Power

Transformer

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 1

 Polarity (dot) convention
Terminals of different windings are of same polarity if currents
entering (or leaving) them produce flux in the same direction in the
core.

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 11

 How to check polarity?
1) Measure e12 and e34

2) Connect 2 and 4 and measure e13

3) If e13= e12+e34, 1 and 4 have same polarity

4) If e13= e12-e34, 1 and 4 have different polarity

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 12

 Open circuit Test
• It is used to determine Lm1 (Xm1) and Rc1

• Usually performed on the low voltage side

• The test is performed at rated voltage and frequency under

no load

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 18

 Short circuit Test
• It is used to determine Llp (Xeq) and Rp(Req)
• Usually performed on the high voltage side

• This test is performed at reduced voltage and rated frequency

with the output of the low voltage winding short circuited such
that rated current flows on the high voltage side.

Transformer 19
1/27/2022 1:32 PM
 Calculation of Model
Parameters
The parameters of the model are determined
based upon:
– nameplate data: gives the rated voltages and power
– open circuit test: rated voltage is applied to primary
with secondary open; measure the primary current and
losses (the test may also be done applying the rated
voltage to the secondary, calculating the values, then
referring the values back to the primary side).
– short circuit test: with secondary shorted, apply (lower
than rated) voltage to primary to get rated primary
current to flow; measure voltage and losses. 20
 Transformer Example
 Example: A single phase, 100 MVA, 200/80 kV
transformer has the following test data:
– open circuit: 20 amps, with 10 kW losses
– short circuit: 30 kV, with 500 kW losses
 Determine the model parameters.

21
 Transformer Example, cont’d
From the short circuit test
100MVA 30 kV
I sc   500 A, Re  jX e   60 
200kV 500 A
Psc  2
Re I sc  500 kW  Re  2
Psc / I sc  500,000 /(500)  2 ,
2

Hence X e  60  2  60 
2 2

From the open circuit test

2
(Vrated ) (200)2 (kV)2
Rc    4M
Poc 10 kW
Vrated 200 kV
Re  jX e  jX m    10,000  X m  10,000 
I oc 20 A
22
 Transformer Regulation
 Loading changes the output voltage of a transformer.
Transformer regulation is the measure of such a
deviation.
Definition of % Regulation
| Vnoload |  | Vload |
 *100
| Vload |

Vno-load =RMS voltage across the load terminals without load

Vload = RMS voltage across the load terminals with a specified load

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 23

Transformer Losses and Efficiency
• Transformer Losses
 Core/Iron Loss =V12 / Rc1
 Copper Loss = I12 R1+ I22 R2
Definition of % efficiency
V2 I 2Cos 2
 *100
Losses  V2 I 2Cos 2
V2 I 2Cos 2
 *100
/ Rc1   I 2 R2  V2 I 2Cos 2
2 2 2
V1 I1 R1
V2 I 2Cos 2
 *100
/ Rc1  I 2 Req2  V2 I 2Cos 2
2 2
V1

Cos 2 = load power factor

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 25

Losses in distribution transformers
• No load loss, or iron loss (Po)
• Load loss, or copper loss (Pk)
– DC loss
– Extra losses
 Eddy current loss in windings
 Stray loss
• Other losses (ventilation, …)
26
Losses in distribution transformers
Extra loss

Load loss
Extra loss due to
harmonics
Resisitive loss

Conventional load
loss excl harmonics

No load loss

Unloaded Rated load Actual load Actual load

(excl harmonics) (incl harmonics)

15-May-02 27
 Iron loss
Occurs 24 hours / day, 365 days / year
Example: 1,600 kVA, Po = 2,600 W
– Annually 2,600 W * 8,760 hrs = 22.8 MWh / yr
– 30 yrs = 684 MWh
– Emissions (0.4 kg CO2 / kWh) = 274 tonnes
– 5 c / kWh = 34,200 €

15-May-02 28
 Copper loss
 Occurs only when transformer is loaded
 Varies quadratically with the load
 Example: 1,600 kVA, Pk = 17 kW, 50% loaded
– Annually 17 kW * 8,760 hrs * 0.5^2 = 37.2 MWh/yr
– 30 yrs = 1.11 GWh
– Emissions (0.4 kg CO2 / kWh) = 444 tonnes
– 5 c / kWh = 55,500 €

15-May-02 29
 Loading
• Case 1:
– 30% of time 80% load
– 70% of time 10% load
• Case 2:
– 8 hours @ 80% load
– 8 hours @ 40% load
– 8 hours @ 10% load

Click HERE to see these calculation

30

15-May-02
 Results
• Energy transformed:
– 1,600 kVA * 0.5 * 8,760 = 7,008 MWh / year
• Efficiency
–  = 7,008 / (7,008 + 22.8 + 37.2) = 99.2%
• Lifetime cost:
– Transformer: 10,000 € 10%
– Iron loss: 34,200 € 35%
– Copper loss: 55,500 € 55%
– Total 99,700 € 100%
15-May-02 31
 Maximum Transformer Efficiency
The efficiency varies as with respect to 2 independent quantities
namely, current and power factor
 Thus at any particular power factor, the efficiency is maximum
if core loss = copper loss. This can be obtained by
differentiating the expression of efficiency with respect to I2
assuming power factor, and all the voltages constant.

 At any particular I2 maximum efficiency happens at unity

power factor. This can be obtained by differentiating the
expression of efficiency with respect to power factor, and
assuming I2 and all the voltages constant.

 Maximum efficiency happens when both these conditions are

satisfied.
1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 32
 Maximum efficiency point

100 pf=1

pf= 0.8

 pf= 0.6

At this load current

core loss = copper loss
0

% full load current

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 33

 Transformer Example
The following are the open circuit and short circuit test data of a
single phase, 10 kVA, 2200/220V, 60 Hz transformer

O/C Test (HV side S/C Test (LV side

Open) Shorted)
Voltmeter 220V 150V

Ammeter 2.5A 4.55A

Wattmeter 100W 215W

i) Find the equivalent circuit with respect to HV and LV side

ii) Find the efficiency and regulation of the transformer when
supplying rated load at 0.8 pf lag.
iii) Maximum efficiency and regulation.
See the answer
1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 34
1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 35
 Conditions for parallel
operation of transformers

Some of the required conditions are

For single phase transformers:

Same polarity of transformers

Same voltage ratio

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 36

 Conditions for parallel
operation of transformers
Some of the required conditions are
For 3 phase transformers:
Same polarity
Zero relative phase displacement
Same phase sequence
Same voltage ratio

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 37

1. Polarity: The polarity of the transformers connected
in parallel should be same otherwise it may lead to
dead short circuit.

2. Voltage Ratio: The voltage ratio of the 2

transformers should be kept equal in order to avoid
losses occurring in transformers due to load circulating
currents. If unequal voltage ratio is used it will give
rise to circulating current in the closed circuit formed
by the secondary of the transformer even at no load
condition. The maximum permissible no-load
circulating current should be 10% of its rated value.

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 38

 3. Zero Relative Phase Displacement: This is the
necessary condition for the 3 phase transformers. As
the name suggests, the relative phase displacement
between the two transformers must be zero.

4. Phase Sequence: This is also an important

condition for 3 phase transformers which needs the
phase sequence of the 2 transformers to be same
otherwise it may lead to short circuit of the each
phase pairs.

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 39

 Autotransformer

• Primary and secondary on the same winding. Therefore there is

no galvanic isolation.

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 40

 Features of Autotransformer

 Lower leakage

 Lower losses

 Lower magnetizing current

 Increase kVA rating

 No galvanic Isolation
1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 41
Advantages of an autotransformer are:
1. Can be used to step up/down the voltage for small
amount where needed like from 110 to 120 or 13.2
kV to 13.8 kV.

2. Apparent power increases since the leakage flux is

reduced.

3. Reduces the budget since you need not to have a

separate transformer to step up/down the voltage for
this small amount.

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 42

Disadvantages of an autotransformer are:

1. The electrical isolation is lost due to direct

connection between primary & secondary windings.

2. The internal impedance of an autotransformer is

less as compared to the conventional transformer.

*Note: The disadvantages are serious hence, needed to

be into account in practical applications.

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 43

Auto-transformer:

Disadvantages, no galvanic isolation between windings

as only one winding with an on load tap-changer is
used.

Advantages: Cheaper, less materials required.

Transformer:

Advantages: Galvanic isolation between the two

windings.

Disadvantages: More expensive.

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 44
Advantages of an auto transformer over a two winding transformer
are:

1. Cheaper
2. More efficient, because losses stay the same while the rating
goes up compared to a conventional transformer
3. Lower exciting current
4. Better voltage regulation

Disadvantages of an auto transformer over a two winding

transformer are:

1. Larger short-circuit current

2. No isolation exists between the primary and secondary winding
3. Only useful for moderately smaller voltage changes

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 45

 An autotransformer is used mainly for the adjustments of line voltages
to either change its value or to keep it constant. If the voltage
adjustment is by a small amount, either up or down, then the transformer
ratio is small as VP and VS are nearly equal. Currents IP and IS are also
nearly equal.

 Therefore, the portion of the winding which carries the difference

between the two currents can be made from a much smaller conductor
size, since the currents are much smaller saving on the cost of an
equivalent double wound transformer.

 However, the regulation, leakage inductance and physical size (since

there is no second winding) of an autotransformer for a given VA or
KVA rating are less than for a double wound transformer.

 Autotransformer’s are clearly much cheaper than conventional double

wound transformers of the same VA rating. When deciding upon using
an autotransformer it is usual to compare its cost with that of an
equivalent double wound type.
1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 46
 This is done by comparing the amount of copper saved in the
winding. If the ratio “n” is defined as the ratio of the lower
voltage to the higher voltage, then it can be shown that the
saving in copper is: n*100%. For example, the saving in
copper for the two autotransformers would be:

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 47

Autotransformer Example

An autotransformer is required to step-up a voltage from 220

volts to 250 volts. The total number of coil turns on the
transformer main winding is 2000. Determine the position of the
primary tapping point, the primary and secondary currents when
the output is rated at 10KVA and the economy of copper saved.

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 48

Thus the primary current is 45.4 amperes, the secondary
current drawn by the load is 40 amperes and 5.4 amperes
flows through the common winding. The economy of copper
is 88%.

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 49

Review of balanced three phase circuits

 Two possible configurations: Star (Y) and delta ()

 Star has neutral, delta does not

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 50

 Star (Y) connection
 Line current is same as phase current
 Line-Line voltage is 3 phase-neutral voltage
 Power is given by 3 VL-LI Lcos or 3VphIphcos

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 51

 Delta () connection

 Line-Line voltage is same as phase voltage

 Line current is 3 phase current
 Power is given by 3 VL-LI Lcos or
3VphIphcos

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 52

 Typical three phase transformer connections

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 53

How are three phase transformers made?
 Either by having three single phase
transformers connected as three phase banks.

 Or by having coils mounted on a single core

with multiple limbs.

 The bank configuration is better from repair

perspective, whereas the single three phase unit
will cost less, occupy less space, weighs less
and is more efficient.
1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 54
Phase-shift between line-line voltages in transformers

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 55

 Vector grouping of transformers
 Depending upon the phase shift of line-neutral voltages
between primary and secondary; transformers are grouped.
This is done for ease of paralleling. Usually transformers
between two different groups should not be paralleled.

 Group 1 : zero phase displacement (Yy0, Dd0,Dz0)

 Group 2 : 1800 phase displacement (Yy6, Dd6,Dz6)

 Group 3 : 300 lag phase displacement (Dy1, Yd1,Yz1)

 Group 4 : 300 lead phase displacement (Dy11, Yd11,Yz11)

(Y=Y; D= ; z=zigzag)
1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 56
Calculation involving 3-ph transformers

Click HERE to see

Delta and Wye
transformations

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 57

An example involving 3-ph transformers

See the calculation

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 58
 Open –delta or V connection

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 59

 Open –delta or V connection

Power from winding ‘ab’ is

Pab=VabIacos(300+)

Power from winding ‘bc’ is

Pcb=VcbIccos(300-)

Therefore total power is

=2VL-LILcos300cos  or 57.7% of total
power from 3 phases
See more in detail
1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 60
1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 88
1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 89
How do you calculate the required transformer capacity
(in kVA) rating for a 3 phase transformer?

Issue:
Calculation of kVA capacity for a Three Phase Transformer,
based on Winding Voltage and Amperage information.

Product Line:

Low Voltage (LV) Transformers

Environment:

Applies to all Three Phase Transformers.

Cause:
kVA sizing must often be calculated from Primary or Secondary
Winding Voltage and Amperage information.
1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 90
Resolution:

To do this you must have at least two pieces of information:

1. The load line-to-line voltage (V)

2. The maximum load phase current (I)

kVA = (V * I * 1.732) / 1000

where 1.732 is the simple numerical value for the square root of
3 (1.7320508...)

Then round up to the next standard 3ph kVA rating

as found in Supplier Transformer Catalog

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 91

Example: V = 400 (the load line-to-line
voltage), I = 375 (375 amps per phase
conductor); this calculates to 259+ kVA,

Thus we round up to 300 kVA.

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 92

 5 transformer fault
conditions and how
to protect from
them
1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 108
 Transformer fault
conditions
A number of transformer fault conditions can arise practically in
any time following some special situations. These include the
following 5 most common internal faults and few external:

1.Earth faults
2.Core faults
3.Interturn faults
4.Phase-to-phase faults
5.Tank faults
6.External factors

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 109

1. Earth faults
 A fault on a transformer winding will result in currents that
depend on the source, neutral grounding impedance, leakage
reactance of the transformer, and the position of the fault in the
windings. The winding connections also influence the magnitude
of fault current.

 In the case of a Y-connected winding with neutral point

connected to ground through an impedance Zg, the fault current
depends on Zg and is proportional to the distance of the fault
from the neutral point.

 If the neutral is solidly grounded, the fault current is controlled

by the leakage reactance, which depends on fault location.

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 110

 The reactance decreases as the fault becomes closer to the
neutral point. As a result, the fault current is highest for a
fault close to the neutral point. In the case of a fault in a ∆-
connected winding, the range of fault current is less than
that for a Y-connected winding, with the actual value being
controlled by the method of grounding used in the system.

 Phase fault currents may be low for a ∆-connected

winding due to the high impedance to fault of the ∆
winding. This factor should be considered in designing the
protection scheme for such a winding.

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 111

2. Core faults

Core faults due to insulation

breakdown can permit sufficient
eddy-current to flow to cause
overheating, which may reach a
magnitude sufficient to damage
the winding.

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 112

3. Interturn faults

Interturn faults occur due to

winding flashovers caused by
line surges. A short circuit of
a few turns of the winding
will give rise to high currents
in the short-circuited loops,
but the terminal currents will
be low.

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 113

4. Phase-to-phase faults

Phase-to-phase faults are rare in occurrence but will result in

substantial currents of magnitudes similar to earth faults.

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 114

5. Tank faults

Tank faults resulting in loss of oil reduce winding insulation as well

as producing abnormal temperature rises.

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 115

6. External factors

In addition to fault conditions within the transformer, abnormal

conditions due to external factors result in stresses on the
transformer.

These conditions include:

a) Overloading,
b) System faults,
c) Overvoltages, and
d) Under-frequency operation.

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 116

Overheating protection

 Overheating protection is provided for transformers by placing

a thermal-sensing element in the transformer tank.

 Overcurrent relays are used as a backup protection with time

delay higher than that for the main protection.

 Restricted earth fault protection is utilized for Y-connected

windings. This scheme is shown in Figure 4. The sum of the
phase currents is balanced against the neutral current, and hence
the relay will not respond to faults outside the winding.

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 118

 Differential protection is the
main scheme used for
transformers. The principle of a
differential protection system is
simple. Here the currents on each
side of the protected apparatus
for each phase are compared in a
differential circuit. Any
difference current will operate a
relay.

Figure 4 – Restricted Ground Fault

Protection for a Y Winding
1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 119
Figure 5 shows the relay circuit for one phase only. On normal operation, only
the difference between the current transformer magnetizing currents 1 m i and 2
m i passes through the relay.

Figure 5 – Basic Differential Connection

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 120
 Figure 6 – Differential Protection of a ∆/Y Transformer

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 123

 Questions?

1/27/2022 1:32 PM Transformer 147

 THREE PHASE SYSTEM

BASICS
Line voltage VL= voltage between lines

Phase voltage Vph= voltage between a line and

neutral
 THREE PHASE SYSTEM

BALANCED STAR

Line Voltage VL= √3 Vph

Line current IL = Iph
 THREE PHASE SYSTEM

BALANCED DELTA

Line Voltage VL= Vph

Line current IL = √3 Iph
 THREE PHASE
TRANSFORMERS
Almost all major generation & Distribution
Systems in the world are three phase ac systems
Three phase transformers play an important role in
these systems

3 phase transformers can be constructed from

(a) 3 single phase transformers
(b) 2 single phase transformers
(c ) using a common core for three phase
windings
 3 phase Transformer connections

By connecting three single phase transformers

1. Star- Star connection
2. Delta- Delta connection
3. Star – Delta connection
4. Delta – Star connection
 Star- Star connection

 This connection satisfactory only in balanced

load otherwise neutral point will be shifted.
 Star- Star connection

Advantages

1. Requires less turns per winding ie cheaper

Phase voltage is 1/√3 times of line voltage

2. Cross section of winding is large ie stronger to

bear stress during short circuit
Line current is equal to phase current

3. Less dielectric strength in insulating materials

phase voltage is less
 Star- Star connection

Disadvantages

1. If the load on the secondary side unbalanced

then the shifting of neutral point is possible

2. The third harmonic present in the alternator

voltage may appear on the secondary side. This
causes distortion in the secondary phase voltages

3. Magnetizing current of transformer has 3rd

harmonic component
 Delta - Delta connection

 This connection is used for moderate voltages

 Delta - Delta connection

Advantages

1. System voltages are more stable in relation to

unbalanced load

2. If one t/f is failed it may be used for low power

level i.e. V-V connection

3. No distortion of flux i.e. 3rd harmonic current not

flowing to the line wire
 Delta - Delta connection

Disadvantages
1. Compare to Y-Y require more insulation

2. Absence of star point i.e. fault may severe

 Star- Delta connection

 Used to step down voltage i.e. end of transmission

line
 Star- Delta connection

Advantages
1. The primary side is star connected. Hence fewer
number of turns are required. This makes the
connection economical

2. The neutral available on the primary can be

earthed to avoid distortion.

3. Large unbalanced loads can be handled

satisfactory.
 Star- Delta connection

Disadvantages

1. The secondary voltage is not in phase with the

primary. (30 ⁰ phase difference )

2. Hence it is not possible to operate this

connection in parallel with star-star or delta-
delta connected transformer.
 Delta - Star connection

 This connection is used to step up voltage ie.

Beginning of high tension line
 Delta - Star connection

Features

 secondary Phase voltage is 1/√3 times of line voltage

 neutral in secondary can be grounded for 3 phase 4

wire system

 Neutral shifting and 3rd harmonics are there

 Phase shift of 30⁰ between secondary and primary

currents and voltages