*Compare sexual and asexual reproduction*

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM (pg 244)

1) Scrotal sac: contains the testis. It suspends the testis outside the body which gives it a lower
temperature which is ideal for sperm production.
2) Testes: made of coiled tubes known as seminiferous tubules which are where spermatozoa or sperms
are made. It secretes the hormone testosterone.
3) Epididymis: stores sperms for some time.
4) Sperm duct or vas deferens: a muscular tube which carries sperms to urethra.
5) Seminal vesicle and prostate gland: secretes fluid which mixes with sperms to form semen. The fluids
stimulate sperm to swim.
6) Penis: a connective tissue with many blood spaces. It surrounds the urethra.
7) Urethra: transports sperm and urine at different times. [*diagram*]

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1) Ovary: it produces ova or eggs. It secretes the hormone oestrogen.
2) Fallopian tube or oviduct: a muscular tube lined with cilia which carries ovum(egg) from ovary to
uterus. Fertilisation takes place here.
3) Uterus or womb: a thick muscular wall where the foetus develops.
4) Cervix: a ring of muscle around the neck of the uterus.
5) Vagina: sperms are deposited here during sexual intercourse. [*diagram*]
[Compare ovum and spermatozoon pg 246]

THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE [pg249]

*At reaching puberty (12/13yrs) a girl begins her menstrual cycle. At the age of 45-50 years a woman
stops having her menstrual cycle so she cannot get pregnant. This is called menopause.
*Every 28 days blood and other particles are removed from the uterus. This takes about 5 days and is
called menstruation or having a period.
* When a woman is born, all the eggs she will ever make are already in her ovaries but they are
immature until puberty.
*While menstruation is occurring (day 1-5), a follicle in one of the ovaries begins to develop or mature.
[FOLLICLE: a group of cells in the ovary containing a single egg cell or ovum.]
*After menstruation is complete, the follicle continues to mature, as it does so, it releases the hormone
oestrogen. Oestrogen causes the lining of the uterus to become thicker and inflated with blood and
blood vessels.
*day:14- follicular phase: uterus lining has thicken a lot because of oestrogen. At the same time a
graafian follicle releases an ovum in the oviduct (ovulatory phase). There is a peak in oestrogen levels.
*The release of a mature egg from the follicle is called ovulation. Ovulation is the release of ovum (egg)
from the ovaries.
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*Luteal phase: The empty follicle left behind in the ovary is now called the corpus luteum. The corpus
luteum releases the hormone progesterone. This continues the development of the uterus lining in
preparation for a possible pregnancy.
*If fertilization (egg and sperm fuse together) does not occur, the release of progesterone is stopped
and the corpus luteum breaks down. This causes the uterus lining to disintegrate and shed causing
menstruation/period to start again.
Phases Ovary Uterus
Follicular phase Oestrogen released Uterus wall lining thicken
Ovulatory phase Peak in oestrogen level Graafian follicle release ovum into
oviduct
Luteal phase Corpus luteum secretes progesterone The built up uterus wall is
maintained

PREGNANCY
 Fertilisation occurs when the nuclei of the egg and the sperm fuse together. This occurs in the
oviduct and it results in a zygote.
 The zygote then starts to divide as it moves towards the uterus. It then becomes a ball of cells
called the embryo.
 The embryo then sinks into the thick spongy lining of the uterus. This is called implantation.
 The embryo develops tissues and organs and by 8 weeks it looks like a human. It is now called a
fetus.
 The fetus is surrounded by a strong membrane called an amnion, inside of which is a liquid
called the amniotic fluid.
 The amniotic fluid keeps a constant environment around the fetus and supports and protects it
from harm.
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 The umbilical cord connects the navel of the fetus to the placenta of the mother. Through the
umbilical cord the fetus receives nutrients and O2 from the mother while waste and CO2 diffuse
from the fetus to the mother.
 The placenta connects the fetus very closely with the wall of the uterus. The placenta allows for
exchange of material between mother and fetus by bring their blood systems very close
together without them mixing; it protects the fetus by preventing pathogens and chemicals
from crossing the placenta (but HIV, nicotine , heroin, alcohol, German measles can cross); it
allows the fetus and mother’s blood to operate at different pressures.
 After 40 weeks child-birth occurs. The hormone oxytocin causes contractions of the uterus
known as labour pains. The amniotic sac burst releasing fluid, the baby is pushed out, the
umbilical cord is cut, separating baby and mother. Finally the placenta separates from the
uterus wall and passes out of the body. This is called the after-birth.
 Prenatal/ antenatal care: care for the fetus and mother during pregnancy.
 Postnatal care: care for the child from birth to teens.
 Breast feeding: the hormone prolactin causes the mammary glands of the breast to secrete milk.
The first secretion of the breast is called colostrum which is rich in antibodies and protects the
new born from some pathogens. Breast milk contains the right amount of nutrients in the
correct proportions for the baby.
 [Contraception/ birth control methods pg 253]
* [Transmission & control of AIDS, gonorrhoea pg 254]

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS (pg 259)

 In plants the reproductive organ is the flower which produces both male and female gametes.
The female gamete is the ovule and the male gamete is the pollen grain.
 The main parts of a flower: 1) gynaecium [made of the carpel which includes the stigma, style,
ovary (has ovule the female gamete)] 2) androecium [made of the stamen which includes the
filament and anther (has pollen grains the male gametes)] 3) corolla or petals 4) calyx or sepal
5) receptacle
 Pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of other flowers of the
same species.
 Self-pollination: the transfer of pollen to the same flower or flowers on the same plant.
 Cross-pollination: the transfer of pollen to flowers on different plants of the same species.
 Agents of pollination: insects, humming birds, wind
 Insect-pollinated flowers have: large, brightly coloured petals; scented nectaries; short stamens
inside the flower, a sticky stigma, large sticky or spiky pollen grains produced in small quantities.
 Wind pollinated flower have: small, ordinary flowers without scent, no nectaries, long filaments
with anthers that hang outside the flower; large, branched and feathery stigma; small, smooth
and light pollen grains made in large quantities. [*table pg 263]

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 FERTILISATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SEED (pg 263)
1) When a pollen grain falls on the stigma and it is of the same species, it germinates
2) A pollen tube grows down the style to the ovary
3) Two male nuclei move down the pollen tube
4) The pollen tube enters the micropyle to reach the female nucleus.
5) The fusion of the male and female gamete is fertilisation. After fertilisation the ovule develops into a
seed containing the embryo (develops into a new plant). The ovary grows into the fruit, the petals,
stigma, style and stamens drop off. [* table 21.3 pg 264]

DISPERSAL (pg 264)

 Dispersal is the spreading of seeds, away from the parent plant, to new places where they can
germinate. This is important to prevent overcrowding and competition between parent plant and seed
for light, space, water, minerals. It also allows the colonisation of new areas.
 Agents of dispersal: animals, water, wind, explosive devices
 Dispersal by animals: the wall of the fruit is called the pericarp and is made up of 3 layers: epicarp,
mesocarp and endocarp. In some fruits (eg oranges, tomatoes) these parts are colourful and scented
and animals eat this. As animals eat the fruit, they ‘spit out’ the seeds in new areas or the seeds can
be released in their faeces. Other fruits that do not attract animals for food are dry and have hooks or
spikes that attach to animals as they walk through the environment.
 Dispersal by water: these fruits must be buoyant or be able to float on water eg. Coconuts can be
taken by ocean currents to other areas. The epicarp is waterproof and the mesocarp is fibrous and
light.
 Dispersal by wind: some small, light fruits can be carried by the gentlest of wind currents eg silk
cotton. Mahogany seeds have wing-like structures which allow the m to be carried by wind.
 Dispersal by explosive devices/ self-dispersal/ mechanical dispersal: when explosive fruits dry, they
split and curl suddenly to flick out the seeds. Eg. Garden pea, thorn apple