Flow of Water in Soils Compaction

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O.
BRIONES
TOPIC OUTLINE: TOPIC OUTLINE:
▢ SOIL PERMEABILITY ▢ EQUIVALENT HYDRAULIC

▢ HYDRAULIC GRADIENT CONDUCTIVTY
▢ DARCY’S LAW ▢ HORIZONTAL FLOW
▢ VERTICAL FLOW
▢ HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
▢ LABORATORY TESTING FOR ▢ FIELD TESTING FOR
HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
▢ CONSTANT HEAD PERMEABILITY ▢ PUMPING OF WELLS
TEST
▢ FALLING HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST
SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL PERMEABILITY
❑It is a property of a soil which permits the
flow of water
❑Soils are permeable due to the existence of
interconnected voids through which water can
flow from points of high energy to points of
low energy.
❑One of the major physical parameters of a
soil that controls the rate of seepage through
it is hydraulic conductivity, otherwise known
as the coefficient of permeability. (k)
SOIL PERMEABILITY
❖ Loose soil ❖ Dense soil

➢ easy to flow ➢ difficult to flow
➢ high permeability ➢ low permeability
➢ E.g. Gravel
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
When water flows through a saturated soil mass there is certain resistance for
the flow because of the presence of solid matter. However, the laws of fluid
mechanics which are applicable for the flow of fluids through pipes are also
applicable to flow of water through soils. As per Bernoulli's equation, the total
head at any point in water under steady flow condition may be expressed as

▢ SOIL PERMEABILITY
✔️ ▢ EQUIVALENT HYDRAULIC
▢ HYDRAULIC GRADIENT CONDUCTIVTY
▢ VERTICAL FLOW
TEST

HYDRAULIC GRADIENT

HYDRAULIC GRADIENT

HYDRAULIC GRADIENT

▢ HYDRAULIC GRADIENT
✔️ CONDUCTIVTY
▢ VERTICAL FLOW
TEST

DARCY’S LAW
Darcy in 1856 derived an empirical formula for the behavior of flow
through saturated soils. He found that the quantity of water q per sec
flowing through a cross-sectional area of soil under hydraulic gradient /
can be expressed by the formula:
Where:
V = Velocity of Flow
k = hydraulic conductivity / coefficient of permeability
i = hydraulic gradient

DISCHARGE VELOCITY VS SEEPAGE VELOCITY

FLOW IN SOILS

✔️ CONDUCTIVTY
▢ DARCY’S LAW
✔️ ▢ HORIZONTAL FLOW
▢ VERTICAL FLOW
TEST

HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
❑Hydraulic conductivity is generally expressed in cm/sec or m/sec in SI
units.
❑The value of hydraulic conductivity (k) varies widely for different soils. The
hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils is lower and increases rapidly
with the degree of saturation.

✔️ CONDUCTIVTY
▢ DARCY’S LAW
▢ VERTICAL FLOW
✔️

TEST

LABORATORY TESTING FOR HYDRAULIC
CONDUCTIVITY
Two standard laboratory tests are used to determine the hydraulic
conductivity of soil:
1. Constant-head test
2. Falling-head test

CONSTANT HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST
❑ASTM D 2434
❑A typical arrangement of the constant head

permeability test is shown.
❑In this type of laboratory set up, the water supply at

the inlet is adjusted in such a way that the difference
of head between the inlet and the outlet remains
constant during the test period.
❑After a constant flow is established, water is collected

in a graduated flask for a known duration.

CONSTANT HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST
Q = Volume of water collected (m³)

K = coefficient of permeability (m/sec)
h = difference in elevation of water / loss of head
A = cross sectional area of soil specimen
t = duration of water collection

✔️ CONDUCTIVTY
▢ DARCY’S LAW
▢ VERTICAL FLOW
✔️
✔️ LABORATORY TESTING FOR

▢ ▢ FIELD TESTING FOR
✔️ CONSTANT HEAD PERMEABILITY
▢ ▢ PUMPING OF WELLS
TEST

FALLING HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST
❑ A typical arrangement of the falling head
permeability test is shown.
❑ Water from a standpipe flows through the

soil.
❑ The initial difference h1 , at time t = 0 is

recorded,
❑ and water is allowed to flow through the

soil specimen such that the final head
difference at time t = t 2 is h2 .
FALLING HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST
a = cross sectional area of standpipe

L = length of soil specimen
A = cross sectional area of soil.
t = time duration of water collection
K = coefficient of permeability
h1 = initial head difference @ time = 0
h2 = final head difference @ t = t

✔️ CONDUCTIVTY
▢ DARCY’S LAW
▢ VERTICAL FLOW
✔️

TEST
✔️ FALLING HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST
▢

Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in
Stratified Soils
In a stratified soil deposit where the hydraulic
conductivity for flow in a given direction changes
from layer to layer, an equivalent hydraulic
conductivity can be computed to simplify
calculations. The following derivations relate to the
equivalent hydraulic conductivities for flow in vertical
and horizontal directions through multilayered soils
with horizontal stratification.
Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity
(Horizontal Flow)

(Vertical Flow)

✔️
✔️ CONDUCTIVTY
▢ DARCY’S LAW
✔️ ✔️ HORIZONTAL FLOW
▢
✔️ VERTICAL FLOW
▢
✔️

TEST
✔️ FALLING HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST
▢

Example No.1:
A constant head permeability test was carried out on a

cylindrical sample of sand 4 in. in diameter and 6 in. in
height. 10 in³ of water was collected in 1.75 min, under a
head of 12 in. Compute the hydraulic conductivity in ft/year
and the velocity of flow in ft/sec.

Example No.2
A sand sample of 35 cm2 cross sectional area and 20 cm

long was tested in a constant head permeameter. Under a
head of 60 cm, the discharge was 120 ml in 6 min. The dry
weight of sand
used for the test was 1 120 g, and Gs = 2.68. Determine the
hydraulic conductivity in cm/sec, and the discharge
velocity.
Example No.3
The hydraulic conductivity of a soil sample was determined

in a soil mechanics laboratory by making use of a falling
head permeameter. The data used and the test results
obtained were as follows: Length of sample = 0.4925 ft
,diameter of sample = 2.36 in, height of sample = 5.91 in,
diameter of stand pipe = 0.79 in, initial head h0 = 17.72 in.
final head h1 = 11.81 in. Time elapsed = 1 min 45 sec.
Determine the hydraulic conductivity in ft/day.
Example No.4
For a constant head laboratory permeability test on a fine sand, the
following values are given.
Length of specimen = 300 mm

Diameter of specimen = 150 mm
Head difference = 500 mm
Water collected in 5 mins = 350 cm³
Find:
1. Hydraulic conductivity in cm/sec
2. Discharge velocity in cm/sec
3. Seepage velocity in cm /sec if e = 0.46.

Example No.5 – CE BOARD MAY 2015
A confined aquifer has a source of recharge as shown in the
figure. The hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is 40
meters/day and its porosity is 0.25. The piezometric head in
the two wells 1325 meters apart is 65 meters and 60 meters
respectively from a common data. The average thickness of
the aquifer is 25 meters and the and the average width is 4
km.
1. Compute the rate of flow through the aquifer in m³/day.

2. Compute the seepage velocity.
3. Compute the time of travel from the head of the aquifer
to a point 4 km downstream in days.

Pumping of Wells • The average hydraulic conductivity for a
soil deposit may be determined using
pumping tests from wells
• Water is pumped from a test well at a
constant rate
• The water level in several observation
wells at distances from the test well is
observed
• When the water level in the test and
observation levels reaches steady state,
the hydraulic conductivity may be
calculated from the heights and
distances

ACQUIFER
➢ Soil or rock forming stratum that is saturated and
permeable enough to yield significant quantities of
water (e.g. sands, gravels, fractured rock
❖ Types of Aquifer:
1. Unconfined aquifer
• It is one in which the ground water table is the upper
surface of the zone of saturation and it lies within the
test stratum.
• It is also called ‘free’, ‘phreatic’ or ‘non-artesian’
aquifer.
2. Confined aquifer
• It is one in which ground water remains entrapped
under pressure greater than atmospheric, by overlying
relatively impermeable strata.
• It is also called ‘artesian aquifer

Pumping of Wells for Unconfined Aquifer
Where:
q = flow rate
𝑟1 = distance from farthest observation well from the test
well.
𝑟2 = distance from nearest observation well from the test
well.
r = radius of test well.
ℎ1 = depth of water in the farthest observation well.
ℎ2 = depth of water in the nearest observation well.
h = depth of water in the test well
𝑧1 = draw down in the farthest obs. Well.
𝑧2 = draw down in the nearest obs. Well.

Pumping of Wells for Confined Aquifer
Where:
q = flow rate
𝑟1 = distance from farthest observation well from the test
well.
𝑟2 = distance from nearest observation well from the test
well.
r = radius of test well.
ℎ1 = depth of water in the farthest observation well.
ℎ2 = depth of water in the nearest observation well.
h = depth of water in the test well
𝑧1 = draw down in the farthest obs. Well.
𝑧2 = draw down in the nearest obs. Well.
t = thickness of confined acquifer

Example No.6:
A pumping test was made in previous
gravels and sands extending to a depth
of 50 ft, where a bed of clay was
encountered. The normal ground
water level was at the ground surface.
Observation wells were located at
distances of 10 and 25 ft from the
pumping well. At a discharge of 761 ft3
per minute from the pumping well, a
steady state was attained in about 24
hr. The draw-down at a distance of 10
ft was 5.5 ft and at 25 ft was 1.21 ft.
Compute the hydraulic conductivity in
ft/sec.

Example No.7: CE BOARD Nov. 2012
A 300 mm diameter test well penetrates 27 meters below the static water table. After 24 hours
of pumping at 69 liters/sec. The water level in an observation well at a distance of 95 meters
from the test well is lowered 0.55 meters and the other observation well at a distance of 35
meters from the test well, the draw down is 1.10 meters.
1. What is the rate of flow in m³/day?

2. Compute the coefficient of permeability of the aquifer in m/day.
3. Compute the transmissibility of the aquifer in m²/day.

(Horizontal Flow)

(Vertical Flow)

Example No.8: CE BOARD NOV. 2013
A confined aquifer underlies an unconfined aquifer as show.
1. Compute the equivalent horizontal coefficient of permeability.

2. Compute the hydraulic gradient.
3. Compute the flow rate from one stream to another per meter width in m³/day.

Example No.9:
Data given below relate to two falling head test
(permeability) performed on two different soil samples.
A. stand pipe area = 4cm²
B. sample area = 28 cm²
C. height = 5 cm
D. h1 = 100 cm t1 = 500 secs
E. h2 = 20 cm t2 = 15 secs.
1. Determine the values of K for each samples.
2. If these two types of soils form adjacent layers in a
natural state with flow (horizontal) and (vertical),
determine the equivalent permeability for both the cases
by assuming that the thickness of each layer is equal to
150 cm.

SOIL COMPACTION
In the construction of highway embankments, earth dams, and many other
engineering structures, loose soils must be compacted to increase their unit
weights.
• Compaction
➢ It is the densification of soil by removal of air, which requires mechanical
energy.
➢ The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of its dry unit
weight.
➢ Soil compaction is perhaps the least expensive method of improving soils.

Effects of Soil Compaction
• Effects of Compaction
1. Increased soil strength.
2. Increased load-bearing capacity.
3. Reduction in settlement (lower compressibility).
4. Reduction in the flow of water (water seepage).
5. Reduction in soil swelling (expansion) and collapse (soil
contraction).
6. Increased soil stability
7. Increases the stability of slopes of embankments

Laboratory Compaction – Proctor Test
• ASTM D 1140 & ASTM D 1557
- the laboratory test generally used to obtain the maximum dry unit weight of compaction and the
optimum moisture content (Proctor, 1933)
- The Proctor test is used to determine the maximum dry unit weight and the optimum water content
and serves as the reference for field specifications of compaction.
- The purpose of laboratory compaction tests is to provide a guideline and a basis for control of
compaction in the field, by giving a specification that a certain percentage of the maximum dry
density achieved in the laboratory test shall be achieved in the construction in-situ
- Proctor compaction test results obtained in the laboratory are used primarily to determine whether
the roller compaction in the field is sufficient.

Optimum Moisture Content Maximum dry unit weight
• the moisture content at which • is the maximum unit weight that
the maximum dry unit weight is a soil can attain using a specified
attained means of compaction.

Example No. 10

Example No. 11
Specifications for a proposed earth fill require that the soil be

compacted to 95% of Standard proctor dry density. Tests on borrow
material indicates Maximum Dry Unit Weight of 19.51 kN/m³ at an
optimum water content of 12%. The borrow material in its natural
condition has a void ration of 0.60. If Gs = 2.65.
1. Compute the void ratio of the soil.
2. Compute the volume of the solids.
3. Compute the maximum volume of the borrow required to make
one cu.m. of acceptable fill?
Seatwork No.3: Permeability Seatwork No.4: Soil Compaction
From the figure shows an unconfined non homogenous
aquifer between two water bodies at a depth of 50
meters and 45 meters respectively.
1. Compute the average coefficient of permeability of the
aquifer.
2. Compute the rate of flow.
3. Compute the time in hours required for the water to
pass through the soil if its has a porosity of 0.24.

THE END

Flow of Water in Soils Compaction

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SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O.

▢ SOIL PERMEABILITY ▢ EQUIVALENT HYDRAULIC

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

❖ Loose soil ❖ Dense soil

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

▢ LABORATORY TESTING FOR ▢ FIELD TESTING FOR

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

❑A typical arrangement of the constant head

❑In this type of laboratory set up, the water supply at

❑After a constant flow is established, water is collected

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

Q = Volume of water collected (m³)

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

✔️ LABORATORY TESTING FOR

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

❑ Water from a standpipe flows through the

❑ The initial difference h1 , at time t = 0 is

❑ and water is allowed to flow through the

a = cross sectional area of standpipe

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

✔️ LABORATORY TESTING FOR

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

✔️ LABORATORY TESTING FOR

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

A constant head permeability test was carried out on a

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

A sand sample of 35 cm2 cross sectional area and 20 cm

The hydraulic conductivity of a soil sample was determined

Length of specimen = 300 mm

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

1. Compute the rate of flow through the aquifer in m³/day.

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

1. What is the rate of flow in m³/day?

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

1. Compute the equivalent horizontal coefficient of permeability.

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES

SOIL MECHANICS LECTURE BY ENGR. JOHN O. BRIONES