PART A

1) How does the size and shape of the nucleus varies in different types of cells in the body?

The nucleus is normally around 5-10 μm in diameter in many multicellular organisms, and
the largest organelle in the cell. The smallest nuclei are approximately 1 μm in diameter and
are found in yeast cells. Mostly the shape of the nucleus is spherical or oblong.

✓ Size of Nucleus:
- In general, the nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell. Cells with high metabolic
activity or those actively involved in protein synthesis often have larger nuclei. For
example, liver cells and neurons typically have relatively large nuclei.
- Red blood cells, on the other hand, lose their nuclei during maturation, so mature red
blood cells lack a nucleus.

✓ Shape of Nucleus:
- The shape of the nucleus is closely related to the overall shape of the cell.
- Spherical or oval nuclei are common in cells that need to store a large amount of
genetic material or are involved in synthesizing proteins. Examples include liver cells and
fibroblasts.
- Flattened or elongated nuclei may be found in cells that are themselves flattened or
elongated. For instance, the nuclei of muscle cells are often elongated.
- Some cells may have irregularly shaped nuclei, reflecting their specific functions. For
example, white blood cells (leukocytes) can have lobed nuclei

2) Nervous System – Parts

3) Structure of neuron

Dendrites
These are branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons and allow the
transmission of messages to the cell body.
Cell Body
Each neuron has a cell body with a nucleus, Golgi body, endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondria and other components.
Axon
Axon is a tube-like structure that carries electrical impulse from the cell body to the axon
terminals that pass the impulse to another neuron.
Synapse
It is the chemical junction between the terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another
neuron.

4) Synaptic Transmission
✓ Neurotransmitter Release:
- Synaptic transmission begins when an action potential (electrical signal) reaches the axon
terminal of a presynaptic neuron. This depolarization triggers the release of
neurotransmitters, which are chemical messengers stored within the synaptic terminal.
 ✓ Synaptic Cleft:
- The synaptic cleft is the small gap between the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron
and the dendrite or cell body of the postsynaptic neuron. Neurotransmitters are released
into the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the membrane of the postsynaptic neuron.
✓ Receptor Activation:
- Neurotransmitter binding to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron initiates a response in
the postsynaptic cell. Receptors are often ion channels, and the binding of neurotransmitters
can lead to the opening or closing of these channels, resulting in changes in the postsynaptic
membrane potential.
✓ Postsynaptic Potential:
- The changes in membrane potential due to neurotransmitter binding result in
postsynaptic potentials (PSPs).
- If the neurotransmitter binding leads to depolarization, it may cause an excitatory
postsynaptic potential (EPSP), bringing the postsynaptic cell closer to the threshold for
generating an action potential. If it leads to hyperpolarization, it may cause an inhibitory
postsynaptic potential (IPSP), moving the cell away from the threshold.
✓ Integration and Signal Transmission:
- The postsynaptic neuron integrates the excitatory and inhibitory signals from multiple
synapses. If the combined signals reach the threshold, an action potential is generated in the
postsynaptic neuron, continuing the transmission of the neural signal along the axon
5) Sensory Nerves
These are the nerves that send messages to the brain or the spinal cord from the sense organs.
These are enclosed in the form of a bundle like structures or nerve fibers in the peripheral
nervous system. They carry information from the PNS to the CNS (Central Nervous System).

• Sensory nerves are associated with sensory receptors, such as those for touch,
temperature, pain, pressure, and other stimuli.

• These receptors detect changes in the external environment or within the body.

• The information is transmitted as electrical impulses, known as action potentials.

6) ECG , EGG (Table, PT, Match)

7) Arrangement of measurement electrode skin contract impedance for surface electrode
(Draw)

PART B
1) Einthoven Triangle (table match it)
2) Block diagram of Isolation pre-amplifier
3) Given unipolar, draw bipolar Bipolar limbs
4) Draw circuit for addition of Faradic leakage resistance Rf to account for direct current
properties. Equivalent circuit of a single electrode and electrolyte interface.

5) Find missing parts fluid column electrode

 PART C

1) Rheographic method
2) Equivalent waveforms of oscillations in cuff pressure

3) 4 types of sound
4) How to identify heart problem by having heart sound ?

When your heart beats, valves open and close, allowing blood to flow. When the valves
close, they produce two sounds: a “lub” and a “dub.” If your heart makes a whooshing or
swishing sound instead, that’s called a heart murmur. A murmur means blood is flowing
abnormally across your heart valves. A murmur may mean there’s a problem with your
heart. But heart murmurs are also present in healthy people who don’t have a heart
problem (called “innocent” heart murmurs).

Tests that can determine the cause of a heart murmur are:

Chest X-ray: A chest X-ray takes pictures inside your chest to find any structural problems.
Echocardiogram: Echocardiogram (also called an echo) uses sound waves to create
images of your heart’s valves and chambers. It helps examine your heart’s pumping
action. This can be a surface ultrasound or a more specialized ultrasound procedure
through your mouth and esophagus, which gives better pictures than the surface
ultrasound.
Electrocardiogram: Electrocardiogram (also called an ECG or EKG) is a painless test that
measures the electrical activity of your heart.
 Some heart murmurs are due to a heart problem or other condition, including:

Anemia: or low red blood cell count, can cause a murmur because it affects blood
viscosity (thickness). Other signs of anemia include weakness and fatigue (extreme
tiredness).
Carcinoid syndrome or carcinoid heart disease is a slow-growing tumor (cancer) caused
by extra hormones, which can affect your heart. A person with carcinoid syndrome might
also experience unexplained weight loss, belly pain, diarrhea or low blood pressure.
Congenital heart defect: Your heart may have a structural problem that’s been there
since birth. Examples of congenital heart defects include a septal defect (hole in your
heart) or tetralogy of Fallot.

5) PH during alkalosis
The normal pH of the extracellular fluid lies in the range of 7.35 to 7.45, indicating that
the body fluid is slightly alkaline. When the pH exceeds 7.45, the body is considered to be
in a state of alkalosis. A body pH below 7.35 indicates acidosis. Both acidosis are alkalosis
are disease conditions widely encountered in clinical medicine.
6) Regulation of blood pressure during alkalosis and acidosis
Alkalosis:
• Alkalosis can result from conditions such as excessive vomiting, overuse of diuretics,
or certain kidney disorders. Addressing the underlying cause is crucial for blood
pressure regulation.
• Maintain a proper balance of fluids and electrolytes. Intravenous administration of
saline solutions may be necessary to restore electrolyte balance and normalize blood
pressure.
• Alkalosis can be associated with hyperventilation. Encourage slow breathing and
address any respiratory issues contributing to the alkalotic state.
Acidosis:
• Acidosis can result from conditions such as diabetic ketoacidosis, kidney failure, or
severe lung diseases. Identifying and treating the underlying cause is essential.
• Acidosis can be associated with imbalances in electrolytes. Replenishing and
maintaining appropriate levels of electrolytes, such as potassium and sodium, is
crucial.
• If acidosis is respiratory in nature, addressing the underlying lung condition or
providing respiratory support may be necessary.

7) PH increase diet plans

consuming 80 % alkaline foods and 20 % acidic foods. By following the alkaline diet plan,
you should consume foods such as: vegetables, fruits, peas, legumes, beans, soybeans,
tofu, nuts, seeds, olive oil, coconut oil, flaxseed oil.
 PART D

1) Stationary anode x-ray tube

2) X-ray machine missing block

3) Block diagram of ECG telemetry receiver

4) Telemetry → data sending, video

5) CT scan parts
6) CT scan match
7) Block diagram of CT scan, rearrange type question
 PART E

1) Permanent heart problem which pacemaker used?

2) Draw blocks of AV sequential circuit

3) Internal pacemakers
4) Draw heart wave while giving shock to patient
5) DEFIBRILLATOR
A defibrillator is a medical device designed to deliver an electric shock to the heart in order
to restore normal heart rhythm during a life-threatening cardiac arrhythmia, particularly
ventricular fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia. Here are key points about defibrillators:
The primary purpose of a defibrillator is to treat life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias by
delivering an electric shock to the heart. This shock is intended to disrupt the abnormal
electrical activity and allow the heart to reestablish a normal rhythm.
• Automated External Defibrillators (AEDs): Portable devices designed for use by laypersons
or first responders in emergencies. They analyze the heart rhythm and provide audio and
visual prompts to guide users through the defibrillation process.
• Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillators (ICDs): Surgically implanted devices for individuals
at risk of recurrent serious ventricular arrhythmias. ICDs continuously monitor heart
rhythm and deliver shocks if abnormal rhythms are detected.

Operation:

A defibrillator works by delivering a controlled electric shock to the heart through paddles or
electrode pads placed on the chest. This shock momentarily stops all electrical activity in the
heart, allowing the natural pacemaker cells to regain control and restore a normal heartbeat.

Rapid defibrillation is crucial for the success of treatment. For each minute that passes
without defibrillation, the chance of survival decreases. Early access to and use of
defibrillators, particularly in public places or by trained first responders, significantly
improves outcomes for individuals experiencing sudden cardiac arrest.
6) Block diagram of Implanted defibrillator system

7) Hazards during Surgical Diathermy

Diathermy is a medical technique that uses high-frequency electric currents for therapeutic
purposes, such as heating tissues or promoting blood flow. While diathermy can be beneficial
when used appropriately, there are potential hazards associated with its application.

1. Burns:
- One of the main hazards is the risk of burns, both at the surface of the skin and internally
within tissues. The heat generated by diathermy can cause burns if the equipment is not
properly calibrated or if there is inadequate insulation.

2. Tissue Damage:
- Prolonged or excessive use of diathermy can lead to tissue damage. It's essential to monitor
the duration and intensity of the treatment to prevent harm to the targeted tissues.

3. Electrical Shock:
- Diathermy involves the use of electrical currents, and there is a risk of electrical shock if the
equipment is faulty or if proper safety measures are not in place. This can occur if there is a
break in the insulation, damaged cables, or improper grounding.

4. High Frequency Current Hazards: Another serious hazard associated with the use of surgical
diathermy machines is the possible electrocution of the patient from faulty mains operated
equipment, when one side of an electrical circuit is connected to earth. In order to provide
protection against mains current electrocution, a capacitor (RF earthed) is generally included
between the indifferent lead and earth.

5. Explosion Hazards: In operating theatres, danger zones can develop through the use of
cleansing agents such as ether and alcohol, and by using explosive anaesthetic gas or mixtures
with oxygen. The sparks associated with the use of surgical diathermy can cause a dangerous
explosion if proper precautions are not taken.

8) Waveform of Blend type diathermy

9) Types of electro-surgery techniques - match it
The indifferent electrode establishes a large area contact with the patient and the RF current
is therefore, dispersed so that very little heat is developed at this electrode. This type of tissue
separation forms the basis of electrosurgical cutting.

Electrosurgical coagulation of tissue is caused by the high frequency current flowing through
the tissue and heating it locally so that it coagulates from inside. The coagulation process is
accompanied by a grayish-white discoloration of the tissue at the edge of the electrode.

The term ‘fulguration’ refers to a superficial tissue destruction without affecting deep-seated
tissues. This is undertaken by passing sparks from a needle or a ball electrode of small
diameter to the tissue. When the electrode is held near the tissue without touching it, an
electric arc is produced, whose heat dries out the tissue. Fulguration permits fistulas and
residual cysts to be cauterized and minor haemorrhages to be stopped.

In desiccation, needle-point electrodes are stuck into the tissue and then kept steady.
Depending upon the intensity and duration of the current, a high local increase in heat will
be obtained. The tissue changes due to drying and limited coagulation.