the current or
the number of turns or the material of the solenoid while the strength of a
permanent magnet cannot be changed.
▪ The polarity of an electromagnet can be reversed by sending the current
in the reverse direction.
Uses of electromagnets
▪ Electromagnet are used to lift heavy weights in industries
▪ They are also used to operate electric bells, circuit breakers,
galvanometers (used to measure tiny current), and in telephone earpieces
▪ They are used to separate magnetic materials from other non-magnetic
materials such as copper, brass and aluminum
▪ They are used as switches in magnetic relays to pass on messages from
one part of an electric circuit to another.
Lesson 4: Forces acting on a current-carrying conductor and charge in a
magnetic field
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it will
experience a force when the magnetic field direction is not parallel to the
current direction.
This force is the result of the interaction between the magnetic field due to
the current-carrying conductor and the magnetic field in which the conductor
is placed.
The direction of this force can be determine using the Fleming’s Left-Hand
Rule
The Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule said that if the first finger, the second finger
and the thumb of the left hand are placed mutually at right angles to each
other so that the First finger point in the direction of the Field, and the
seCond finger point in the direction of the Current, then the thuMb will point
in the direction of the Motion (force).
If θ is the angle between the field and the current (I) flowing through the
conductor of length (ℓ), then the force (F) due to a magnetic field of strength
or flux density (B) is given by the following expression
F = IB sin
▪ Condition for minimum force
A conductor carrying current will experience a zero or minimum force on it
when it is placed parallel to the direction of the magnetic field (θ= 0°)
F = IB sin0 = 0
▪ Condition for maximum force
A conductor carrying current will experience a maximum force when place at
right angle to the field direction (θ= 90°)
F = IB sin90 = IB
The figure below describes how two magnetic fields interact to produce a
force
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Field due to permanent Field due to current Combined field of the
magnets carrying conductor two interaction fields

uniform magnetic field lines directed Magnetic field lines in the A catapult field is produced.
from the north pole to the south pole form of concentric circles,
is obtained when two magnets of in an anticlockwise
direction is obtained based When the currents flow in the same direction, the magnetic field between the
different poles placed close to each
on the right-hand grip rule.
other. conductors cancel out since they are in opposite direction, thus reducing the
net field. However, on the outside, the magnetic fields add up, thus increasing
The two magnetic fields involved are the magnetic field of the permanent the net field. Therefore, the magnetic field is weaker between the conductors
magnet, and the magnetic field produced by the current-carrying conductor. than on the outside. The resultant force pushes the conductor towards each
Both magnetic fields interact to produce a resultant field known as a catapult other.
field.
When the currents are in the opposite directions, the fields between the
Downward, the two fields act in the same directions and they produce a conductors add up, while they cancel out on the outside. The field between
stronger combined field. Upward, the two fields are in the opposite direction them is stronger than on the outside. The resultant force is toward the outside
and the combined field is weaker. of each conductor.
The resultant magnetic field produced, viewed from above, when two parallel
The distortion of the magnetic field lines causes the current carrying current-carrying conductors are brought close to each other is shown in the
conductor to move to the weak region. That is, from downward to upward. figure below.

Effect of Two Parallel Current-carrying Coils in a Magnetic Field

If two current-carrying conductors are placed in a magnetic field, they will
experience a repulsive or attractive force between them.
If the current flows in the same direction, the two conductors will attract to
each other. If the current flows in the opposite direction, they will repel to
each other.
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Factors that affect the magnitude of the force in a current carrying electrons or centripetal force is constant and always at right angles to the
conductor place in a magnetic field direction of motion. The centripetal force is always directed toward the
1) The magnetic flux density or strength of the magnetic field (B) circular path
The stronger the magnetic field, the greater the force. This is because the If a charge body of mass (m) moves in a uniform magnetic field with
force is directly proportional to B, that is F  B . constant speed (v) in a circular path of radius r then, the centripetal force is
2) The size of the current (I) through the conductor given by
The larger the size of the current, the greater the force since the force is F = mv2 / r
directly proportional to current, that is F  I Lesson 5: Turning effect of a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field
3) The length of the conductor Current-carrying coil in a magnetic field
The longer the conductor the greater the force since force is directly when a rectangular coil carrying current is place in a magnetic field, with its
proportional to the length of the conductor, that is F  sides lying perpendicular to the field, equal and opposite forces are developed
The angle (θ) between the conductor and the magnetic field lines on the opposite sides.
The larger the angle θ or sin (θ), the greater the force since the force is Such equal and opposite forces that act on an object and which do not pass
directly proportional to the sin (θ). through the same point are called a couple.
4) The number of turns (N) the conductor is coiled
In this case the magnitude of the force is given by F  NIB sin  . The couple produces a turning effect to make the coil rotate around an axis in
clockwise direction as shown in the diagram below.
Force acting on a moving charge
A charge moving in a magnetic field experiences a force. The charge will
experience a zero force when it moves parallel to the magnetic field.
When the charge moves at right angle to the magnetic field, it experiences a
maximum force.
When a charge (Q) with velocity (v) moves through a magnetic field of
strength (B) in a direction which makes an angle θ with the field, then the
When the direction of the current is reversed, the direction of rotation also
force which it experiences is given by
F  QvB sin  reverses.
Examples of electrical equipment whose operation is based on this turning
The direction of the force can be determine using Fleming’s left-hand rule,
effect are the dc motors, moving coil loudspeakers and moving coil
considering that the direction of the moving charge is opposite to the
meters.
direction of the conventional current.
When an electron beam enters a uniform magnetic field at right angle to the
Direct current motor
field, it is deflected in a circular path because the magnetic force on the
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A direct current motor converts electrical energy into kinetic energy. The According to Fleming’s left-hand rule, the
figure below shows a diagram of a simple direct current motor. force on AB acts upwards while the force
on CD acts downwards. These two equal
and opposite forces form a couple which
causes the coil to rotate in clockwise
direction until the coil is in the vertical
position.

Cutting field lines at 90°,

Stage 2: vertical position
At this position, (upright), the contact
between the carbon brushes with the
commutator is broken. There is no turning
force on the coil because no current flows
It consists of a rectangular coil of wire placed between two permanent in it. But the coil continues to rotate
magnets. Two carbon brushes, P and Q are held against the commutators, X because of its inertia.
and Y with a slight pressure with the aid of springs. Both ends of the coil are
soldered to commutators X and Y made of two semicircular copper rings.

The commutators are used to reverse the direction of current in the coil Cutting field lines at 0°,
every half rotation so that the coil continues to turn in same direction. In Stage 3: second half rotation
other words, the commutator is an automatic switch, which reverses the
current in the coil twice in one complete revolution.

The carbon Brushes are used to contact the commutators so the that the
current from the battery enters the coil.
The working principle of the direct current motor is explained below

Stage 1: first half rotation


Cutting field lines at 180°,
Stage 4: vertical position
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When the coil is in a horizontal position A radial field is a magnetic field with the field lines pointing towards or away
again, the sides of the coil changes from the center of a circle like spokes of a wheel.
position. The commutator reverses the A radial field is advantageous because a cylinder of soft iron can produce
direction of the current in the coil to converging magnetic field lines.
ensure that the forces on the coil turn the Many electrical appliances such as loudspeakers and moving coil meters
coil in one direction only. So, the coil is operate on the principle of radial fields.
still rotating in a clockwise direction. Side
AB is now on the right-hand side with a A radial field can be produced in two ways as shown in Figures (a) and (b).
downward force on it while side CD is on
the left-hand side with an upward force on
it.
The contact between the carbon brushes
and the commutator is broken again. The
(a) A cylindrical magnet with one pole at the centre and surrounded by
current flow is cut off but the coil
the opposite pole circumferentially
continues to rotate even though there is
no turning effect because of its inertia.

The above processes are repeated, causing

the coil to rotate continuously until the
current is switched off.
Cutting field lines at 270°, (b) A soft iron cylinder at the centre surrounded by concave magnets

Factors which affect the speed of rotation of the motor a) The moving coil loudspeaker
The speed of rotation of the motor increases when:
▪ the strength of the magnetic field is increased (use stronger magnet),
▪ the number of turns of wire in the coil is increased,
▪ the area of the coil is increased,
▪ the coil is wound over an iron core.
▪ the size of the current is increased
Radial Field
 Prepared By Dr TENEMEZA KENFACK
✓ A loudspeaker consists of a paper cone attached to a cylinder which is ✓ The soft iron cylinder and the concave-shaped magnets produce a radial
wound with a coil. field in the space between the magnet and the cylinder. The total flux
✓ A permanent magnet, with its north pole at the centre surrounded passing through the rectangular coil is the same for all positions of the
circumferentially by the south pole, is incorporated in the cylinder. The coil.
radial magnetic field produced is perpendicular to the current through the
coil. ✓ Two spiral hairsprings X and Y are used to control the angle of rotation
✓ An alternating current from an amplifier flows in the coil and produces a of the coil. The hairsprings are wound in opposite directions to
magnetic field around it. The interaction of the magnetic field of the compensate for thermal expansion.
permanent magnet and the magnetic field of the coil produces a force on
the paper cone. ✓ The pointer is fixed to the axis of rotation to show the magnitude of the
✓ In the first half of the cycle, assume that the current flows into the paper current on a linear scale.
at the upper end of the coil and flows out of the paper at the lower end of
the coil. By applying Fleming’s left-hand rule, the force acts on the coil
to move the paper cone to the right (outwards).
✓ In the second half of the cycle, the direction of current flow in the coil is
reversed. The direction of the force produced is also reversed and the
paper cone moves to the left (inwards).
✓ The paper cone vibrates at the frequency of the alternating current (which
has the same frequency as the original sound). The air in front of the cone
undergoes a series of compressions and rarefactions to reproduce the
original sound.

b) The moving coil galvanometer

✓ The galvanometer measures or detects tiny current passing through it or
small p.d (potential difference) across it. Figure: Pivoted moving coil meter
➢ Operating principle
✓ A moving coil meter consists of a large number of turns of fined insulated
copper wire round a light aluminium frame which can be rotated freely in ✓ When a current flows through the coil, two opposite forces are set up on
the gap between the permanent magnet and the soft iron cylinder. the sides of the coil.
✓ These two forces form a deflecting couple which rotates the coil and
moves the pointer across the scale.
 Prepared By Dr TENEMEZA KENFACK
✓ The rotation of the coil is resisted by the two hairsprings. After it was shown by Oersted that a current-carrying conductor produces a
✓ The coil comes to rest when the turning couple is balanced by the magnetic field around it, the reversed process was attempted.
opposing couple of the hairsprings. The pointer shows the magnitude of In 1831, Michael Faraday succeeded in producing a current by moving a
the current. conductor or coil in a magnetic field. This discovery known as
✓ When the current is cut off, the opposing couple from the hairsprings electromagnetic induction led Faraday to invent the dynamo (or generator).
restores the coil to its original position and the pointer returns to the zero
mark. Electromagnetic induction is the process of generating an induced current
➢ Sensitivity of a moving coil meter or emf in a conductor or coil by changing the number of magnetic lines of
✓ A moving coil meter can be used to measure current in milliamperes and force passing through it.
microamperes if the sensitivity of the meter is increased.
✓ The sensitivity of a moving coil meter can be increased by: In order to demonstrate the electromagnetic induction, Faraday carried out of
a) increasing the strength of the radial magnetic field (using a more the following experiments.
powerful magnet), ➢ Experiment 1: A straight conductor
b) increasing the area of the coil, A straight insulated conductor wire AB is connected to a center-zero
c) increasing the number of turns of the coil, galvanometer and held between the gap from the south and north poles of
d) using hairsprings of lower stiffness, two permanent magnets as shown in the figure below.
e) using a coil and pointer of smaller mass.
✓ The above 5 factors enable a larger rotation of the coil with a smaller
current.
➢ Linear scale
The radial magnetic field and the spiral hairsprings which obey Hooke’s law,
causes the angle of rotation of the coil to be directly proportional to the
current flowing, i.e. I ∝ θ. Therefore, the moving coil meter has a linear
(uniform) scale (i.e., with numbers evenly spaced).

The maximum current or voltage that can be measured by a moving coil

The actions taken in the investigation and the observation are as follow
galvanometer is called the full-scale deflection current or voltage. This is the
current or voltage needed to move the pointer from its zero position to the
▪ When the magnetic field is kept stationary, and the conductor AB is
end of the scale.
moved upwards such that it cuts across the magnetic field lines, a
deflection is observed on the galvanometer. If the conductor is now
Lesson: Electromagnetic induction
moved downwards, the deflection is in the opposite.
 Prepared By Dr TENEMEZA KENFACK
▪ When the conductor AB is held stationary and the magnetic field is
moved upwards, meaning that the magnets are moved upwards, the same
deflection is observed. If the magnetic field is now moved downwards,
the deflection is in the opposite.
▪ When the magnetic field is kept stationary and the conductor AB is
moved horizontally, there is no deflection on the galvanometer.
▪ When both the conductor and magnetic field are moved at the same speed
in the same direction, there is no deflection on the galvanometer.
▪ When both the conductor and magnetic field are held stationary, there is
no deflection on the galvanometer.
This implies that when the conductor or the field is moved, the magnetic field
lines are cut by the conductor and there is an e.m.f (voltage) induced in the
conductor. The induced e.m.f. causes induced current to flow. The direction
of the current induced depends on the direction of motion of either the
conductor or the magnetic lines.
➢ Experiment 2: solenoid
An insulated copper wire is wound round a carboard tube to form a solenoid
with many turns. The ends of the copper wire are connected to a center-zero
galvanometer that can measure both the direction and the magnitude of the
current flowing through the solenoid.
The following effects are observed
▪ When the solenoid is fixed and the magnet moved towards it, there is a
deflection of the galvanometer, showing that a current is being induced in
the solenoid.
▪ If the magnet is moved away from the coil, the deflection changes
direction. This means that reversing the direction of movement of the
magnet reverses the direction of the induced current.
▪ If the magnet is kept stationary and the solenoid moved away or towards
it, the same results are obtained.
▪ If both the magnet and solenoid are held stationary, or moved at the same
speed in the same direction, there is no deflection of the galvanometer.
This implies that when there is a change of magnetic flux linkage in a
solenoid, and induced current is produced.
When the bar magnet is plunged into the solenoid, the magnetic flux linkage
in the solenoid increases and a current is induced.
On the other hand, When the bar magnet is pulled out of the solenoid, the
magnetic flux linkage in the solenoid is decreased and a current is induced in
the opposite direction.
When there is no relative motion, there is no change in magnetic flux linkage
in the solenoid and no induced current is produced.
Magnetic flux linkage means the total number of magnetic field lines
cutting through the solenoid.
There is a relative motion between two objects if the two objects are
getting closer or further apart.
When two objects are moving at the same speed in the same direction,
there is no relative motion because the distance between the two
objects does not change.
Laws of electromagnetic induction
There are two principal laws of electromagnetic induction namely the
Faraday’s law and Lenz’s law
 Prepared By Dr TENEMEZA KENFACK
➢ Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
Faraday’s law states that “the magnitude of the induced electromotive force
(e.m.f.) is directly proportional to the rate of change of the number of
magnetic field lines in the solenoid or the rate at which a conductor cuts
through the magnetic flux”.

Factors that affect the induced e.m.f/induced current

Faraday observed that the size of the deflection of the galvanometer depends
on:
✓ The strength of the magnetic field: The stronger the field, the larger the
induced e.m.f and the larger the deflection of the galvanometer
✓ The speed at which the magnet, conductor or coil is moved: The
higher the speed at which the magnet or coil is moved, the larger the
induced e.m.f and hence the deflection of the galvanometer
✓ The length of the conductor within the magnetic field or the number
of turns of the coil: If L or N is large, the induced e.m.f and hence the
deflection of the galvanometer is also large
The magnitude of the induced current is maximum when the conductor cut
across the magnetic field perpendicularly.
➢ Lenz’s law
Lentz’s law states that “the direction of the induced e.m.f or induced
current in a circuit is such that its magnetic effect always opposes the
change producing it”.
This means that, if the current is induced due to motion of the magnet, then
the induced current in coil sets itself to stop the motion of the magnet.
The diagrams below give an explanation of Lenz’s law.
✓ When a north pole is moved towards the end P, the end P becomes a north
pole to produce a force of repulsion to oppose the change (in this
situation, the motion of the bar magnet) which produces it. The current
flows in the direction as shown.
✓ When a north pole is moved away from the solenoid, the end P becomes a
south pole to produce a force of attraction to oppose the motion of the bar
magnet which produces the induced current. The direction of the current
is reversed and the galvanometer needle is deflected in the opposite
direction.
✓ When a south pole is moved into the solenoid, the end P becomes the
south pole by induction.
✓ When the south pole is moved away from the solenoid, the end P
becomes a north pole by induction.

Lenz’s law and principle of conservation of energy

 Prepared By Dr TENEMEZA KENFACK
✓ Lenz’s law is a form of the law of conservation of energy. It can be ✓ Thumb= Father (force); First finger=Mother (Magnetic field);
explained by the principle of conservation of energy. Second=Children (current);
Worked examples
✓ We know that when a magnet is moved towards or away from a solenoid, 1 the figure shows a conductor PQ which moves to the left on a plane of
a current is induced in the solenoid. However, electrical energy cannot be metal wire connected to a galvanometer.
created without any form of work being done. Therefore, when a magnet
is moved towards or away from a solenoid, work must be done to
overcome the opposing force. This work consequently appears as
electrical energy in the conductor.

✓ Thus, mechanical energy of our hand used to push the magnet towards or
away from the solenoid is converted into electrical energy which creates
the induced current.
Direction of the induced current in a straight wire
✓ When motion and a field are used to produce current, the direction of the
induced current is given by the Fleming’s right-hand rule (FRHR).
Determine the direction of the current induced in the conductor PQ.
Solution Applying Fleming’s right-hand rule, it is found that the current flows in the
conductor from P to Q.
In figure below, a current is induced when the U-shape iron core is moved
upwards.

✓ FRHR state that, if the thumb and the first two fingers on the right hand
are held at right angles to each other with the first finger pointing in the
direction of the magnetic field and the thumb in the direction of the
motion, then the second finger points in the direction of the induced
current.
In which direction will the current flow in the conductor?
Solution The iron core is magnetized when current flows in the solenoid. The end P is the
south pole and the end Q is the north pole. The upward movement of the iron core is
equivalent to the downward movement of the wire XY. Applying Fleming’s right-hand rule, it
is found that the induced current flows from X to Y.
Direction of the induced current in a solenoid
 Prepared By Dr TENEMEZA KENFACK
As explain earlier, when the magnet is moved in or out of a coil, a current is
induced in the coil. The direction of this induced current can be predicted
using Lenz’s law.
Q Show the correct direction of the induced current when the magnet is
moved in the direction shown.

The construction features are similar to an electric motor. The difference is

that the coil of the generator is not connected to a battery but to a load (e.g.,
resistor or bulb). The coil is rotated to produce a current.
The figures below show the operating principle of a direct current generator.

• Coil in horizontal position

Applications of Electromagnetic Induction: Direct Current Generator
Side ab moves upwards and side cd
and Alternating Current Generator
moves downwards, cutting across
the magnetic field lines and produces
An electric generator is a device used to convert mechanical energy into
an induced current.
electrical energy.
Applying Fleming’s right-hand rule,
If a generator produces direct current, it is called direct current generator.
the induced current flows from a to b
Likewise, if a generator produces alternating current, it is called alternating
and from c to d.
current generator.
In the external circuit, current flows
Both d.c and a.c generators make use of electromagnetic induction to produce
from brush P to brush Q (the
a current.
(a) Cutting the field lines at 90°, I galvanometer pointer deflects to the
= maximum left).
➢ Direct current generator
The current at this instant is
maximum. After this position, the
current decreases because the
magnetic field lines are cut
 Prepared By Dr TENEMEZA KENFACK
obliquely. Again, no current is induced as there
• Coil in vertical position is no cutting of magnetic field lines.
The sides ab and cd move in After this position, the current
parallel with the magnetic field increases and the process is
lines. repeated.
No induced current is produced
because there is no cutting of field
lines. The galvanometer returns to
the zero mark.
After this position, the two (a) No cutting of field lines at
commutator halves change contact 360°, I = 0
(a) No cutting of field lines at 180°, with brushes P and Q. After this
I=0 position, the current increases.
• Coil in horizontal position If the output of d.c. generator is connected to a cathode ray oscilloscope, a
Side ab moves downwards and side current against time graph is plotted as shown in the figure below.
cd moves upwards, cutting across
the magnetic field lines again.
The current now flows from b to a
and from d to c. However, in the
external circuit, the current still
flows from brush P to brush Q.
The direction of the current is
maintained and the galvanometer
(c) Cutting the field lines at 270°, I = shows a deflection in the same
maximum direction. After this position, the
current decreases. Output of a direct current generator
• Coil in vertical position
➢ Alternating current generator
 Prepared By Dr TENEMEZA KENFACK
✓ Applying Fleming’s
right-hand rule, the
induced current flows
from a to b and from c to
d.
✓ In the external circuit,
current flows from brush
P to brush Q (the
(a) Cutting the field lines at 90°, I =
galvanometer pointer
maximum
The generator consists of a rectangular coil mounted on an axle rotating in a deflects to the left).
✓ Side ab moves upwards and side cd
magnetic field generated by two magnets as shown in the figure above. ✓ The current at this instant
moves downwards, cutting across the
Both ends of the coil are connected to two slip rings which rotate with the is maximum.
magnetic field lines and produces an
coil. ✓ After this position, the
induced current.
Two spring-loaded carbon brushes are in contact with the slip rings and current decreases.
connected to the output. • Coil in vertical position
When the coil is rotated, it cuts the magnetic field and causes a change in the ✓ The sides ab and cd
number of magnetic field lines passing through it (magnetic flux linkage). move in parallel with the
As long as the coil keeps on rotating, the rate of change of the number of magnetic field lines.
magnetic field lines cutting the coil is non-zero and hence, an e.m.f. will be ✓ No induced current is
induced in the coil. produced because there
By Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction, the magnitude of the e.m.f. is no cutting of field
that is induced in the coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of lines.
magnetic flux linking the coil. ✓ The galvanometer
(b) No cutting of field lines, I = 0
returns to the zero mark.
The figures below show the operating principle of an alternating current After this position, the
generator. current increases.
• Coil in horizontal position
• Coil in horizontal position
 Prepared By Dr TENEMEZA KENFACK
✓ In the external circuit, the
current flows from brush
Q to brush P.
✓ The direction of the
current is reversed and the
galvanometer shows a
deflection in the opposite
direction. Output of an alternating current generator
(c) Cutting the field lines at 90°, I =
✓ After this position, the
maximum
current decreases.
✓ Side ab moves downwards and side cd Lesson: Mutual induction and transformer
moves upwards, cutting across the The transfer of electrical energy from one circuit or coil to another without
magnetic field lines again. any electrical link between them is called mutual induction.
✓ The current now flows from b to a and This is also the production of an emf or current in a secondary circuit or coil
from d to c. as a result of a changing emf or current in the primary circuit or coil.
• Coil in vertical position Consider a system of two coils A and B placed close to each other shown
✓ Again, no current is bellow
induced as there is no
cutting of magnetic field
lines.
✓ After this position, the
current increases and the
process is repeated.

(d) No cutting of field lines, I = 0
When a generator is connected in a closed circuit, the induced e.m.f.
generates an electric current. As the loop rotates, the strength and the
direction of the current changes as shown in figure below
Mutual induction
The coil A is connected to a battery and a switch, while a sensitive
galvanometer is connected to the coil B.
When the switch of the coil A is either opened or closed permanently, there is
no deflection of the galvanometer. However, we observe that as soon as the
switch of the coil A is closed, the galvanometer shows a momentary
 Prepared By Dr TENEMEZA KENFACK
deflection. Similarly, when the switch is opened, the galvanometer again
shows a momentary deflection but this time its direction is opposite to that of
the previous case.
This means that the galvanometer only deflects at the instant of switching on
or off, that is when the field around coil A is either building up or breaking
down.
If the battery is replaced by an a.c source, then the galvanometer will
constantly show a deflection in one direction and then in the other. This is
because the a.c source passes current in one direction for half of the cycle and
in the reversed direction for the other half. The field around coil A is
therefore constantly changing hence inducing an emf in coil B.
current is again induced in it but in opposite direction to that in the previous
case.
The transformer
The transformer is an electrical device used to step up or step down an
alternating voltage. It is a practical application of mutual induction.
A transformer has two coils, electrically insulated from each other, but
wounded around the same iron core.
One coil is called the primary coil and the other the secondary coil. The
primary coil has 𝑁𝑝 turns while the secondary coil has 𝑁𝑠 turns.
The figures below show the structure and symbol of a transformer

We can explain these observations using Faraday's law of electromagnetic

induction. When the switch of coil A is closed, a current begins to flow in the
coil due to which magnetic field is developed across the coil. Some of the
magnetic lines of force of this field start passing through the coil B. Since
current is changing in the coil A, hence number of magnetic lines of force
across the coil B also changes due to which a current is induced in the coil B
in accordance with Faraday's law.
➢ Operating Principle of a Transformer
When current in the coil A becomes steady, number of magnetic lines of
force across the coil A also becomes constant. Therefore, there is no more The operating principle of a transformer is based on mutual induction.
change in number of magnetic lines of force through the coil B due to which
induced current in coil B reduces to zero. When a changing or alternating voltage 𝑉𝑝 is applied to the primary coil, this
voltage supplies a changing current 𝐼𝑝 (that is, a current whose magnitude
Similarly, when the switch of the coil A is opened, the flow of current and direction varies continuously at a certain frequency) through the turns of
through it stops and its magnetic field reaches to zero. The number of the primary coil.
magnetic lines of force through the coil B decreases to zero due to which
 Prepared By Dr TENEMEZA KENFACK
The changing current creates a changing magnetic field (that is, a magnetic Step-down Transformer
field which varies in magnitude and direction) around the primary coil, which
is carried through the core to the secondary coil.

In the secondary coil, the changing field induces an alternating e.m.f. 𝑉𝑠 and
then an alternating current 𝐼𝑠 .

The e.m.f. induced in the secondary coil, called the secondary or output (a) The number of turns of the secondary coil (a) The number of turns of the secondary
voltage VS, is proportional to the primary or input voltage VP. is less than in the primary coil. Ns < Np coil is greater than in the primary coil. Ns >
Np
(b) The induced output voltage in the The induced output voltage in the secondary
secondary coil is smaller than the input coil is larger than the input voltage. Vs > Vp
The secondary voltage also depends on the ratio of the number of turns on the voltage. Vs <Vp
(c) The induced output current in the (c) The induced output current in the
secondary coil to the number of turns on the primary coil, as shown by the secondary coil is larger than the input current. secondary coil is smaller than the input
following expression: Is > Ip current. Is < Ip. From P = I V, V ∝ 1/I.
N s Vs (d) Decrease the input voltage. (d) Increase the input voltage.
= found in radio sets and high-tension line, commonly found in the cathode ray
N p Vp stepping down the high tension to values that oscilloscope, grinding mills, transformers of
can use at home TV sets, and carpentry workshops to drive
machines.
Ns N p and Vs Vp are called the turns ratio and voltage ratio of the
transformer, respectively. ➢ Efficiency of a transformer
• If the primary (input) voltage, Vp and the number of primary turns, Np is The efficiency of a transformer is normally less than 100%; that is, the power
fixed, then: Vs ∝ Ns. That is, the larger the number of secondary turns is, of the output is less than the power of the input.
the higher the secondary (output) voltage will be. A transformer transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another circuit
• If N s = N p then Vs = V p by electromagnetic induction. In the process, a fraction of the electrical
• If Ns  N p , then Vs  Vp . Such a transformer is called a step-up energy is lost as heat energy.
The formula for the efficiency of a transformer is given by
transformer.
Usefulouput power P
• If Ns  N p , then Vs  Vp . Such a transformer is called a step-down Efficiency ( ) =  100% = o  100%
Input power Pi
transformer.
Is Vs
The table below shows the characteristics of step down and step-up =  100%
transformers. Ip Vp
 Prepared By Dr TENEMEZA KENFACK
Electrical energy is lost when a leakage, the secondary coil is
➢ Ideal transformer fraction of the magnetic flux wound on top of the primary coil
If there is no loss of energy in a transformer, all the energy supplied to the generated by the primary coil does with the same iron core.
primary coil will be transferred to the secondary coil. not pass through the secondary coil
Such a transformer is known as an ideal or perfect transformer which has an (due to the separation between the
efficiency of 100%. two coils). As a result, there is a
Hence, for an ideal transformer, the output power is equal to the input power reduction in e.m.f. induced in the
Po = Pi  Is Vs = IpVp secondary coil.
Core losses: eddy current In order to reduce eddy currents, the
Worked example 1: The primary coil of a transformer has 1200 coils and the
Since the iron core of a transformer is iron core is laminated (cut into small
mains voltage is 240V. If a radio set requiring 6V has to be operated from
a conductor, an e.m.f is induced in it slices) and the slices are separated
this transformer, determine: a) The number of turns of the secondary coil. b)
each time there is a change of the from each other by an insulator. This
The current supplied to the primary coil if the radio draws 1.5A from the
magnetic flux. The induced e.m.f increases the resistance of the core,
transformer
causes current to circulate in close thereby reducing the eddy currents
Worked example 2: A step up transformer has 10000turns on its secondary
path in the iron core. This current is and also the heat they produce.
coil and 100 turns on its primary coil. An a.c current of 3A flows in the
called eddy current (tiny current
primary coil when it is connected to a 12V a.c supply. Calculate the
that circulate inside the core of the
a) Power input into the transformer transformer). The eddy current
b) E.m.f induced across the secondary coil dissipates (give out or lost) energy in
c) Maximum current that flows in a circuit connected to the secondary coil the iron core in the form heat.
if the transformer is 100% efficient Coil losses/heating of the coil Coil losses are reduced by using
d) Maximum current that flows in a circuit connected to the secondary coil Energy is wasted in the coil in the ticker copper wires that offer lower
if the transformer is 18% efficient transformer in the form of heat due to electrical resistance
the electrical resistance of the wire of
➢ Power losses in transformers the coil.
The efficiency of a transformer is always less than 100% due to power or Hysteresis loss: Magnetization and To reduce hysteresis loss, the core is
energy losses. Energy or power losses in a transformer could be due to the demagnetization of iron core made of soft iron which can be
following factors When current flows in the primary magnetized and demagnetized easily.
Factors that cause energy losses in a Ways to minimize energy losses coil, the iron core is magnetized.
transformer When the current direction is
Magnetic flux leakage To reduce the effect of magnetic flux reversed, the magnetization of the
 Prepared By Dr TENEMEZA KENFACK
iron core is reversed. The energy
required for the magnetization and its
reversal is taken from the input
energy.

Uses of Transformers in Daily Life

▪ Electrical appliances
Step-down transformers are used in electrical appliances to decrease the
voltage so that the electrical appliance is safe to use.
▪ Electrical energy transmission system
Electricity generated in a power station is distributed to industries and
residential areas by electrical cables. The electrical resistance of the cables
causes large power losses. To overcome this problem, step up transformers
are used at the power station to increase the voltage and therefore reduce the
Electrical energy generated in power stations at a voltage of 25 kV is
current in the cable and power loss.
increased to 132 kV with a step-up transformer before transmission via the
▪ National Grid Network national grid.

The national grid is a network of electrical cables connecting electrical Electrical energy is transmitted at a high voltage to reduce energy loss as heat
power stations to consumers of electricity. in the cables.

The figure below shows an example of national grid network. Before reaching the various consumers, the voltage is reduced, with step-
down transformers at sub-stations, to suitable voltages of the respective
consumers.
Advantages of the National Grid Network

▪ Savings and increased efficiency

Energy loss, as heat in transmission cables, is reduced if the energy is

 Prepared By Dr TENEMEZA KENFACK
transmitted at a high voltage. The cost of production is reduced and the
efficiency of transmission is increased.

▪ Efficient energy distribution

The generation and distribution of electrical energy can be controlled

according to requirements. Power stations in regions where the requirement
of electrical power is low, can be used to supply power to regions where the
demand for electrical power is high.

▪ Energy management

If there is a break down or interruption of supply at a particular power

station, power can be supplied by other stations through the national grid
network to the affected area.