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The South African Mechanistic Pavement Rehabilitation Design

Method_Research Report 91/242

Method · March 1994

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.35886.56645

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 RESEARCH REPORT R91/241
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT

The South African Mechanistic

Pavement Rehabilitation
Design Method (

RESEARCH DONE FOR

AND ON BEHALF OF THE
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT BY:
AFRICAN CONSULTING ENGINEERS INC
incorporating JORDAAN & JOUBERT INC
P O Box 35007
MENLO PARK
0102

MARCH 1994
CHECK LIST TO BE SUBMITTED WITH REPORTS FOR RESEARCH PROJECTS

Project No. 91/242 Date submitted to DOT:

Report title: The South African Mechanistic Pavement Rehabilitation Design Method

Name and address of organisation: African Consulting Engineers Inc,

P O Box 35007, MENLO PARK, 0102
Tel: (012) 348-5880
Author(s): G J Jordaan

Please mark x

1. Status of report:Interim

Project

Research x

2. Has the following been submitted?

Interim report: five bound copies

Project report: one set masters (hard copy)*

Five bound copies

one electronic copy on floppy or stiffy**

Final report: one set masters (hard copy)* x

five bound copies x

one electronic copy on stiffy** x

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If not: i. Refer to exceptions (on separate page) no

ii. Attach copies of DOT approval to submit exceptions

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no

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* A master set is original laser print, unbound, on white 80 gsm Bond paper printed single sides only.
Tables, graphs, maps, figures, news paper cuttings, existing forms, existing questionnaires etc. which are
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TITLE / TITEL : The South African Mechanistic Pavement Rehabilitation Design Method

REPORT NO. ISBN DATE SUBMITTED REPORT STATUS

VERSLAG NR. DATUM VOORGELê VERSLAGSTATUS

RR 91/242 March 1994 Final

RESEARCH NO./NAVORSINGSNR. 91/242

CARRIED OUT BY: COMMISSIONED BY:

GEDOEN DEUR: OPGEDRA DEUR:
African Consulting Engineers Inc Director-General: Transport
incorporating Jordaan & Joubert Inc Department of Transport
P O Box 35007 Private Bag X193
MENLO PARK PRETORIA
0102 0001

AUTHOR(S): PUBLISHER:
OUTEUR(S): UITGEWER:
Department of Transport
G J Jordaan Directorate: Transport Economic Analysis
Private Bag X193
PRETORIA, 0001

SINOPSIS (AFR.) SYNOPSIS (ENG.)

Die 1991 konsep TRH12: "Flexible pavement
rehabilitation investigation and design", beveel
drie metodes aan wat gebruik kan word vir die
rehabilitasie-ontwerp van plaveisels in Suid-
Afrika. Hierdie dokument bevat details van een
van die metodes, naamlik die Suid-Afrikaanse
meganistiese rehabilitasie-ontwerpmetode wat
gebaseer is op fundamentele materiaal-
eienskappe. Alhoewel die metode teoretiese
gefundeer is, bevat dit steeds beperkings in terme
van algemene toepaslikheid. Gevolglik word die
ontwikkeling en die toepaslikheid van die metode
en die gebruik van metodes gebaseer op die toets
van die liniêre-elastisiteitsteorie bespreek.
Aanbevelings word gemaak ten opsigte van die
bepaling van materiaal eienskappe en die
modellering van plaveisel-gedrag deur
gebruikmaking van die SA Meganistiese
rehabilitasie-ontwerpmetode. Die onderskeie
materiale se hantering word bespreek in terme
van die swigtingskriteria wat van toepassing is,
asook die rol van die swigting van een
plaveisellaag in terme van die gedrag van die
plaveisel in geheel. 'n Multi-analiseprosedure
word aanbeveel ten einde die gedrag van die pad
oor sy hele ontwerpslewe te simuleer.
The 1991 draft TRH12: "Flexible pavement
rehabilitation investigation and design",
recommends three methods for the rehabilitation
design of pavements in South Africa. This
document gives details of one of the
recommended methods, i.e. the South African
Mechanistic rehabilitation design method which is
based on fundamental engineering principles.
Although the method is based on theoretically
sound principles, it contains some limits to its
general applicability. Consequently, the
derivation and applicability of the method and the
use of the linear elasticity theory are discussed in
detail. Recommendations are made with regard
to the characterisation of the pavement materials
and the modelling of the pavement behaviour
using the SA mechanistic rehabilitation design
method. The analysis of the various materials in
the different pavement layers are discussed in
terms of failure criteria applicable to the layers, as
well as the role of the failure of one layer on the
behaviour of the pavement as a whole. A multi-
analysis procedure of analysis is recommended to
simulate the behaviour of the pavement over its
design life.

TREFWOORDE : Pavement, rehabilitation, mechanistic, evaluation, analysis, design.

KEY WORDS : Plaveisel, rehabilitasie, meganisties, evaluasie, analise, ontwerp.

COPY RIGHT REPORT COST

KOPIEREG VERSLAGKOSTE
Department of Transport, except for reference purposes
Departement van Vervoer, behalwe vir verwysingsdoeleindes R
DISCLAIMER

The views and opinions expressed in this report are those of the author's and do not
represent South African Road Board Policy.

REVIEWED BY

Dr M de Beer
Dr E Horak
Mr E G Kleyn
Mr A J Thomson
Prof A T Visser
 LIST OF CONTENTS
PAGE

1. INTRODUCTION 1-1

2. RECOMMENDED APPROACH TO PAVEMENT REHABILITATION DESIGN 2-1

2.1 BACKGROUND 2-1
2.2 PAVEMENT CONDITION ASSESSMENT 2-1
2.2.1 General 2-1
2.2.2 Initial assessment 2-3
2.2.3 Detailed assessment 2-3
2.3 REHABILITATION DESIGN 2-4
2.4 THE COST ANALYSIS 2-4
2.4.1 Selection of an option 2-5
2.4.2 Selection of a strategy 2-5

3. THE USE OF REHABILITATION DESIGN METHODS 3-1

3.1 GENERAL 3-1
3.2 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THE REHABILITATION DESIGN PHASE OF 3-1
A REHABILITATION INVESTIGATION
3.3 REHABILITATION OPTIONS 3-2
3.4 REHABILITATION DESIGN METHODS RECOMMENDED FOR USE IN 3-2
SOUTHERN AFRICA

4. REHABILITATION DESIGN METHODS BASED ON FUNDAMENTAL 4-1

THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES
4.1 BACKGROUND TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THEORETICAL MODELS FOR 4-1
PAVEMENT ANALYSIS
4.2 ASSUMPTIONS2,8 INCORPORATED IN THE LINEAR ELASTIC THEORY 4-3
4.3 APPLICABILITY OF METHODS BASED ON LINEAR ELASTIC THEORY 4-8
4.4 CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS BASED ON LINEAR ELASTIC THEORY 4-9
4.4.1 The empirical-theoretical approach 4-10
4.4.2 The behaviour catalogue approach 4-10
4.4.3 The design curves approach 4-13
4.4.4 The design charts approach 4-13
4.4.5 The non-simplified approach 4-13
5. THE SOUTH AFRICAN MECHANISTIC REHABILITATION DESIGN METHOD 5-1
5.1 INTRODUCTION 5-1
5.2 APPROACH FOR THE USE OF THE METHOD 5-1
5.3 PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR 5-3
5.3.1 General 5-3
5.3.2 Pavement balance 5-7
5.3.3 Pavement state 5-7
5.3.4 Material state 5-9
5.4 MATERIAL CHARACTERISATION 5-20
5.4.1 General 5-20
5.4.2 Environmental considerations 5-23
5.4.3 Tests used in the characterisation of pavement materials for 5-35
mechanistic design
5.4.4 Modelling of the effective elastic properties of pavement layers 5-40
5.5 MODELLING OF PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR 5-54
5.5.1 General 5-54
5.5.2 Bitumen-treated layers 5-57
5.5.3 Cemented layers 5-66
5.5.4 Granular layers 5-74
5.6 DETERMINATION OF REHABILITATION OPTIONS 5-80

6. CONCLUSIONS 6-1

7 REFERENCES 7-1
 LIST OF TABLES
PAGE

Table 4.1: The main characteristics of some constitutive equations used for 4-2
the prediction of pavement response. (After Nair and Chang7)
Table 4.2: Main characteristics of some failure theories used to predict the 4-4
behaviour of pavement materials. (After Nair and Chang7)

Table 5.1 : Definition of the main road categories used in pavement design 5-6
(Draft TRH426)
Table 5.2: Definition of states of pavement behaviour (After Freeme22) 5-8
Table 5.3: Ranges for behaviour states (After Horak30) 5-8
Table 5.432: Average (with depth) Mean Monthly Pavement Temperature 5-29
predicted from Mean Monthly Ambient Temperature on an Asphalt
Layer with a Certain Depth
Table 5.532: Mean Monthly Pavement Temperature at a certain depth predicted 5-30
from the Mean Monthly Ambient Temperature
Table 5.6: Mean Monthly Pavement Temperatures for a pavement with a 60 5-31
mm asphalt layer in the Pretoria area
Table 5.7: Influence of seasonal temperature on effective pavement life 5-35
Table 5.83,1: Percentile levels recommended3,1 for data processing 5-36
Table 5.9: Typical effective E-moduli for bitumen-treated materials in 5-46
pavements for use in rehabilitation investigations
Table 5.10: Typical effective ranges of E-moduli for cement-treated materials in 5-49
various stages of behaviour
Table 5.11: Typical ranges of the effective E-moduli for pavement layers with 5-51
granular materials
Table 5.12: Typical ranges of the effective E-moduli for in-situ subgrade layers 5-53
of pavements
Table 5.13: Pavement response parameters critical to the analysis of 5-54
pavement layers
Table 5.14: Factor, d, for modifying the tensile strain induced in cemented 5-67
materials to allow for the presence of shrinkage cracking (After
Freeme22)
Table 5.15: Tensile Strain at Break Recommended for the Standard Cemented 5-70
material Categories (After OtteS1)
Table 5.16: The shear properties of granular materials (After Maree17) 5-75
Table 5.17: The safety factor recommended for granular material (After 5-75
Maree17)
Table 5-18: Estimates of values of c and φ for soils (After Freeme22) 7-76
 LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE

Figure 2.1 Flow Diagram Showing the Various Phases of a Project Level 2-2
Pavement Rehabilitation Investigation
Figure 3.1 Applicability of Rehabilitation Design Methods in Relation to the 3-4
Main Design Variables in a Pavement Situation
Figure 3.2 Applicability of Rehabilitation Design Methods in Relation to the 3-5
Main Design Variables in a Pavement Situation
Figure 3.3 Guidelines for the Use of the Recommended Rehabilitation Design 3-6
Method
Figure 4.1 Main Characteristics of Some Approaches to Pavement 4-11
Rehabilitation Design Based on Theoretical Linear Elastic Stress-
strain Theory
Figure 4.2 A Typical Flow Diagram Showing the Procedures Usually Followed 4-12
in Theoretical Pavement Rehabilitation Design Methods (After
Monismith21)
Figure 5.1 Main Steps in the South African Mechanistic Rehabilitation Design 5-4
Method
Figure 5.2 Diagrammatic Representation of the Time Dependent Behaviour of 5-10
Different Pavement Types (After Freeme22)
Figure 5.3 Definition of Material Symbols Used in Pavement Design (After 5-11
TRH426)
Figure 5.4 Indicators of the Behaviour of Pavement Layers Constructed with 5-12
Granular Materials (GM) (After Freeme22)
Figure 5.5 Schematic Diagram of the Relative Behaviour of Granular Material 5-13
of Different Qualities (After Freeme22)
Figure 5.6 Indicators of the Behaviour of Pavement Layers Consisting of 5-15
Lightly Cement- treated Materials (LCTM) Or Layers Constructed
with Materials Exhibiting A Natural Cementing Action in Pavements
with A Deep Structure
Figure 5.7 Indicators of the Behaviour of Pavement Layers Containing 5-16
Cement-treated Materials (CTM) (After Freeme22 and Jordaan31)
Figure 5.8 Indicators of the Behaviour of Pavement Layers Constructed with 5-19
Bitumen-treated Materials (BTM) (After Freeme22)
Figure 5.9 Indicators of the Behaviour of Concrete Pavement Layers (After 5-21
22
Freeme )
Figure 5.10 Pavement Modelling Under A Standard Dual Wheel Load 5-22
Figure 5.11 Change in Deflection with Temperature on 4 Types of Road 5-25
Pavement Heated by Infra-red Heaters (After Kennedy35)
Figure 5.12 Variation of Bearing Capacity with Season (After Motl As 5-26
Discussed by Isada36)
Figure 5.13 Sketch Illustrating Different Rate of Change of Deformation During 5-26
High'" and Low-temperature Periods (After Freeme and Viljoen20)
Figure 5.14 Performance of Pavement That is Marginally Adequate for Normal 5-27
Climatic Conditions (After Grant and Netterberg20)
Figure 5.15 Performance of Pavement with Adequate Structural Capacity Until 5-27
Reduced by Surfacing Cracking Or Disintegration (After Grant and
Netterberg19)
Figure 5.1638 Figure for the Determination of Temperatures in A Bitumen-treated 5-33
Layer
Figure 5.17 Some Existing CBR - E-modulus Correlations 5-38
Figure 5.18 Illustration of Pavement Deflection Caused by Different Pavement 5-39
Layer Strength Combinations (After Horak30)
Figure 5.19 Characteristic Relationships Between Mix Stiffness and Mix 5-43
Temperature(After She1l34)
Figure 5.20 Van Der Poel Nomograph 5-44
Figure 5.21 Nomograph for Mix Stiffness (After She1l34) 5-45
Figure 5.22 Effect of Granular Interlock on the Value of Modular Ratio E2/E3 At 5-52
 Which Tensile Stresses Occur (After Monismith Et A154)
Figure 5.23 Approximation of Stability Limits for Granular Bases (After 5-52
Heukelom and Klomp55)
Figure 5.24 Worksheet Used for the Mechanistic Structural Analysis of 5-55
17
Pavements (After Maree )
Figure 5.25 Example of A Mechanistic Analysis of Pavements Structure 5-56
Figure 5.26 Recommended Criteria for Bitumen Surfacings with A Thickness of 5-59
22
20-75 mm (After Freeme )
Figure 5.27 Recommended Fatigue Life Criteria for Thick Bitumen Bases with 5-60
A Thickness of More Than 75 mm (After Freeme22)
2
Figure 5.28 Shift Factor for Asphalt Layers to Allow for Crack 5-60
Propagation Through the Layer (After Jordaan2)
Figure 5.29 Flow Diagram to Identify the Pavement Situation Applicable to 5-62
Determine the Fatique Life of An Asphalt Layer
Figure 5.302 Factors Influencing the Formation of Cracking of A Pavement 5-64
Containing A Cement Treated Base Course
2,53
Figure 5.31 Fatigue Criteria Applicable to Strongly Cemented Layers (C, and 5-68
C2) in Pavements in Various Phases of Behaviour
Figure 5.3224 Fatigue Criteria Applicable to Lightly Cemented Layers (C3 and 5-68
C4) in Pavements in Various Phases of Behaviour
Figure 5.332 Shift Factor for Cemented Layers to Provide for Crack 5-72
Propagation Through the Layer
Figure 5.34 Criteria for the Analysis of Lightly Cemented Layers in Terms of 5-74
Compression Failure (After De Beer24.57)
Figure 5.35 Recommended Safety Factors for Granular Materials (G 1 to G 10) 5-77
(After Maree17)
Figure 5.36 Recommended Vertical Subgrade Strain Criteria in Terms of A 10 5-77
mm and 20 mm Rut Depth
 (i)

SUMMARY
1
In the 1991 draft TRH 12 : "Flexible pavement rehabilitation investigation and design", three
rehabilitation design approaches are recommended for use in South Africa. In this document
details regarding one of the methods, i.e. the South African Mechanistic pavement rehabilitation
design method. This method incorporates sound engineering principles as based in the linear
elasticity theory.

Rehabilitation design methods find application in only one of the phases of a rehabilitation
investigation. In order to understand the use of the rehabilitation design method, the various
phases of the investigation are identified and discussed in short. The following phases of a
rehabilitation investigation are identified:

i) pavement condition assessment,

which consists of:
• an initial assessment, and
• a detailed assessment,

ii) rehabilitation design, and

iii) cost analysis of applicable options and strategies.

It is seen that the actual use of rehabilitation design methods only forms a small part of an
investigation. The main aim of the rehabilitation design method is to establish the amount (e.g. the
thickness of a new layer) of strengthening required by the pavement to enable it to carry the
design traffic loading.

Rehabilitation design methods differ in their suitability for solving specific problems, the expertise
required for their effective and correct use and in their cost of implementation. Furthermore, the
benefits to be obtained from the use of a specific method could depend on the design traffic, type
of distress, type and condition of a pavement and the cause and mechanism of distress. It follows
that rehabilitation design methods are limited in their applicability and that their indiscriminate use
could seriously affect the accuracy of the rehabilitation design.

For the correct application of rehabilitation design methods, the built-in assumptions and hence,
limitations, should be known. To assist users in the correct application of the mechanistic design
method, the derivation and application of the method are discussed in detail. Specific attention is
paid to the background and development of the linear elasticity theory and its utilisation in the
South African (SA) Mechanistic Rehabilitation Design method.
 (ii)

The accurate characterisation of the pavement materials as an input into the rehabilitation
design methods are discussed in some detail. The characterisation of pavement materials and
the understanding of pavement material behaviour in the various pavement layers are
fundamental to the modelling of the pavement using mechanistic methods based on the linear

elasticity theory. Consequently, considerable effort is put into the explanation of pavement
behaviour.

The change in characteristics (failure) of one layer in a pavement, does not necessarily mean
that a pavement has failed. The recommended procedure allow for a phased analysis of a
pavement. In this way, the various changes in the various pavement layers can be

accommodated and their influence on pavement behaviour as a whole assessed.

Recommended procedures for the characterisation and analysis of pavement layers containing
the following materials are given:

• granular materials, including soils,

• cemented materials, and

• bituminous materials, including emulsion treated materials.

It is concluded that the full application of this manual should greatly assist uses to correctly apply
the South African mechanistic method for the rehabilitation design of pavements. Nevertheless,
considerable experience is required to effectively apply mechanistic methods. Users are urged
to get expert assistance when not familiar with the basic concepts of pavement material

behaviour and its influence on pavement behaviour.

 1 -1

1. INTRODUCTION
The recommended approach for pavement rehabilitation design for use in South Africa is
1
contained in the Technical Recommendations for Highways document, draft TRH12 ,
which was updated in 1990/91. This document contains guidelines for a comprehensive
approach to project level pavement rehabilitation design, including the condition

assessment (initial assessment as well as the detailed assessment), rehabilitation design

and the economic analysis of applicable rehabilitation options.

However, although recommendations are given in the draft TRH 121 regarding the

selection of appropriate strengthening design methods, no details of these methods are

1
contained in the document. In the draft TRH 12 users are referred to several publications
containing various aspects of the applicable rehabilitation design (strengthening)
methods. In order to further the correct use2 of the rehabilitation design (strengthening)

methods the compilation of three documents containing the details of the methods were
commissioned by the Department of Transport, i.e.:

• Pavement Rehabilitation Design based on Maximum Surface Deflection

Measurements,
• Pavement Rehabilitation Design based on Pavement Layer Component Tests (CBR

& DCP), and @ The South African Mechanistic Pavement Rehabilitation Design
Method.
In this document details with regard to the South African Mechanistic Pavement
Rehabilitation Design Method based on the linear elasticity theory is contained. To assist

users in the correct use of the method, this report also includes a summary on the:

1,3
• basic approach to project level rehabilitation design , and
2
• applicability of rehabilitation design methods for use on different pavement types.

It must be emphasised that this document only contains details of one of the
recommended methods for use during the rehabilitation design phase of an rehabilitation
investigation. In no way should an entire pavement rehabilitation investigation be based
1
only on this document. This document is compiled as a supplement to TRH12 and the
1
procedures contained in the TRH12 document should be closely followed before this
document is used.

Mechanistic design approaches can, of course, also be used to design new pavements. In
such cases, many of the properties measured on existing pavements must be assumed.
However, the general approach and procedures discussed in this document are also
applicable to new pavement designs.
 2-1

2. RECOMMENDED APPROACH TO PAVEMENT REHABILITATION DESIGN

2.1 BACKGROUND
In order to understand the role of the "rehabilitation design method", it is necessary to
describe the rehabilitation investigation process in more detail.

Roads are usually identified for a rehabilitation investigation by the various road
authorities as an output of a pavement management system (PMS). Information
regarding the condition of all the roads in a network is evaluated in the PMS and roads

which have deteriorated beyond a certain level are identified for a project level
rehabilitation investigation. In order to optimise the investigation and design for
rehabilitation, the process is divided into several phases. The rehabilitation investigation
should be carried out, according to these phases, in iterative, increasingly more detailed

steps. The phases are identified as:

i) pavement condition assessment, which consists of:

- an initial assessment, and

- a detailed assessment,

ii) rehabilitation design, and

iii) cost analysis of applicable options and strategies.

Technically, the objectives of a project-level rehabilitation investigation will be fully met

by following the three stages of the investigation as recommended. However, in

practice, decisions and the process of investigations are continuously influenced by
managerial and practical aspects as shown in Figure 2.1 and discussed in detail in the
1991 draft TRH 121.

In order to show the relevance and role of the rehabilitation design method, the
objectives of each of the different phases and the tasks usually performed to achieve
these objectives are discussed in short.

2.2 PAVEMENT CONDITION ASSESSMENT

2.2.1 General
The pavement condition assessment is divided into an initial assessment which is done

over the whole of the project length, followed by a more detailed assessment which is
limited to pavement sections which were identified, as an output of the initial
assessment, to probably contain structural deficiencies. The aim is to concentrate more
detailed and expensive testing on those pavement sections which actually require

structural strengthening.
 2-2

FIGURE 2.1

Flow Diagram Showing the Various Phases of a Project Level Pavement Rehabilitation Investigation
 2-3

2.2.2 Initial assessment

The initial assessment forms the foundation of the rehabilitation design investigation. Its
primary functions are to obtain an overall assessment of the project and furthermore, to
reduce the amount of additional more detailed testing. This is accomplished by:

i) Identifying:

• sections requiring no structural rehabilitation for the design

period,

• sections exhibiting obvious surfacing only problems,

• sections with localised problems, and

• sections with probable structural inadequacies requiring strengthening on which

more detailed investigations may be required.

ii) Recommending:
• appropriate rehabilitation options for the pavement sections exhibiting surfacing
only problems,

• appropriate remedial actions for the pavement sections with obvious localised
problems, and

• if required, appropriate tests for the pavement sections with probable structural
inadequacies.

iii) Providing:
• a complete record of initial measurements taken to describe the condition of the
pavement, and

• input into the more detailed assessment of pavement sections with probable
structural inadequacies.

To achieve the objectives, the initial assessment can be divided into the following tasks:

i) gathering of information (including a preliminary investigation collecting all

available data, a detailed visual inspection and additional pavement testing),
ii) processing and evaluation of data, and
iii) initial structural capacity analysis of uniform sections.

2.2.3 Detailed assessment

The detailed assessment deals with lengths of road that have been identified as
probably requiring structural improvement. The aim is to obtain sufficient knowledge
about the length of pavement to enable the assessor to make a confident decision on
the rehabilitation strategy to be followed.
 2-4

This is accomplished by:

• the determination of the cause and mechanism of distress in each uniform

pavement section, and

• the description of the pavement situation as represented by each uniform

pavement section.

The understanding of the behaviour of a pavement is the key to successful

rehabilitation design. Hence, the correct description of the pavement situation,
encompassing the pavement material, loading, environmental and distress conditions,
will be of great help in the correct analysis of the pavement.

The cause and mechanism of distress of a pavement forms an important aspect of the
pavement situation which may not be known at this stage of the investigation. To
identify, with confidence, the cause and mechanism of distress of each uniform
pavement section, full use should be made of experience and of all available results of
tests and information gained during the initial assessment, before embarking on any
additional investigation.

2.3 REHABILITATION DESIGN

The cause and mechanism of distress, together with the available test results, the
pavement condition, environment and traffic loading determine the pavement situation
which is used to select rehabilitation design methods for the design of the required
structural strengthening of each uniform pavement section. More detailed testing as an
input into the rehabilitation design method, may be required at this stage of an
investigation.

The fundamental reasons for each factor causing distress should be considered in
determining the possible rehabilitation options. For subgrade deformation the
appropriate options could well range from a levelling course overlay to a substantial
strengthening of the pavement structure, depending on the particular reasons for the
subgrade deformation.

This phase of the investigation forms the basis of this document and will be discussed
in detail later in this document.

2.4 THE COST ANALYSIS

A choice is made among the viable rehabilitation strategies and measures by
examining their cost and the consequences of the use of the measure in terms of the
expected future behaviour of the pavement. (It should be noted that a full economic
 2-5

analysis [e.g. a cost-benefit analysis] according to which a project is justified in terms of

the whole network is done prior to the commissioning of a project level investigation.)
After determining the expected cost of the project, a cost-benefit analysis should again
be done to verify the justification of the project. The cost analysis includes:

• the selection of a rehabilitation option, and

• the selection of a rehabilitation strategy.

2.4.1 Selection of an option

Normally, various rehabilitation options would be applicable for use on a particular

pavement section. Because of the variable nature of pavements, the effect of any
treatment on the future behaviour of the pavement cannot be determined absolutely.
The costs of each rehabilitation option and the likely consequences of the treatment
have to be weighed against the probability with which these consequences would
occur. Normally the option that results in the lowest expected present worth of costs is
selected for further analysis. However, traffic delay and other road users costs incurred
as a result of the rehabilitation action should also be taken into account.

2.4.2 Selection of a strategy

Several strategies may be followed using a specific rehabilitation option. The difference
in cost will often not be universal and the selection of a specific strategy usually
depends on local circumstances and management considerations. Only after all factors
have been considered can the most appropriate strategy be determined and
recommended.
 3-1

3. THE USE OF REHABILITATION DESIGN METHODS

3.1 GENERAL
From the preceding section it is clear that the actual application and use of a

"rehabilitation design method" only forms a small part of an investigation aimed at

establishing the most economical rehabilitation option for a road.

In fact, when the rehabilitation design method is applied, the main aim is only to establish

the amount (e.g. the thickness of a new layer) of strengthening required on each uniform

section. At this stage of the investigation the road has already been investigated following

the procedures described in detail in TRH 12' and the following is known:

• the road has been divided into uniform pavement sections according to its

rehabilitation or structural strengthening needs,

• the pavement sections possibly requiring strengthening have been further

investigated and the cause and mechanism of distress of each section have been

established, and

• the pavement situation has been identified in full, e.g. all information regarding

expected traffic loading, pavement behaviour, pavement structure, etc. is known.

All the information is now available as an input into the design of the rehabilitation needs.

The rest of this document now deals with the rehabilitation design phase of the

investigation, shown as Phase 2 in Figure 2.1.

3.2 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THE REHABILITATION DESIGN PHASE OF A

REHABILITATION INVESTIGA TION
In the rehabilitation design phase the user deals with lengths of road that have been

identified during the condition assessment as probably requiring structural improvement.

The aim of this phase of the investigation is to identify appropriate rehabilitation design

methods and to determine the actual rehabilitation needs in terms of these methods.

Currently, several pavement rehabilitation design methods are used in South Africa.
These range from empirically derived methods to sophisticated mechanistic methods
based on multi-layer linear elastic theory. Investigations2 have shown that rehabilitation
design methods differ in their suitability for solving specific problems, the expertise
required to use them and their cost of implementation. Furthermore, the benefits to be
obtained from the use of a specific method could depend on the design traffic, type of
distress, type and condition of a pavement and the cause and mechanism of distress. It
follows that rehabilitation design methods are limited in their applicability and that their
indiscriminate use could seriously affect the accuracy of the rehabilitation design.
 3-2
Unfortunately, these limitations are often hidden and hence, considerable experience and
expertise in pavement rehabilitation are required to effectively use the available
methods.

It follows that a specific rehabilitation design method may be applicable only to specific
pavement material, loading, environmental and distress conditions which in
combination represent specific pavement situations. The identification of possible
pavement situations and the determination of the suitability of specific methods to
analyse these situations could lead to improved utilisation of the methods and thus to
more effective rehabilitation design. A summary of the available approaches used to
develop rehabilitation design methods, containing details with regard to their
limitations and applicability are given in Appendix A.

3.3 REHABILITATION OPTIONS

Rehabilitation may range from complete pavement reconstruction to the improvement
or provision of relatively small aspects such as drainage facilities. However, many
rehabilitation design methods often provide only for the design of asphalt overlays
which, in many cases may not be the most suitable option. For example, where a
structural weakness is present in a pavement layer such as the base course, it may be
advisable to improve the quality of the layer rather than to use an overlay. Hence,
before embarking on the design of the rehabilitation, appropriate rehabilitation options
for each uniform section (based on the identified cause and mechanism of distress
and the prevailing pavement situation) should be identified.

3.4 REHABILITATION DESIGN METHODS RECOMMENDED FOR USE IN SOUTHERN

AFRICA
Three methods for pavement rehabilitation design are recommended for use in
Southern Africa. These are deflection method, DCP method and the South African
mechanistic design method. These methods are assessed in terms of their limitations
and abilities with regard to the various design and performance variables in Figures
3.1 and 3.2 respectively. In order to assist in the selection of an appropriate
rehabilitation design method, the use of the recommended three methods in terms of
the main design variables are shown in Figure 3.3. Note that Figure 3.3 should be
used together with Figures 3.1 and 3.2 before a final selection of an applicable method
is made. These figures are discussed in more detail in the draft TRH12'.

Two aspects should be emphasised:

• methods should only be used on pavements on which their applicability have

been determined, and
• preferably methods should be used in a multiple analysis approach for the
rehabilitation design of the strengthening needs of a pavement.
 3-3

The importance of the use of the rehabilitation design method only on pavements for
which they were found to be applicable are demonstrated in Appendix B.

In the rest of this document one of the recommended methods, i.e. the South African
Mechanistic Pavement Rehabilitation Design Method, is discussed in detail.
 3-4

2
FIGURE 3.1

Applicability of Rehabilitation Design Methods in Relation to the Main Design Variables in A Pavement
Situation
 3-5

2
FIGURE 3.2

Applicability of Rehabilitation Design Methods in Relation to the Main Design Variables in A Pavement
Situation
 3-6

FIGURE 3.32

Guidelines for the Use of the Recommended Rehabilitation Design Method

 4-1

4. REHABILITATION DESIGN METHODS BASED ON FUNDAMENTAL THEORETICAL

PRINCIPLES

4.1 BACKGROUND TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THEORETICAL MODELS FOR

PAVEMENT ANALYSIS

Theoretical procedures to simulate pavement behaviour have been used since 1926
when Westergaard4,s first used elastic theory to calculate the response of rigid pavements
to wheel loadings. Pioneering work by Burmister6 in 1943 on layered systems led to the

development of usable theory for the analysis of multi-layered flexible pavements. Since
then many other relevant theories have been developed. The complexity of these
mathematical models has initially inhibited the development of pavement design methods
based on these models. However, the advances in computer technology during the last

few decades and the general availability of computer facilities since in the early 1970's
have facilitated the development of numerous pavement rehabilitation design methods
based on mathematical models.

Mathematical models7 applicable to pavement behaviour analysis include:

• non-hereditary elastic response models such as,

- linear elastic stress-strain models, and

- nonlinear elastic stress-strain models,

• hereditary visco-elastic response models such as,
- one-dimensional linear visco-elastic models,
- three-dimensional linear visco-elastic models, and
- nonlinear visco-elastic models,
• hereditary plastic response models such as,
- discrete models.

Some of the characteristics of the more generally used constitutive equations applicable

to some of the above mathematical models are summarised in Table 4.17•

This document is concerned with the South African mechanistic rehabilitation design
method which is one of several methods based on non-hereditary elastic response
models, i.e. methods based on approaches using the linear elastic stress-strain theory.

Most of the theoretically based pavement rehabilitation design methods that have been
developed to a stage where practical implementation is possible, have been based on
linear elastic theory. Reasons for the partiality of engineers towards this theory include:

• linear elastic theory is a relatively simple approach compared to some of the other

mathematical models and lends itself to practical implementation,

• the mathematical characterisation of the pavement as required by linear elastic

theory is relatively simple,

 7
Table 4.1: The main characteristics of some constituted equations used for the prediction of pavement response. (After Nair and Chang )
4-2

(a) There are many possibilities. Only a few selected models are indicated here
 4-3

• various computer programmes based on linear elastic theory have been developed
and are generally available,
• research8,9,10,11 has shown that linear elastic theory (with some limitations) can be
used to give an acceptable estimate of expected pavement behaviour, and

• the computer time and thus costs, required by programmes based on linear elastic
theory are considerably less than that required by programmes based on other
theories.

4.2 ASSUMPTIONS2•8 INCORPORATED IN THE LINEAR ELASTIC THEORY

A mathematical model usually only gives an approximation of actual behaviour. The
limitations associated with anyone model depend on the type of assumptions that form

the basis of the model. Therefore, an understanding of the assumptions associated with
the linear elastic model would also provide an indication of its limitations.

7
The discussion on the basis of derivation of the linear elastic model by Nair and Chang ;
gives a good background to the understanding of its limitations. The following
postulations, generally applicable to pavement behaviour, are introduced7:

i) The mechanical state is defined by the stress and strain matrices.

ii) The thermal and moisture states are defined by temperature and moisture content.
iii) The stress at a point in the system at time is a function of the histories of strain,
temperature and moisture content at that point and a function of the age of the
system.

The last postulation forms the basis of models designed to determine pavement
7
behaviour. In fact, according to Nair and Chang in 1973, "all mathematical models
(theories of pavement structural behaviour) currently in use in the structural analysis of
pavements appear as special cases of this postulation." This postulation is formulated

as follows:

σ (x, t ) = (( ) ( ) ( ) )
F ε x , s , T x, s M x, s ; x, t
t
………………………………………………(Eq.1)
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ s =0

Where:

x
~
= position vector of a point, referred to as a coordinate system,

s
( )
= time variable denoting the change in time from the start(s=0) to time (s=t)
σ x, t = stress, a matrix function of position and time

ε (x, t )
~ ~

= strain, a matrix function of position and time,

T (x, t )
~ ~

= temperature change above a reference state, a scaler function of position

~ ~

M (x, t )
and time, and
= moisture content, change above a reference state, a scaler function of
~ ~
position and time.
Table 4.1: Main characteristics of some failure theories and to predict the behaviour of pavement materials (After Nair and Chang7)
4-4
Table 4.1: Main characteristics of some failure theories and to predict the behaviour of pavement materials (After Nair and Chang7)
a.
4-5

* A special form of which results in Mohr-Coulomb criterion given here

 4-6

The equation shows that Function F depends on position x and time t. if F is independent of
position x, the pavement system is homogeneous. If F is independent of time t, only relative
time (t-s), remains. Thus, Equation 1 is simplified to the following formula, applicable to a
homogeneous non-aging system.

σ (x, t ) = (( ) ( ) (
F ε x, t − s , T x, t − s M x, t − s ))
t
………………..………………………(Eq.2)
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ s =0

In the above equation stress ( σ ) is still shown to be a function of history of strain ( ε ),

temperature (T) and moisture (M). If it is assumed that stress is not dependent on the history of
the variables, but only on their current values the system becomes a non-hereditary model.
This implies the absence of a permanent deformation in a pavement or complete reversibility of
effects. Equation 2 is now simplified to the following formula, applicable to a non-hereditary
elastic system:

σ (x, t ) = F  ε (x ), T  x  M (x ) ……………………………………………...……………(Eq.3)

~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Furthermore, if it is assumed that the response of the pavement to a certain input, e.g.
moisture, or temperature is completely symmetric (independent of direction) it is called isotropy.
If the pavement is isotropic to all inputs, the above equation contains only five unknown
functions, i.e. temperature, moisture and three principal strain invariants.

To allow practical implementation of the mathematical model, temperature and moisture

content are assumed constants. In this case only three functions of three strain variables
remain. Equation 3 is now reduced to the following relationship, on which most pavement
analysis models are based:

σ (x, t ) = F (ε (x )) ……………………….……………………………………………………(Eq.4)
~
~ ~ ~ ~

From the above discussion it is clear that elastic theory cannot be used to predict time
dependent, rate dependent or permanent deformation.

The basic mathematical model shown in Equation 4 is generally used to determine the primary
response of a pavement structure, idealised as a non-hereditary elastic response model.
However, in order to evaluate the primary response (stresses and strains) within the pavement
system, it is necessary to establish performance criteria for the various materials. These
performance criteria or “transfer functions” are formulated in terms of limiting values of the
stresses and strains in the system which is a function of the failure theory used to predict
expected material behaviour. Furthermore, the magnitude of these limiting values usually
7
depends on the type of material, the environment and the loading conditions. Some of the
more well known failure theories are summarised in table 4.27
 4-7

Together with the basic constitutive equations as shown in Table 4.1, the limiting criteria
of stresses and strains as obtained from applicable failure criteria shown in Table 4.2,
forms the basis of pavement behaviour simulation. As an input into an idealised model
some basic material properties, defined as "the functions necessary to quantify the
constitutive equations and failure theories developed to predict material response and to
evaluate possible failure, respectively7", are required.

The basic material properties of linear isotropic elastic constitutive equations (Table 4.1)
used to calculate pavement response for evaluation through the application of an
applicable failure theory are the modulus of elasticity (E-value) and the Poisson's ratio
(v). It is assumed in linear elastic theory that the stress at any point within the pavement
system is a linear function of the strain at that point. The modulus of elasticity (E-value)
and the Poisson's ratio (v) are the two independent elastic constants through which the
stresses and strains in a linear isotropic elastic system are linearly related. Therefore,
fundamental to the use of a design method based on a theoretical approach derived
from the linear elastic theory is the accurate characterisation of the materials within the
existing pavement in terms of the modulus of elasticity (E) and the Poisson's ratio (v).
Since linear elastic theory presents a mathematical idealisation of natural in-situ
pavement reaction, methods developed on the basis of this (or any other) theory, should
be tested (verified) against actual pavement reaction.

The assumptions applicable to the linear elastic theory as applied to the analysis of
pavement response and used for the prediction of pavement behaviour are
summarised5,6 as follows:

• the material in each pavement layer is linear elastic, isotropic and homogeneous,
• the behaviour of the pavement is a function of pavement reaction in terms of stress
and strain as determined by linear elastic theory,
• the influence of moisture and temperature on the reaction of the pavement system
in terms of stress and strain is constant,
• the surface loading on a pavement structure can be represented by vertical stress,
uniformly distributed over one or more circular areas,
• the pavement is adequately characterised by a modulus of elasticity, Poisson's ratio
and thickness of each layer (final subgrade layer taken as semi-infinite),
• the elastic properties of the materials within the pavement system are not stress
dependent, i.e. they remain constant with variation in stress conditions,
• each pavement layer is continuously supported by the layer beneath,
• the interface conditions between layers can be considered as either perfectly
smooth or perfectly rough,
• inertia forces within the pavement system are negligible, and
• the stress at a point within a pavement is not a function of the mass of the material
covering that point.
 4-8

4.3 APPLICABILITY OF METHODS BASED ON LINEAR ELASTIC THEORY

Rehabilitation design methods which incorporate theoretical mathematical models are

based on sound engineering principles. Because pavement response is measured in
basic material concepts of stress and strain, these methods should be applicable for use

on all types of materials (including cementitious and new materials). However, as

discussed previously, linear elastic theory only represents an idealisation of natural
material behaviour and incorporates various assumptions which could have an influence
on the accuracy of the prediction of the response of some materials under certain

conditions. Therefore, rehabilitation design methods incorporating this theory should be

tested with regard to material, loading and environmental conditions representative of that
in which the method will be used. The accuracy of predictions as determined by such
practical validations should be used to decide on the adequacy of a specific method for
2
use under specific conditions. This is discussed in detail by Jordaan and for more detail
readers are referred to this reference.

Furthermore, because of the relative complexity of theoretically based methods as

compared to empirically derived methods, there is a tendency to simplify theoretically

based methods. Invariably this is done by incorporating additional assumptions which

could have a detrimental effect on the general applicability of a specific method.

Therefore, a study of pavement rehabilitation design methods should include a detailed
investigation of their derivation in order to determine the assumptions made, and thus
their limitations.

9,10,11,12
As mentioned earlier, research has shown that linear elastic theory may be used
to give an acceptable estimate of expected pavement behaviour. However, various
limitations in the practical implementation of the theory have also been pointed out. Most
of these limitations are connected to the assumption that the elastic properties of all
11,12,13,14
pavement materials are stress independent. It has been shown that the stress
dependency of the elastic properties of granular materials and soils could affect the
results of a theoretical analysis of pavements. Dehlen and Monismith16 concluded that
"linear approaches are not adequate in the case of pavements comprising thin surfacings

over unbound aggregate, gravel or sand bases, subbases and subgrades." Furthermore,
13,14
Freeme and Marais have shown the importance of taking into account the stress
dependency of granular base material in the evaluation of the stress and strain properties
of asphalt surfacings. Where an asphalt layer covers a granular base, the use of an

effective modulus for the base could lead to "significant errors" in the calculation of
16 16
asphalt strain . Grant et al also showed that significant differences can occur between
design curves derived from the use of linear elastic theory and those derived from
experimental work. These differences were attributed to the stress dependency of
 4-9

16, 17, 18
granular materials. Techniques have been developed to take actual material
behaviour into account in the analysis of pavements, using linear elastic theory.

It is well known and documented18•19 that temperature and moisture changes could
have a significant effect on the behaviour of pavements. The mathematical model on
which linear elastic theory is based assumes moisture and temperature to be

constant. Therefore, methods incorporating linear elastic theory should provide for the
effects of moisture and temperature to be included in behaviour predictions through
additional functions.

Linear elastic theory can only be used to predict pavement response in terms of
stress, strain and elastic displacement. The theory cannot be used to predict either
permanent deformation or fatigue. Limiting values (criteria) for strain and/or stress as
related to distress, are usually determined empirically using laboratory or in-situ

material tests to establish transfer functions. The calculated stress and strain within
the pavement are evaluated against these criteria (transfer functions). These
relationships between stress and/or strain and expected pavement life are often
subjected to limitations, usually associated with empirical methods such as their

applicability to types and conditions of materials, environment and loading.

4.4 CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS BASED ON LINEAR ELASTIC THEORY

From the preceding discussion it is clear that, inter alia:

• linear elastic theory incorporates various assumptions,

• the direct use of linear elastic theory for the prediction of pavement response
would normally require computer facilities, and
• correct pavement material characterization in terms of effective in-situ material
response is an essential prerequisite for the prediction of pavement response
using linear elastic theory.

A large number of rehabilitation design methods2 incorporating linear elastic theory

have been developed since the early 1970's. However, many of these methods have
incorporated simplifications such as the use of design curves, design charts or
behaviour catalogues. This is done mainly to avoid the complexity of the direct use of
mathematical models and computer facilities for evaluating pavements and designing

rehabilitation options.

As yet there is no generally acceptable practical procedure for the in-situ

characterization of pavement materials in terms of their elastic properties (E-modulus
 4-10
and Poisson's ratio). This has led to the development of various relationships between
some measurable pavement properties such as surface deflection, and the in-situ

elastic properties of the pavement. Existing procedures range from those which are
empirically derived to those based on the theoretical simulation of pavements using
linear elastic theory. Therefore, the procedure of material characterization used by a
particular method based on a theoretical approach is likely to have an effect on its

general applicability.

Rehabilitation design methods incorporating theoretical concepts are based on a

number of approaches developed in order to simplify the use of mathematical models.
The various methods are categorised according to the basic approach followed. These
approaches usually give a good indication of the level of sophistication and the general
applicability of the methods using the approach. The following approaches are
identified:

• the empirical-theoretical approach,

• the behaviour catalogue approach,
• the design curves approach,
• the design charts approach, and
• the non-simplified approach.

The main characteristics of the approaches developed from the linear elastic theory are
summarised in Figure 4.1. A typical flow diagram of the "main elements contained in
most of the rehabilitation design methods based on these approaches is given in Figure
4.2.

4.4.1 The empirical-theoretical approach

Methods using this approach2 have limitations similar to those of empirically derived
methods. Data from a limited sample of pavements are used to obtain relationships
between the measured properties, theoretically derived elastic properties and, usually
only one distress parameter. These methods are essentially empirically based,
although theoretical concepts are incorporated into the relationships. The use of these
concepts gives these methods little, if any, advantage over empirically derived
methods. These methods are applicable only to pavements with material, loading and
environmental conditions similar to those of pavements incorporated in the study from
which the relationships were derived.

4.4.2 The behaviour catalogue approach

2
Methods using this approach incorporate a catalogue containing behaviour analyses
of a large number of pavements. Pavements under consideration are compared with
examples in the catalogue, in order to identify their state of behaviour and to select
 4-11

applicable rehabilitation alternatives. The catalogue is derived from theoretical linear

elastic analysis and practical experience and knowledge of the expected behaviour of
various types of pavements.

These methods are limited since it is impossible to incorporate all possible pavement
layer types and configurations and trends in behaviour in a catalogue. It is often found
that the behaviour catalogue is developed as an extension to an existing method for the
design of new roads. The examples in the behaviour catalogue usually incorporates a
range of material characteristics covering the most likely trends of behaviour.
Rehabilitation options are recommended on the basis of their adequacy to deal with a
range of expected behaviour trends. As a result the remaining strength of the existing
pavement may not always be fully utilised. Obviously, these methods are applicable
only to designs and trends in behaviour which have been included in the catalogue.

4.4.3 The desiqn curves approach

2
Most of the methods incorporating the linear elastic theory have been developed so
that they can be applied using design curves which relate:

• measurable pavement parameters to the required elastic properties of the

pavement,

• the elastic properties of the pavement to basic stress and strain criteria,

• stress and strain criteria to expected life, and

• stress and strain criteria to required overlay thickness.

The curves are derived from results of the theoretical linear elastic analysis of a number
of pavements covering a number of pavement layer configurations and conditions.
Curves used for the evaluation of basic material properties are usually based on only
one or two critical parameters, usually horizontal strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer
and/or vertical strain at the top of the subgrade layer. These methods are applicable
only to pavements with material properties and critical distress parameters similar to
those considered in the derivation of the curves.

4.4.4 The desiqn charts approach

Methods using this approach2 are usually much more comprehensive than those using
design curves. These methods incorporate most design aspects in a large number of
design charts. Measurable pavement response parameters are used in empirically or
theoretically derived relationships to characterise pavement materials in terms of their
elastic properties. The elastic properties of a pavement are used in design charts in a
simulated computer analysis to determine the critical pavement parameters. A large
number of design charts is required in order to incorporate a reasonable number of
possible pavement layer types, thicknesses and configurations.

This approach simplify the use of linear elastic theory and incorporate some additional
 4-12

assumptions limit the type and number and facilitate the use of basic design charts
required. Evaluation of existing pavements is usually limited to one or two critical
parameters. Methods using this approach are applicable to pavements that can be
accommodated by the design charts and that have those critical pavement parameters
and conditions which have been considered in the derivation of the charts.

4.4.5 The non-simplified approach

Methods using this approach2 have the potential of fully utilising linear elastic theory to
predict pavement response in terms of stress, strain and elastic displacement. A
number of computer programs may be used to calculate the critical parameters within
the pavement.

The main differences between these methods usually originate from the procedures
used for the characterisation of the materials in the existing pavement. These
procedures vary considerably and may be based on laboratory tests, in-situ testing,
subjective judgment, etc. Assumptions unique to methods using this approach are

usually associated with the procedure of material characterisation and the effect thereof
on predictions.

The non-simplified approach can be used to evaluate any of the basic critical

parameters of stress and strain within any pavement built with any type of material.
Limitations with reqard to the evaluation of some distress parameters result from the
inability of specific methods to include failure criteria for those parameters, and not from
assumptions in the qeneral approach.
 4-13

PAVEMENT REHABILITATION DESIGN METHODS

FIGURE 4.1

Main characteristics of some approaches to pavement rehabilitation design based on theoretical linear
elastic stress-strain theory
 4-14

FIGURE 4.2

A typical flow diagram showing the procedures usually followed in

Theoretical pavement rehabilitation design methods (after monismith21)
 5-1

5. THE SOUTH AFRICAN MECHANISTIC REHABILITATION DESIGN METHOD

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The South African Mechanistic rehabilitation design method has mainly been developed
22,23
at the CSIR and was originally published as a practical method in 1983. The method
2
is based on the linear elasticity theory as applied through the non-simplified approach.
At the time of first publication it represented the "state of the art" in practical methods for
the analysis of existing pavements and the prediction of their behaviour. However, it was
22
realised that scope for the improvement on many aspects in the method exists.
Consequently, work continued on the investigation on the pavement behaviour and
2,24
several improvements have since been developed.

Unique to the method is the incorporation into the method of the experience in pavement
behaviour, which has been gained through accelerated pavement testing with the fleet of
the Heavy Vehicle Simulators25,2,24 (HVSs) over many years since their inception in the
1970's. The HVSs gave invaluable insight into pavement behaviour and pavement layer

interaction and the testing bridged the gap between laboratory testing, pavement
behaviour and the theoretical modelling of pavement response.

The South African mechanistic rehabilitation design method contained in this document

is based on the method as originally published. However, it has been updated and
incorporates several improved concepts in material characterisation and analysis. It can
be expected that the method will further evolve with time and that improvements and new
concepts will continually be developed.

5.2 APPROACH FOR THE USE OF THE METHOD

The use of the South African mechanistic pavement rehabilitation design method is
aimed at the determination of the strengthening needed by the pavement to enable it to
carry the expected traffic loading over the rehabilitation design period. Following the
procedure discussed in the previous sections of this document, it is clear that much

information about the pavement is already available for use at this stage of the
investigation. This includes:

• past cumulative traffic loading (E80s), i.e. the traffic loading the pavement has

carried since it has been constructed or since the last structural rehabilitation,
• future cumulative traffic loading (E80s), i.e. the traffic loading the pavement is
expected to carryover the rehabilitation design period,
• uniform pavement sections identified along the length of the road,
 5-2
• information regarding the condition of each uniform pavement section as determined
through the use of various tests such as deflections, deflection bowl, Dynamic Cone

Penetrometer (DCP) and various other pavement condition and material tests, and
• Information regarding the cause and mechanism of distress and the identified
pavement situation2 of each uniform pavement structural section.

All the available information is used as an input into the SA mechanistic method. The
successful application of the method depends on the accuracy of the modelling of the
existing pavement structure. In rehabilitation design the pavement has carried traffic
loading over a period of time and the materials in the various pavement layers most

probably have changed. Consequently, the pavement structure may not be

representative of the original as-built pavement. It is essential to model the existinq
state of the pavement accurately, using all available input. The key to the use of the
mechanistic method is the in-situ characterisation of the materials in the various

pavement layer in terms of their effective in-situ Elasticity modulus (E), the Poisson's
ratio (v) and the thickness (h) of each layer.

In order to fully understand the past behaviour of the pavement it is often necessary to

back calculate (i.e. determination of the pavement layer characteristics using measured
pavement response measurements, usually deflection bowl measurements) the
pavement behaviour taking into account:

• the original as-built pavement structure (characterised using typical values),

• the past cumulative traffic loading, i.e. the traffic loading the pavement has carried,
and 4111 the existing pavement condition.

As mentioned, the objective of mechanistic design is to accurately simulate the

behaviour of the existing pavement in order to determine the changes or strengthening
required to the pavement structure to enable it to carry the design traffic loading without
exceeding the limits of distress for the particular pavement category. Essential
elements in this procedure are:

• an understanding of pavement behaviour and especially the behaviour of the

pavement materials with time,

• the characterisation of the different materials in a pavement and the changes in the

characteristics of the materials, and

• the identification of the critical parameters and the mode of failure and criteria

applicable to the various different materials.

 5-3
The South African Mechanistic design method comprises of the following steps shown
in Figure 5.1 :

i) Identification of the phase of behaviour of the pavement (Section 5.3),which is a

function of the:
• initial as-built pavement strength (pavement category), ~ pavement type,
• pavement balance,
• pavement state, and
• material state.

ii) Characterisation of the material state in the various pavement layers (Section
5.4) taking into account:
• theoretical model inputs and characteristics,
• pavement environment,
• pavement condition tests, and
• material properties.

iii) Simulation of pavement behaviour (Section 5.5) in terms of the behaviour of the
individual pavement layers:
• bitumen-treated layers,
• cement-treated layers,
• granular layers, and
• soils.

iv) Determination of the rehabilitation needs (Section 5.6).

5.3 PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR

5.3.1 General
Pavement behaviour is a function of the initial as-built construction composition of the
pavement, the load carried by the pavement and the environment in which it operates.
The category of the pavement, as shown in Table 5.126, which depends on the
importance of the road in terms of the traffic loading, road function, etc., can give a
good initial indication of the original as-built strength of the pavement. This information
is, of course, known from the already completed pavement condition assessment.

In addition to the as-built strength, pavement behaviour is controlled by the behaviour

of the materials in the various pavement layers. In this regard, the type and behaviour
of the material in the base course of the pavement is of particular importance,
because:

• it is close to the surface of the road and distress in the base often reflects through
to the surface of the road, and
 5-4

FIGURE 5.1

Main steps in the South African Mechanistic Rehabilitation Design Method

 5-5

• it has little protection in terms of materials covering the layer and hence, a

relatively high quality and load-bearing strength is usually required from the base

course.

Consequently, pavements are often described in terms of the materials contained in

the base of the pavement. The following pavement types are identified which are of
importance in terms of their distinctly different behaviour patterns:

• bitumen-treated base (BTB) pavements,

• cement-treated base pavements (CTBJ,

• lightly Cementitious base (LCTB) pavements, and
• granular base (GB) pavements.

A formal definition for the classification of the "type" of pavement does not at this time,
exist in South Africa. The following definitions27 are used in the United Kingdom and
may be used as a guideline:

• A pavement is classified27 as having a cement-treated base if more than 100 mm of

such material is present in the pavement structure, even if located beneath a
thickness of bitumen surfacing and road base material. Similarly, a pavement is
classified as having a bituminous treated base when more than 150 mm of
bituminous material is present in the pavement structure (provided that there is not
more than 100 mm of cement-treated material present).
• The bituminous layers may be separated by layers of granular material. A pavement
is classified as having a lightly cementitious base when more than 150 mm of this
material is present in the pavement structure (provided that any cement-treated
layer is less than 100 mm thick and that less than 150 mm of bituminous-treated
layers are present in the pavement). If none of the above applies, the pavement is
classified as having a granular road base.

Under the action of traffic and the environment, the materials in the various pavement
layers may change with time. Consequently, at the time of the rehabilitation
investigation treated layers could have broken down and should rather be classified
and analysed similar to granular layers. In this case, the layers will be classified as
equivalent granular layers.

Nevertheless, it is important to simulate the behaviour of the pavement usinq

mechanistic methods, through a back analysis of the pavement behaviour from the
time of construction. In this approach, the simulated behaviour of the pavement, after it
 5-6
has carried the past cumulative traffic loadinq is compared with the observed behaviour
of the existinq pavement. Confidence with reqards to the accurate modellinq of the
pavement for rehabilitation desiqn purposes can only be obtained if the existing
observed behaviour can be explained throuqh the use of the model.

26
Table 5.1: Definition of the main road categories used in pavement design (Draft TRH4 )

* Reliability based on percentile levels in TRH12 (1983) for A, B and C roads

** See Section 4.
*** ES: Equivalent Standard Axle (80kN) Class. See Table 4.
**** Approximate daily traffic in e.v.u.: Equivalent vehicle unit (1,25 vehicle = 1 e.v.u.)
(DOT RR 92/466/2,1993)

***** PSI = Present Serviceability Index, scale 0-5 (TRH6,1985). IRI = International
Roughness Index in mm/m or m/km. IRI = 1,31 + 3,16 in (5/PSI) (Kannemeyer,1996)
 5-7

5.3.2 Pavement balance

Pavement balance may be described as the relative relationship between the load

bearing properties of the adjacent pavement layers. When the characteristics of the
layers are such that a gradual change in these properties throughout the pavement
structure is present, resulting in no stress or strain concentrations, the pavement is
considered to be in-balance. However, when adjacent layers have vastly different

strength characteristics, a sudden change in the load bearing properties of the layer in
the pavement would be present, resulting in high stress or strain concentrations. Such
a pavement would be considered as poorly-balanced. (For an in-depth discussion on
pavement balance, readers are referred to References 28 and 29.)

Pavements are constructed (within practical limitations) with all layers fulfilling
specifications which depend on the required "strength" of a specific layer.
Consequently, relatively large differences in the structural strength and bearing

capacity between adjacent layers may exist. In these cases, the strength of the layers
28 29
may not be balanced and the pavement structure may be classified . as being poorly
balanced.

In time, under the action of traffic, pavement layers tend to become balanced in terms

of the bearing capacity of the pavements. These concepts are particularly well
developed in the use of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) as described in detail
28,29 29
in several documents . The classification of the pavement in terms of strength-
balance gives invaluable information and insight into the expected future behaviour of
the pavement.

Poorly balanced pavements usually contain layers which are relatively stronger or

weaker in terms of the rest of the pavement. These layers can be identified and the
potential influence of such layers can be assessed in the mechanistic modelling of the
pavement.

Pavements identified as containing shallow structures have most of their relative

strength concentrated in the top of the pavement structure and usually consist of one

or two thin, strong and relatively rigid top layers and supporting layers of which the
strength support declines sharply with depth. In contrast, deep pavement structures
consist of a number of layers of similar strength with depth. This information is often of
importance in confirming the mode of failure which occurred, or which can be expected

to occur in a pavement.
 5-8

5.3.3 Pavement state

It is clear that pavements may go through various phases describing changes in
behaviour and hence pavement condition. Usually, a pavement will change from a stiff
22
to more flexible type of pavement, as shown in Figure 5.2 . Deflection or deflection
bowl parameters can be used to more closely identify the state of behaviour of a
pavement according to Table 5.222 and 5.330 and discussed in more detail in
Appendix C.

22
Table 5.2: Definition of states of pavement behaviour (After Freeme )

Table 5.3: Ranges fro behaviour states (After Horak30)

* Parameters as defined in Appendix C

5-9
5.3.4 Material state
As mentioned, pavement behaviour is controlled by the behaviour of the materials in
the various layers. In considering general trends in the behaviour of pavements
 containing different pavement materials, it must be remembered that the state of the
materials changes with time. Consequently, the general trends in behaviour which are
discussed refer to the oriqinal as built state of the material. It is important to realize

that the state of materials of a pavement under investigation may differ considerably
from the original as-built state. Pavement materials are classified according to codes
and properties shown in Figure 5.326. However, the properties of a cracked or wet
material may differ vastly from the original material.

5.3.4.1 Granular pavement layers

The general trends in behaviour of granular layers in terms of deformation and the

effective dynamic modulus of the layer, are illustrated in Figure 5.422. It is seen that in
the initial phase of the behaviour of layers consisting of granular materials, some
deformation occurs in the wheel tracks.

This deformation is usually referred to as post-construction deformation, during which

the layer further densifies under the action of traffic. It follows that the effective

strength or bearing capacity of the layer may improve during this phase and an
increase in the effective dynamic modulus of the layer may occur.

The amount of post-construction compaction depends on the bearing capacity

(strength) of the layer (in relation to that of the pavement structure as a whole)
achieved during the construction of the layer and the quality of the layer. (Bearing
capacity is inter alia a function of density, moisture, etc.) The higher the quality of the
layer, the higher the specified level of compaction and consequently, the lower the
22
expected initial densification, as illustrated in Figure 5.5 .

Following a phase of initial densification (traffic moulding), the layer usually enters a

stable phase during which little deformation occurs (depending on the bearing
capacity). The rate of increase in deformation during this phase again depends on the
initial quality of the material. The effective elastic modulus may show some change as
a result of an adjustment in the balance of the pavement which may occur under the

action of traffic loading. Layers with a relatively high strength within the pavement
structure may de-densify, while relatively weak layers may show some increase in
strength, due to densification (traffic moulding).
 5-10

Untreated sub-layers usually fails when the shear strength of the layers is exceeded.

Where the initial quality of the material is poor with a resultant low bearing capacity,
high traffic loadings may result in the quick shear failure of the layer and Phase 2 in
the behaviour of the layer, as illustrated in Figure 5.422, may be very short or even

non-existent.

FIGURE 5.2

Diagrammatic representation of the time dependent behaviour of different pavement types

(After Freeme22)
 5-11

FIGURE 5.3

Definition of material symbols used in pavement design (After TRH426)

 5-12

FIGURE 5.4

Indicators of the behaviour of pavement layers constructed with granular materials (GM) (After
Freeme22)
 5-13

FIGURE 5.5
22
Schematic diagram of the relative behaviour of granular material of different qualities (After Freeme )
 5-14
22
In Phase 3, as shown in Figure 5.4 , the layer shows an increase in the rate of
deformation and a relatively quick decrease in its effective elastic modulus. This may
be caused by an increase in moisture content (cracking of surface and ingress of
water through the open cracks) resulting in a sudden decrease in bearing capacity

and/or shear failure of the material.

5.3.4.2 Light cementitious pavement layers

Pavement layers consisting of lightly cementitious materials may behave in two

distinctly different ways. When most of the strength of the pavement is concentrated in
9
the cement-treated layers (shallow pavemene ), the layer usually fails in tension. In
such cases, the behaviour of the layer is similar to the behaviour of relatively strong
cement-treated layers as discussed in Section 5.3.4.3.

In cases where the strength of the pavement is distributed in depth through the
29 24
pavement (depth structure ), the lightly cementitious layer may fail due to crushing
of the top of the layer. The general trends in behaviour of such layers in terms of
pavement deformation and the effective elastic properties of the layers, are illustrated
in Figure 5.6.

During the initial phase of behaviour the layer is still intact and shows little deformation

and a relatively high effective elastic modulus. However, cracking may develop
relatively early and the first phase of the behaviour as illustrated in Figure 5.6, may be
very short, or even non-existing.

With the development of cracks at the top of the layer, the compressive strength of the

layer is exceeded and crushing of the layer takes place. This phase of behaviour is
characterised through a quick reduction in the effective elastic modulus of the layer
and an increase in the rate of deformation as shown in Figure 5.6.

5.3.4.3 Cement-treated pavement layers

General trends of behaviour of relatively strong cement-treated layers in terms of

permanent deformation and effective elastic modulus are shown in Figure 5.7. Most
of the relative strength of a pavement with cement-treated layers are usually
concentrated in these layers. As a result, these layers usually fail in tension (fatigue).

Initially, the cement-treated layer will show virtually no increase in rut depth and the
layer will have a relatively high effective elastic modulus. Typical block cracking
(spacing 4-5 m), due to shrinkage, may develop early in the life of the pavement and
will most probably reflect through to the surface of the pavement if the layer is not
isolated from the surface by granular inter-layers.
 5-15

FIGURE 5.6

Indicators of the behaviour of pavement layers consisting of lightly cement-treated materials (LCTM) or
layers constructed with materials exhibiting a natural cementing action in pavements with a deep
structure
 5-16

FIGURE 5.7

Indicators of the behaviour of pavement layers containing cement-treated materials (CTM) (After
Freeme 22 and Jordaan 31)
 5-17

(In some cases this may not even prevent the cracks from reflecting through to the
surface of the road.) If water is prevented from entering through these cracks, the
shrinkage cracking will have no or little effect on the future behaviour of the pavement
and the pavement will still be in a state of behaviour similar to the pre-cracked phase
as shown in Figure 5.7

However, as a result of fatique from trafficking and the relative weakness of cement in
tension, many cement-treated layers soon develop micro-cracks. These cracks result
in a reduction in the effective elastic modulus of the layer. The layer will still appear
intact in the large blocks due to shrinkage cracking and the rate of deformation (rutting)
will still be low.

The development of micro-cracks will continue up to a point where the layer breaks
down into chunks. The breaking down of the layer usually happens relatively quickly.
The layer now has little resemblance of the initial cement-treated layer. The behaviour
of the layer is now similar to that of a granular layer as described in Section 5.3.4.1.
The quality of this equivalent granular layer is usually somewhat better than the quality
of the virgin material originally used to construct the cement-treated layer.

Some variations31 in the behaviour of cement-treated materials may occur. Depending

on the pavement composition, the point of maximum tension may not be situated at the
bottom of the layer. In such cases, a crack may develop within the layer and part of the
layer (usually the upper part) may break up long before the rest of the layer. In this
case the top part of the cement-.treated layer will form a weaker equivalent granular
inter-layer.

5.3.4.4 Bitumen-treated pavement layers

Bitumen-treated layers are usually found at or near the surface of the pavement. Such
a layer may be very thin and only acts as a protection of the lower structural layers, or
it may also act as an additional structural layer of considerable thickness. Some of the
sub-layers in pavements may also be treated with bitumen and show similar
characteristics to that of asphalt surfacings.

Pavement layers consisting of bitumen-treated materials (BTM) are more water

resistant than layers containing cement-treated materials. Although BTM layers usually
also fail in tension, they are more flexible than CTMs and can, as a rule accommodate
higher deflections for the same traffic loading. However, BTM layers are visco-elastic in
behaviour and hence, temperature susceptible and may deform under high
temperatures and high wheel loadings.
 5-18
General trends in the behaviour of bitumen-treated pavement layers in terms of
permanent deformation and the effective elastic modulus of the layer are shown in
Figure 5.8. Bitumen-treated layers usually show a general increase in deformation
under the action of traffic from the time of construction. The rate of deformation of the
BTM layer is strongly dependent on the properties of the mix, especially, the grading of
the aggregate. The rate of deformation may decrease with time because of an increase
in the stiffness of the binder in the layer due to ageing. However, an increase in the
stiffness of the mix will make the mix more prone to fatigue and thus, cracking.

Similar to CTM layers, cracking usually starts at the bottom of the layer. However, the
point of maximum strain does not always occur at the bottom of the layer and cracking
may also start at a point within the layer or at the top of the layer. Low temperatures,
resulting in a relatively high modulus at the top of the asphalt layer, together with the
surface effect of ageing, may result in the quick development of cracking at the top of
the BTM layer. Cracking will result in a decrease in the general effective modulus of the
layer.

At the end of the fatigue life of the BTM layer, the layer will break up into chunks which
have little resemblance of the original layer. At this stage, behaviour of the layer below
the surfacing is similar to that of a granular layer as described in Section 5.3.4.1. The
quality of the equivalent layer strongly depends on the quality of the original BTM.
Similar to granular material an initial densification will also take place before the rate of
deformation reduces.

The addition of low percentages (1 to 3 per cent) of bitumen-emulsion with or without

the addition of other stabilising agents forms the basis for the construction of emulsion-
treated layers. These layers are usually constructed as sub-layers and show similar
qualities as BTM layers, including:
• high resistance to water,
• highly flexible, and
• can tolerate high deflections under conditions of relatively high traffic loading without
showing excessive deformation.

5.3.4.5 Concrete

General trends in the behaviour of concrete in terms of permanent deformation and

effective elastic modulus, are shown in Figure 5.9. Concrete shows similar trends in
behaviour to cement-treated layers. However, because of the high initial strength of
these layers, they remain in an uncracked state (Phase 1) for most of their lives. At
the end of its fatigue life the layer tends to break down relatively quickly. However,
because of the high as-built quality of the layer, the broken down layer will still be of
relatively high quality showing a low rate of deformation.
 5-19

FIGURE 5.8

Indicators of the behaviour of pavement layers constructed with Bitumen-Treated Materials (BTM) (After
22
Freeme )
 5-20

As shown in Figure 5.9, concrete layers are usually not expected to deform. If
deformation does occur, additional factors such as alkali-aggregate reaction usually
plays a role. Problems with concrete layers can often be associated with the joints in
such layers.

5.4 MATERIAL CHARACTERISATION

5.4.1 General
In order to simulate pavement response using an available and suitable computer
based theoretical model, the characteristics of the pavement must be accurately
determined as an input into the model. The modelling of the pavement should enable
the theoretical model (in this case based on the linear elasticity theory) to accurately
simulate the response of the pavement when subjected to a static standard dual wheel
load of 40 kN (tyre pressure 520 kPa) at a spacing of 350 mm, as shown in Figure 5.10.

The theoretical model calculates pavement response in terms of elastic deflection (0),
strain (e) and stress (a). Of these parameters, elastic deflection can easily be measured
on the pavement and hence, presents a method of comparing the response of the
pavement model with the actual response of the pavement. However, in order to
simulate pavement response accurately, each of the pavement layers, as well as the in-
situ pavement materials, must be accurately characterised in terms of effective elastic
modulus (E), the Poisson's ratio (v) and the thickness (h) of the layer. Of these, only the
thicknesses of the pavement layers can be measured directly.

Poisson's ratio (v) is difficult to reliably measure for pavement materials. However, it has
been found5 that pavement response is relatively insensitive to reasonable variations in
the Poisson's ratio (v). Consequently, pavement response can be accurately simulated
by using estimated values of Poisson's ratio (v) within the known5. 22 ranges of the
various pavement materials.

The determination of the effective elastic moduli (E) of the pavement layers presents a
problem. The effective elastic modulus (E) is affected by the characteristics of the
materials in the layers above and below the layer and is usually a function of the load
applied to the pavement. It follows that the E-modulus of the various layers should
preferably be measured in-situ under a standard dual wheel load of 40 kN.
Unfortunately, no reliable, cost effective test is available for the direct in-situ
measurement of the E-modulus of the various layers. Consequently, the E-modulus of
the various layers are usually derived from laboratory tests or,indirectly from in-situ
tests which give a measure of the response of the pavement.

Of these tests, deflection measurements are the most direct and popular method used
to derive the E-moduli of the pavement layers, mostly because the theoretically
 5-21
calculated pavement response in terms of deflection can be directly compared with the
measured response in terms of deflections.

FIGURE 5.9

Indicators of the behaviour of concrete pavement layers (After Freeme 22)

 5-22

FIGURE 5.10

Pavement modelling under a standard dual wheel load

In characterising the effective elastic modulus (E) of the various pavement components
the following important aspects cannot be over-emphasised:

• The characterisation of pavement materials is usually done for one set of materials
taken under one set of pavement conditions. However, a pavement carries traffic
under a variation of environmental conditions with changes in temperature and
moisture which affects2,32 the bearing capacity of the pavement. To accurately
simulate future pavement behaviour the changes in pavement characteristics and
the effect thereof on pavement behaviour should be addressed and assessed.
• The use of the linear elastic theory only enables the simulation of pavement
response in terms of deflection ( δ ), strain (E) and stress ( σ ) at a specific point in
time. In order to predict future pavement behaviour, transfer functions in terms of
one or more failure theory are used to determine the "life" of a layer in terms of a
specific distress criterion. In the South African mechanistic design method these
transfer functions were derived (or calibrated) using the observed pavement
performance under HVS testing. HVS testing and hence, modelling based on HVS
testing, is done under a slow moving (max 14 km/h) wheel load which approximates
a static wheel load. It follows that characterisation of pavement materials as an input
into the South African mechanistic design method should be based on
measurements taken under a slow movinq wheel load ("creep" speed).
Measurements taken under different conditions must be adjusted to prevent possible
gross inaccuracies in the use of the SA mechanistic method.
 5-23
In order to assist users in the characterisation of the pavement materials, a short
discussion on the following aspects now follows:

• recommendations towards the incorporation of the effect of the environment in

mechanistic design,
• in-situ pavement tests used to characterise the effective elastic moduli of pavement
materials,
• modelling of pavement materials to accurately predict pavement life:
- bitumen-treated materials,

- cement-treated materials,
- granular materials,
- in-situ soils, and

• recommendations towards the characterisation of pavement materials: bitumen-

treated materials,
- cement-treated materials,
- granular materials, and
- in-situ soils.

5.4.2 Environmental considerations

5.4.2.1 General

Fundamental to the accurate prediction of future pavement behaviour using

mechanistic design methods, is the accurate simulation of pavement response. As
previously mentioned, pavement response depends, inter alia, on the prevailing
temperature and moisture conditions under which the pavement functions.
Environmental variables have an influence on the reaction of some pavement
materials under loading and on pavement material characteristics. Therefore, they
directly affect the prediction of pavement life. Both micro and macro-environmental
variables are of importance.

The micro-effect of the variation of temperature within a specific day can have a
major influence on pavement material characterisation when the characterisation is
based on measurements of pavement response, e.g. deflection measurements. For
example, the effect of temperature on the measurement of surface deflection is
illustrated in Figure 5.1136• Temperature effects should be taken into account by
adjusting measurements taken at different temperatures to represent measurements
taken at a standard temperature under which the pavement is normally functioning at
the time of the year.

In addition, the macro or seasonal environmental effects of both temperature and

moisture are also of importance in the prediction of expected pavement life. The
 5-24
possible variation in the bearing capacity of a pavement with season due to
environmental variations is shown in Figure 5.1236. The change in bearing capacity due
to temperature and moisture variations could influence the long-term performance of
the pavement as illustrated in Figures 5.13, 5.14 and 5.1 5 and should be taken into
account in the prediction of remaining life. Although environmental variables cannot be
controlled, their influences can be taken into account by both empirically and linear
elastic theoretically derived design methods through separate functions and by
assuming that "there are natural patterns that are generally repeated"37.

The objective of the consideration and taking into account of environmental factors is to
determine and simulate as accurately as possible the conditions under which the
pavement functions. In order to achieve this objective, the following need to be
considered:

• taking into account micro- (day-to-day) environmental effects:

» the standard temperature under which the pavement functions and which is
used as a basis to adjust pavement condition measurements (e.g. deflections)
taken under different temperature conditions, and
» variation of pavement condition parameters as a function of temperature,

• taking into account seasonal environmental conditions,

» the "standard" temperature conditions under which the pavement functions
during the various months of a year,

» the "standard" moisture conditions under which the pavement functions during
the various months of a year,

» variation in pavement condition factors as a function of temperature and

moisture.

The following aspects must be determined:

• the" standard" temperature conditions under which the pavement functions during
the various months of the year,
• the "standard" moisture conditions under which the pavement functions during the
various months of the year,
• the effect of micro-environmental factors on pavement response, and
• the effect of macro-environmental factors on pavement response.

5.4.2. 2 Temperature variations

Temperature has a considerable effect on the characteristics of especially bitumen-

treated materials. It follows that the response of a pavement containing relatively thick
layers of temperature sensitive materials could vary with a variation in temperature. In
 5-25

order to take this influence into account, the standard temperature32 for the pavement
for each month of the year should be determined. These temperatures refers to the
average temperature of the bituminous layers in the pavement and are defined as the
Mean Monthly Pavement Temperatures (MMPT).

FIGURE 5.11

Changed in deflection with temperature on 4 types of road pavement heated by infra-red heaters (After
35
Kennedy )
 5-26

FIGURE 5.12
36
Variation of bearing capacity with seasons (After Motl as discussed by Isada )

FIGURE 5.13

Sketch illustrating different rate of change of deformation during high* and low-temperature periods
(After Freeme and Viljoen20)
 5-27

FIGURE 5.14

Performance of pavement that is marginally adequate for normal climatic conditions (After Grant and
20
Netterberg )

FIGURE 5.15

Performance of pavement with adequate structural capacity until reduced by surfacing craking or
20
disintegration (After Grant and Netterberg )
 5-28

The MMPT is determined form the Mean Monthly Ambient Temperatures (MMAT). The
MMAT for each month of the year for South Africa is given in Appendix 032• The
32
following formula is used to determine the asphalt temperature at a certain depth in
the asphalt:

5 Z   Z   9 MMAT 
MMPT =  0,76 − 1,7  + 1,8 − 0,017   + 32  − 32
9  25   25   5 
Where:

MMPT = Mean Monthly Pavement Temperature (°C)

MMAT = Mean Monthly Ambient Temperature (°C)
Z = Depth (mm)

The MMPT's at a certain depth within a bitumen-treated (asphalt) layer for different
32 32
MMAT's are given in Table 5.4 • Table 5.5 gives the average temperature for asphalt
layers of different thicknesses for a range of M MAT's.

The following steps are taken to determine the standard temperatures under which a
pavement functions (An example, shown in Table 5.6 of a pavement with a 60 mm
asphalt layer in the Pretoria area, is used to demonstrate the procedure):

i) determine the MMA T for the pavement for each month of the year (Appendix D), .

ii) use the midpoint values of the MMAT ranges (for example if the range is 5 °C to
10°C, the midpoint value is 7,5 °C as shown in Table 5.5) to determine the average
MMPT for each month of the year.

The average (in depth) MMPT for each month is used as the standard temperature for
the pavement for that month as an input into the rehabilitation design procedure.

It is seen that the standard temperature for the example shown in Table 5.6, varies
form 16,9 °C to 28,5 °C, with a Mean Annual Pavement Temperature (MAPT) of 22,7

°C. The pavement functions at a temperature of 16,9 °C for four months, at 22,7 °C for
four months and at 28,5 °C for four months.
 5-29

32
Table 5.4 : Average (with depth) Mean Monthly Pavement Temperature predicted from
Mean Monthly Ambient Temperature for an asphalt layer with a certain depth
 5-30

32
Table 5.5 : Mean Monthly Pavement Temperature at a certain depth predicted from the
Mean Monthly Ambient Temperature
 5-31

Table 5.6: Mean Monthly Pavement Temperature for a pavement with a 60mm asphalt
layer in the Pretoria areas

MONTH REGION

PRETORIA

MMAT MMPT

January 22,5 28,49

February 22,5 28,49

March 22,5 28,49

April 17,5 22,69

May 12,5 16,89

June 12,5 16,89

July 12,5 16,89

August 12,5 16,89

September 17,5 22,69

October 17,5 22,69

November 17,5 22,69

December 22,5 28,49

MAPT 22,69

5.4.2.3 Moisture variation

Similar to temperature variations, moisture could influence the response of a pavement
under loading. The characteristics of granular materials, in particular, are influenced by
changes in the moisture condition. An increase in moisture could lead to a decrease in
the bearing capacity of the granular layers and the subgrade.

It is well known that pavement condition measurements such as deflection

measurements are influenced by the variations in the moisture conditions in a
pavement. Deflection measurements are usually a maximum just after the rain season.

Unfortunately the effect of changes in moisture conditions on specific pavement

parameters such as deflection, OCP, etc. has not, as yet, been scientifically quantified
in South Africa. Consequently, no procedure can at this stage be recommended to take
into account changes in the moisture condition of pavements.
 5-32

5.4.2.4 Taking into account micro-environmental effects

The effect of temperature variations within any day on pavement condition
assessment parameters is a function of the pavement composition. The type of
pavement, i.e. the type of material in the base-course and the thickness of the
bitumen-treated (asphalt) layer are of particular importance in the quantification of the
effect of temperature on deflection measurements.

It is generally found that deflection measurements will increase with an increase in

temperature on pavements with thick asphalt layers as shown in Figure 5.11.
However, this effect differs from pavement to pavement and is extremely difficult to
quantify.

It is recommended that the effect of daily temperature variations be accounted for

indirectly through the correct characterisation of the bitumen-treated materials in the
pavement. This is done by using the measured deflections (measured at a known
temperature of the road surface) to determine the effective elastic (E) modulus of the
layer.

The Mean Pavement Temperature (MPT) for the characterisation of the bitumen
treated layer is determined as follows:

i) Obtain the minimum and maximum air (ambient) temperature for the region in
which the measurements were taken for the five day period prior to the
measurement of deflections,
ii) Calculate the mean air temperature for the five days preceding the day of the
deflection measurements,
iii) Add the mean air temperature determined in (ii.) to the road surface
temperature measured at the time of the deflection measurements,
iv) Use Figure 5.1638 to determine the temperature in the middle and at the bottom
of the
v) bitumen-treated layer,
vi) Calculate the mean pavement temperature as follows:

Temp .Top + Temp .Middle + Temp .Bottom

Mean Pavement Temperature at measurement =
3

The Mean Pavement Temperature at the time of measurement is used to

characterise the bitumen-treated layer as an input into the characterisation of
the pavement using the deflection measurements. After the characterisation of
the rest of the pavement structure, the characteristics of the bitumen treated
layer are adjusted to represent the condition at the MMPT's (see Section
5.4.2.2) under which the pavement functions.
 5-33

5.4.2.5 Taking into account macro (seasonal) environmental effects

a. Temperatures
Temperature variations during the various seasons in a year is taken into account by adjusting

the characteristics of the pavement according to the MMPT's under which the pavement

functions. The characteristics of the bitumen-treated materials are adjusted for the various

MMPT's calculated for the particular pavement (see Section 5.4.2.2).

9 9
°F = °C + 32 or °C = (°F – 32)
5 5
1 in = 25,4mm

38
FIGURE 5.16

Figure for the determination of temperatures in a bitumen-treated layer

It follows that for a one year cycle it is possible to have up to 12 different pavement life
predictions. However, in practice, as shown in Table 5.6, where only three different MMPT's
were calculated, much less variation is usually found. Miner's law39 can now be applied to
calculate the fraction of damage encountered during each month and to determine a typical
design month which, when used, will give an effective pavement life.
 5-34
39
Miner's law is given by:
n
D = ∑ ni
i=1 N i
Where:

D= the total fraction of the pavement life used at each different stress/strain level.
The pavement life will reach its end when D = 1.

n= i
the number of standard repetitions at the i stress/strain level

N= i
pavement life at the i stress/strain level

32
The typical design month is determined as follows (using the example given in Table
5.6 and reproduced in Table 5.7):

i) For each of the different MMPT's characterise the pavement layers and determine
the effective life of the pavement.
ii) Determine the traffic loading expected during each month during the first year of
operation.
iii) Determine the damage caused during one environmental cycle (1 year) using
Miner's law. For the example in Table 5.7.

 0,1   0,1   0,1 

D = 4  + 4  + 4 
 8   7   6 
= 0,1783
iv) Determine the average damage caused to the pavement in each month during year
1. For the example in Table 5.7.

0,1738
AverageD =
12
= 0,0145
v) Determine the effective life of the pavement

Monthlytrafficloadingyear1
Effectivelife =
AverageDyear1

6
0,1x 10
Forexample : Effectivelife =
0,0145
6
= 6,904 x 10 E 80 s

The month(s) most closely associated with the effective life of the pavement can be
used as the design month for the specific pavement. (In the case of the example the
months September, October, November and April can be used as design months.)
 5-35

Table 5.7: Influence of seasonal temperature on effective pavement life

REGION TRAFFIC “DAMAGE”

EFFECTIVE
PRETORIA LOADING CAUSED IN
MONTH PAVEMENT
YEAR 1 EACH
MMAT(°C) MMPT(°C) LIFE (E80S)
(E80S) MONTH
January 22,5 28,49 8 x 106 0,1 x 106 0,0125
6 6
February 22,5 28,49 8 x 10 0,1 x 10 0,0125
6 6
March 22,5 28,49 8 x 10 0,1 x 10 0,0125
6 6
April 17,5 22,69 7 x 10 0,1 x 10 0,0143
May 12,5 16,89 6 x 106 0,1 x 106 0,0167
6 6
June 12,5 16,89 6 x 10 0,1 x 10 0,0167
6 6
July 12,5 16,89 6 x 10 0,1 x 10 0,0167
6 6
August 12,5 16,89 6 x 10 0,1 x 10 0,0167
6 6
September 17,5 22,69 7 x 10 0,1 x 10 0,0143
6 6
October 17,5 22,69 7 x 10 0,1 x 10 0,0143
6 6
November 17,5 22,69 7 x 10 0,1 x 10 0,0143
6 6
December 22,5 28,49 8 x 10 0,1 x 10 0,0125
6 6
Average 22,69 7 x 10 0,1 x 10 0,0145

b. Moisture

When the effect of moisture has been scientifically quantified, as discussed in Section
5.4.2.3, the effect of moisture variations can, together with the effect of temperature,
39
be quantified using for example, Miner's law to determine a design month for a
pavement under consideration.

5.4.3 Tests used in the characterisation of pavement materials for mechanistic desiqn

5.4.3.1 General

The objective is not to describe .9.!! tests used for the characterisation of pavement
materials, as an input into mechanistic design, in detail. However, the tests are
grouped together into broad categories, some problems associated with the tests are
discussed and some popular tests briefly highlighted.

As previously discussed, the objective of material characterisation is the determination

of the effective in-situ properties of the material under a standard load. Many tests are
currently used to derive the effective elastic (E) modulus of the pavement layers.
These tests can roughly be classified as laboratory component tests, in-situ component
tests, pavement response (deflection) tests and in-situ pavement profile investigations.
 5-36

All tests are processed using the applicable percentile values given in Table 5.83.'.

3.1
Table 5.8: Percentile levels recommended for data processing

LENGTH OF ROAD
ALLOWED TO PERFORM PERCENTILE LEVELS
CATEGORY ROAD UNSATISFACTORILY AT RECOMMENDED FOR DATA
THE END OF ITS DESIGN PROCESSING
LIFE (%)
A 5 95
B 10 90
C 20 80

a. laboratory component tests

These tests require material samples to be taken in the field to determine their
properties as an input into the determination of the in-situ effective elastic properties
under a standard wheel load. The in-situ properties can differ vastly from those
measured in the field due to different stress/strain conditions and due to the effect of the
adjacent pavement layers, as previously discussed.

Nevertheless, the testing of bound materials and, in particularly, asphalt materials, can
give an excellent indication of the effective modulus of the material.

Laboratory tests are usually expensive and time consuming and consequently few tests
are normally done during a rehabilitation investigation. When used, enough tests should
be done to give meaningful results. Opinions with regard to the number of tests required
differ considerably. Decisions with regard to the appropriate number of tests should be
taken in liaison with the client (i.e. the road authority).

One of the most popular tests used to characterise granular layers is the California
Bearing Ratio (CBR) of the materials. It is often recommended that the E-modulus of the
34
granular layers can directly be determined using the formula :

E 10 x CBR

Where
E = Effective elastic modulus of the layer (MPa)
CBR = California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of the material
 5-37

The approach to use CBR to determine the E-modulus of materials can not be
4o,41,42,43
recommended. Various studies have shown different relationships for different
materials. Some of the relationships are given in Figure 5.17. From Figure 5.17 it is
clear that no unique relationship between CBR and E-modulus exists.

b. In-situ component tests

These tests include in-situ CBR tests and Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (OCP) tests.
44
Similar to the use of CBR tests, some attempts have been made to determine E-
moduli from OCP penetration rates. However, the scatter encountered is similar to that
found in previous studies between CBR and E-moduli. Studies45 have shown no unique
relationship between OCP penetration rates and the E-moduli of pavement layers.
45
Some success has been achieved through the used of OCP penetration rates
together with surface deflection measurements to estimate the E-moduli of the various
pavement layers.

Nevertheless, OCP tests, as previously discussed, can give valuable information about
the relative strength of pavement layers, the thickness of layers and the presence of
inter-layers.

c. Pavement response (deflection) tests

As previously mentioned, deflection measurements are the most direct and popular
method used to derive the E-modulus of pavement layers, mostly because the
theoretically calculated pavement response in terms of deflections can be directly
compared with the measured response in terms of deflections. Consequently, the use of
defection measurements is identified as an important input for the accurate
characterisation of pavement materials.

However, as illustrated in Figure 5.1830, different combinations of pavement layer

strength combinations could result into the same maximum surface deflection. It
follows that some additional information to maximum surface deflection is required for
the accurate characterisation of individual pavement layers.

The most direct and accurate procedure to determine the in-situ effective moduli of
pavement layers is to measure the deflections at various depths within the pavement
and to adjust the E-moduli in the simulation until the in-depth theoretically calculated
deflections correspond with the measured in-depth deflections. However, the in-depth
deflections are relatively expensive to measure using Multi-depth Oeflectometers
46
(MDDs) and are time-consuming. Consequently, the measurement of in-depth
deflections are usually considered not practical for use on a regular basis. In-depth
deflections are most appropriate for experimental work or specialised investigations.
 5-38

FIGURE 5.17
Some existing CBR- E-modulus correlations
 5-39

In addition to in-depth deflections, some information about the shape of the deflection bowl, as
30
shown in Figure 5.18 , can give valuable input into the characterisation of a pavement for
30
mechanistic design purposes. This aspect is discussed in detail by Horak and more details
are given in Appendix C. Various computer programs are available for the automatic simulation
47
of pavement layer E-moduli from measured deflection bowls. However, studies have shown
that automatically derived pavement layer E-moduli can be problematic resulting in gross
inaccuracies in the analysis of pavements.

Various instruments are currently in use in South Africa for the measurement of maximum
surface deflection and/or deflection bowl parameters. These include:

• the Benkelman Beam (BB),

• the Road Surface Deflectometer (RSD),
• the DRTT deflectograph, and
• Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD).

δ o
= maximum surface deflection

δ r
= deflection measured at a distance r from the point of load

FIGURE 5.18
llustration of pavement deflection caused by different pavement layer strength combinations
30
(After Horak )

The latter three types of deflection measuring apparati measure the full deflection bowl. Except
for the FWD instruments, the rest of the instruments measures the -deflection and deflection
bowl under the effect of a slow-moving vehicle. Material characterisation using these
measurements will be consistent with the HVS data on which much of the SA mechanistic
design method is based.
 5-40

The FWD instruments simulate the movement of a fast moving vehicle. Nevertheless,
the direct use of these results using transfer functions or criteria developed from creep
speed, will often lead to the over-estimation of the in-situ subgrade reaction, even
when compared to actual traffic moving at the simulated speed. Deflection data
measured differently from those on which the transfer functions of the SA mechanistic
design method is based (i.e. deflections measured under a slow moving vehicle (creep
speed)), should be adjusted to represent deflections measured under similar
conditions (Refer Section 5.4.1).

As discussed under Section 5.4.2, environmental conditions could seriously affect the
prediction of pavement behaviour. The effect of temperature and moisture on
pavement deflection and deflection bowl measurements should be taken into account
during the characterisation of pavement materials.

Deflection measurements can also give a good indication of crack movement48 which
could be of importance in the assessment of applicable rehabilitation alternatives.

d. In-situ pavement profile measurements

Test pits which allow for an investigation of a pavement profile will only give a direct
measurement of pavement layer thicknesses. However, valuable subjective data
which could influence pavement layer characterisation could be obtained through a
test pit. Consequently, a few test pits may be warranted when doubt about the
pavement and its characterisation exists. Information of value which could be obtained
through the opening of a few test pits, include:

• the thickness of layers,

• the presence or absence of weak inter-layers, in the pavement,
• the origin of deformation/cracking within the pavement structure,
• the condition in terms of cracking of bound layers in the structure, and
• the presence of excessive moisture within the pavement structure.

5.4.4 Modellinq of the effective elastic properties of pavement lavers

5.4.4.1 General approach

It is recommended that a multi-procedure approach be followed to characterise

pavement layers in terms of their effective E-moduli. Inputs from various tests and
sources should be used to adjust moduli and to ensure that the calculated pavement
response corresponds with the measured response. The type of test recommended
depends on the type of material and the condition of the material in the various
pavement layers.
 5-41

The following general approach to pavement material characterisation is recommended:

Step 1: Bitumen-treated materials

Estimate the E-moduli of any asphalt or bitumen layer on the basis of the material

characteristics, laboratory tests, the condition of the layer (cracked/not cracked), the
temperature during which deflection measurements were taken on the road and the
MMPT's the pavement is expected to function under.

Step 2: Cementitious materials

Estimate the E-moduli of any cementitious layer taking into account the material
characteristics, the condition of the layer and the measured deflection bowl parameters.

Step 3: Granular materials

Estimate the E-moduli of granular layers with the layers containing bound materials
taken as given and adjust the moduli of the granular layer according to the measured

deflection bowl parameters.

Step 4: In-situ soils

Estimate the E-modulus of the in-situ soil subgrade using the material characteristics

and measured deflection bowl parameters. Due to the non-linear behaviour and stress
dependency of granular materials and soils and the limitations of the linear elasticity
theory, it is found necessary for the accurate simulation of pavements to limit the

thickness of the subgrade and to introduce a rigid (very high E-modulus) semi-infinite
49
layer below the subgrade. The depth of the rigid layer depends on the characteristics
of the pavement layers and is determined by ensuring that the measured deflection bowl
is accurately simulated by the pavement model.

5.4.5 Modelling of the effective elastic properties of pavement lavers

5.4.5.1 Bitumen-treated materials

a. Material characteristics
Bitumen-treated layers are visco-elastic in behaviour and the properties of the material
are greatly influenced by temperature and the frequency and duration of the load. In
addition, ageing of the binder due to environmental influences could, in time, cause an
increase in the stiffness of the binder of, especially, the top of the layer. It follows that
the temperature under which a bitumen-treated layer is expected to function is an
important input into the characterisation of the layer.
 5-42

Experience23 in South Africa has shown that a bituminous-treated layer should seldom
(depending on the temperature (MPT)) be modelled for predicting the of in-situ
pavement behaviour during rehabilitation investigations, using an effective elastic
modulus of more than 1500 MPa. Depending on the temperature and the mix
characteristics, the E-modulus can be much lower, as shown in Figure 5.1934.

b. Recommendations towards characterisation

It is recommended that the determination of the E-modulus of asphalt layers be based

34
on laboratory testing of the mix. Shell has found through extensive testing that the mix
modulus depends solely on the stiffness of the bitumen as present in the mix and the
volumetric ratios of the bitumen, aggregate and voids in the mix. The characteristics of
the bitumen change with time and cannot be assumed to be the same as originally
supplied or specified. Hence, the in-situ characteristics of the bitumen as present in the
mix on the road need to be determined. The procedure recommended in the Shel134
pavement design manual to determine the E-modulus (mix stiffness) of the asphalt is
recommended for use.

34
Using the Shell procedure, the stiffness of the bitumen is determined using Van der
Poel's nomograph reproduced in Figure 5.20. If deflection measurements are
available for the pavement characterisation, the operating temperature should be
taken as the mean pavement temperature measurement as calculated in Section
5.4.2.4. In a similar manner the bitumen stiffness modulus can also be determined for
the various temperature operating conditions of the pavement as discussed in Section
5.4.2.

With the stiffness of the bitumen and the volumetric ratios of the bitumen, aggregate
34
and voids in the mix known, Figure 5.21 is used to determine the stiffness modulus
(E-modulus) of the bituminous mix. This stiffness as determined represents the
stiffness of an uncracked layer. The procedure is given in detail in Appendix E which
was taken from the Shell34 design manual.

Alternatively, Figure 5.1934 can be used to obtain an indication of the E-modulus of the
34
asphalt layer at various temperatures. On Figure 5.19 the relationship between the
mix stiffness and temperatures for four typical mixes are given. The mixes are
identified in terms of the mix stiffness (indicated by the mix code S1 and S2) and the
hardness of the bitumen (mix code 50 and 100).

Generally, the mix code34 represents the following mix types:

S 1: dense base course types of mix with average aggregate, bitumen and voids
contents by volume,
S2: open graded mixes with high voids contents and low bitumen contents or
dense mixes with relatively low aggregate contents and high bitumen contents.
 5-43

FIGURE 5.19
Characteristic relationships between mix stiffness and mix temperature (After Shell34)
 5-44

FIGURE 5.20
Van Der Poel Nomograph
 4-45

FIGURE 5.21
Nomograph for mix stiffness (After Shell34)
 5-46

It is seen from Figure 5.1934 that, depending on the mix characteristics, the E-modulus
of a asphalt layer at 20°C could vary between about 1000 MPa and 6000 MPa.
Similarly, at 40°C, the E-modulus of the asphalt layer could vary between about 150
MPa and 700 MPa. Typical E-moduli values for asphalt layer are given in Table 5.9. It
is not recommended that the values in Table 5.8 be used for the analysis of
pavements, but that the E-modulus of the layers be established from laboratory tests
as discussed.

3.1
Table 5.8: Percentile levels recommended for data processing

Material state at Operating E-moduli for different material gradings

time of rehabilitation temperature Gap-graded Continuously grade
Good state of new 20°C 1 500 3 000
material 40°C 300 400
20°C 2 500 4 000
Stiff dry mixture
40°C 600 600
Old state with some 20°C 1 000 1 200
distress 40°C 300 400
20°C 750 800
Very cracked state
40°C 300 400

In determining the mix characteristics34, it should be remembered that the bitumen in

the mix becomes approximately one grade harder (e.g. a 80/100 per bitumen becomes
60/70 per bitumen) under normal temperatures and control during the mixing and laying
process.

The effective E-modulus of layers showing extensive cracking can be reduced,

depending on the degree of cracking, to be similar to that of the supporting layer.

The E-moduli of bitumen-emulsion-treated layers are also strongly dependent on the

mix and material properties. Indications are that such layers would normally function at
E-moduli similar to that of a cement-treated layer in the transition phase as discussed
in Section 5.4.2.3.
 5-47
5.4.4.3 Cement-treated materials

a. Material/layer characteristics

In modern pavements which carry high traffic loadings, sub-layers in pavements are
often treated with cement to improve the strength and hence, the bearing capacity of
materials. The characteristics of cementitious layers vary considerably, depending on
the quality of the aggregate and the amount of stabiliser added, as shown in Figure 5.3
and described in TRH1450. In an uncracked condition, the response of cementitious
layers can be adequately described by the linear elastic theory.

50
Cementitious layers can be divided into high strength (C1 and C2) and lightly
50
cemented (C3 and C4) layers. The initial characteristics of the layer and the
behaviour as discussed in Section 5.3.4.3, are a function of the as-built strength of the
layer.

Cement-treated layers may fail in fatigue or due to crushing24 of the top of the layer.
The effective E-modulus of a good cement-treated pavement layer (C1 and C2) is
relatively high (> 4000 MPa) directly after construction of a pavement. Under these
circumstances relatively low horizontal tensile strains usually develop at the bottom of
the layer. However, these "low" tensile strains are often enough for the development of
micro-cracks51. Micro-cracks will develop under loading at strain levels of about 25 per
51
cent of the strain at break . It follows that, depending on the initial strength of the
2
layer, micro-cracking will develop with tensile strength as low as 30 to 36 µε .

Despite the presence of micro-cracks, the cemented layer will still appear intact. If
tested, the layer will also show a relatively high compressive strength (UCS > 3 MPa).
However, the layer fails in tension and consequently, the tensile strength must be
evaluated. The modulus of cemented layers under compression stresses could be as
high as ten times52 the value under tensile stress. It follows that, under these
circumstances, a CTB layer should ideally be modelled using an anisotropic
53
modulus - high vertically in compression and low horizontally in tension. In the case
of the assessment of the fatigue life of the layer in terms of its tensile strength, using
the linear elastic theory which assumes isotropic behaviour, it is appropriate to model
the layer using an effective elastic modulus associated with the tensile strength of the
53
layer •

Although the CTB layer may originally have a "high" modulus, the horizontal tensile
strains in the layer under a standard axle loading are usually in excess of 30 JJC.
These relatively low strains will result in the development of micro-cracks as soon as a
load is placed on the pavement. Hence, it is believed that in many cases, the phase in
the life of the pavement where the CTB layer has a "high" modulus (Phase I in Figure
5.6 and 5.7) is relatively short and can, for all practical purposes, be ignored. The
 5-48
development of micro-cracks results in a lowering of the effective E-modulus of the layer
and the layer is in a transitional phase as shown in Phase 1/ of Figure 5.7.

In practice, with a relatively low effective E-modulus of cemented layers in tension, the
maximum strain of cemented layers are often not at the bottom of the layer52. This could
cause a break to occur within the layer at the point of maximum strain. High tensile
strain in the sub-layer at the top of the original layer will cause the sub-layer to break
down quickly into an equivalent granular layer with characteristics equal to that of a
granular layer. If water ingress through cracks in the surfacing layer is allowed to take
place the effective E-modulus of any sub-layer could be very low.

b. Recommendations towards characterisation

It is recommended that the E-modulus of cemented layers be based on the in-situ
condition of the layer, an assessment of pavement condition tests (deflection
measurements) and the back-analysis of pavement behaviour to explain the current
pavement condition.

It can safely be assumed that cement-treated layers in pavements not in a very stiff or
stiff state are not in a pre-cracked phase of behaviour (refer Figure 5.7). Cores drilled
trough the cement-treated layers will show the presence of any weak or broken up sub-
layers. If part or whole of the layers still appears intact these parts of the layers can be
assumed to be in the transitional phase of behaviour as shown in Figure 5.7. Test pits
will confirm the condition of the layers and the need, for accurate simulation, to
subdivide layers into partly broken-up and partly intact layers.

The objectives of layer characterisation is to enable the accurate determination of "life"

of the layer in each phase of behaviour as shown in Figure 5.7. Typical ranges of
effective E-modulus for material in the various phases of behaviour are given in Table
5.10. These values are based on experience2 gained through HVS testing in South
Africa.

5.4.4.4 Granular materials

a. Material/layer characteristics
Granular layers are encountered in almost all pavements in southern Africa. Layers
constructed with untreated granular materials may be used in the base, sub-base
and/or selected layers of pavements. The characteristics of these layers depend on the
quality of parent material used to construct the layer and the specifications
(compaction) to which the layers were constructed.
 5-49

Table 5.10: Typical effective ranges of E-moduli for cement-treated materials in

various stages of behaviour

PHASE 1 PHASE 2 PHASE 3

UCS Pre-cracked Transitional Post-cracked phase-
Origi
(MPa) Parent Material phase with phase layer layer broken up in
nal
pre- large intact, but equivalent granular
Cod
cracked shrinkage micro-cracks state
e
state cracks present Dry Wet
(MPa) (MPa) State State
Crushed stone G2
C1 6 - 12 2500 - 3000 800 - 1000 400 - 600 50 – 400
Crushed stone G3
Crushed stone G2
C2 3–6 Crushed stone G3 2000 - 2500 500 - 800 300 - 500 50 - 300
Gravel G4
G4
G5
C3 1,5 - 3 Gravel G6 1000 - 2000 500 - 800 200 - 400 20 – 200
G7
G8
G4
G5
G6
C4 0,75 - 1,5 G7 500 - 2000 400 - 600 100 - 350 20 - 200
G8
G9
G10

Layers constructed with granular materials are non-linear or stress depertdent in

behaviour. The effective E-modulus (also referred to as the resilient modulus) of
unbound sands and gravels increases with the confining pressure or mean normal
stress. The resilient modulus of granular materials is approximated by6:

= k 1θ
k2
E R

Where:

E R
= resilient modules

k ;k1 2
= regression constants dependent on the material type and state

θ = sum of the principal stresses (θ = σ + σ + σ )

1 2 3
 5-50

The effective E-modulus of granular layers is a function of the modulus of the

supportive layer and the granular interlocking achieved during the construction of the
10 45
layer . Tensile stresses occur in granular layers when the relationship E granular / E
subgrade > about 1. Figure 5.22 shows a plot of the relationship between the tensile
stress ( σ r) at the bottom of a granular base layer in a three layer pavement, and the
applied vertical surface stress ( σ 0)' It is seen that the bottom of the layer is in tension
when E2/E3 > about 1. Compression would normally result in the compaction of
materials, while tension would result in the expansion or decompaction of materials.
However, due to friction between grains, the granular layer can withstand a certain
amount of tension without expanding. The friction stress10 resisting radial displacement
is defined as:

σ f
= gσ r

Where:

σ f
= frictional stress

g = aggregate interlocking factor (0<g<1)

As shown in Figure 5.22, when g = 0,5 the ratio E2/E3 ≈ 2. The effect is further
10
demonstrated in Figure 5.23 to show modular ratios where compaction and
decompaction may occur. The mass of the material above the point of tension will
contribute to the confining effecLand increase interparticle friction, resulting in moduli
ratios of up to 3 to 5. The effect and occurance in granular layers of tensiel stresses
could be quantified more accurately if a gradual reduction in modulus, due to the stress
dependent nature of the material, is taken into account.

b. Recommendations towards characterisation

Due to the complex material/layer characteristics and the inter-relation between

granular layers and the composition of the pavement structure, it is extremely difficult
to determine the effective modulus of granular layers in a laboratory. The
characteristics of granular layers should preferably be determined through in-situ
testing. It is recommended that the moduli of granular layers be determined through
trail and error until the simulated deflection bowl of the pavement corresponds with the
measured deflection bowl. Limitations in possible modular ratios, as discussed, should
be taken into account in the estimation of the moduli of granular layers. Typical ranges
of effective E-moduli for layers with granular materials are given in Table 5.11. These
values are based on experience gained through the analysis of pavements from HVS
2,17,22,24
testing in South Africa.
 5-51

Table 5.11: Typical ranges of the effective E-moduli for pavement layers with
granular materials

Over
Over Wet state Wet state
cemented
Material Abbreviated granular or (good (poor
Code layer slab
description specification equivalent support) support)
state
(MPA) (MPA) (MPA)
(MPA)

High quality 86% - 88%

G1 crushed BRD 250 – 1000 150 – 600 50 - 250 40 - 200
stone impermeable

Crushed 100 - 102%

G2 200 - 800 100 – 400 50 - 200 40 - 200
stone Mod AASHTO

Crushed 98 - 100%
G3 200 - 800 100 - 350 50 - 150 40 - 200
stone Mod AASHTO

Gravel base
G4 BR 80 100 - 600 75 - 350 50 - 150 30 - 200
quality
Pl 6

G5 Gravel CBR 45 50 - 400 40 -300 30 - 200 20 - 150

Pl 10-15
Gravel low
G6 quality sub- CBR 25 50 - 200 30 - 200 20 - 150 20 - 150
base
POISSON’S RATIO 0,35

5.4.4.5 Soils

a. Material/layer characteristics

In-situ subgrade materials (fine-graded and cohesive soils) are, similar to granular
materials non-linear and stress-dependent in behaviour. However, in contrast to
granular materials the effective E-moduli (or resilient modulus) of in-situ soils
decreases5 with an increase in the repeated stress-level ( σ d). It follows that the E-
modulus of the in-situ soils will show an increase in depth with a decrease in the
repeated stress. The effective E-modulus of the in-situ soil will be at a lowest at the top
of the subgrade at the point of the highest level of repeated stress. For some soils the
effective E-modulus is relatively unaffected by small changes in the confining pressure.
 5-52

FIGURE 5.22
Effect of granular interlock on the value of modular ratio E2/E3 at which tensile stresses occur (After
54
Monismith Et Al )

FIGURE 5.23
55
Approximation of stability limits for granular bases (After Heukelom and Klomp )
 5-53

Subgrades are usually modelled as a layer cOntaining a constant E-modulus of semi-

infinite thickness. In order to simulate pavement response under such conditions the
subgrade is represented by an "average" modulus. This modulus will usually be higher
than actual at the top of the subgrade and lower than actual in depth to achieve balance.
The most vulnerable point in the subgrade is at the point of lowest modulus, i.e. at the
top of the subgrade. In order to simulate as accurately as possible the reaction of the
pavement, the E-modulus at the top of the layer should be representative of the actual in-
situ E-modulus. This can be achieved through the introduction of a simi-infinite layer of a
high modulus (rigid layer) in depth. The E-modulus can be lowered to represent the
actual E-modulus at the top of the layer. Balance in pavement response is achieved
through a variation in the depth of the rigid layer.

b. Recommendations towards characterisation

Similar to granular layers, it is difficult to simulate the in-situ pavement conditions in a
laboratory and consequently, it is difficult to characterise the subgrade in a laboratory.
The effective E-modulus of the subgrade should preferably be determined in-situ. It is
recommended that the in-situ modulus be modelled to ensure that the simulated
response in terms of deflection bowl parameters, is equal to the measured deflection
bowl. Typical ranges of the effective E-modulus of subgrade soils are given in Table
5.12. These values are based on experience gained through HVS testing in South Africa.

Table 5.12: Typical ranges of the effective E-moduli for in-situ subgrade layers of
pavements
EFFECTIVE E-MODULUS (MPa)
CODE SOAKED CBR MATERIAL
DRY STATE WET STATE
G7 ≥ 15 Soil 30 - 200 20 - 120
G8 ≥ 10 Soil 30 - 180 20 - 90
G9 ≥7 Soil 30 - 140 20 - 70
G10 ≥3 Soil 20 - 90 10 - 45

5.5 MODELLING OF PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR

5.5.1 General
At this stage of rehabilitation design the pavement layers have been characterised in
terms of the effective E-moduli (E), the Poisson's ratio (v) and the thickness (h) of the
various layers. The pavement characteristics can now be used in any of a number of
suitable computer programs such as ELSYM, CHEVRON, MECDE, BISAR and BISTRO
to calculate the pavement response in terms of deflections ( δ ), stresses ( σ ) and
strains ( ε ). The characterisation of the pavement ensures that the response of the
simulated pavement in terms of measured deflection and/or deflection bowl corresponds
with the measur-ed parameters. The simulated response in terms of stresses ( σ ) and
strains ( ε ) can now be utilised through an applicable failure theory and transfer
functions to predict the future behaviour of each pavement layer and to determine its
influence on the behaviour of the pavement as a whole.
 5 -54

The failure of anyone layer does not necessarily mean that the pavement has come to
the end of its design life. Pavement "life" is usually defined in terms of level of cracking
and/or deformation. Cracking is usually an indicator to the designer of a layer not
performing as originally constructed and that the surface is open through which water
can penetrate the structure and causes damage. In contrast, pavement deformation in
the wheel tracks (rutting) could directly influence the safety and riding quality of the road
user.

It follows that cracking is used as an indicator of the possibility of future damage due to
water ingress. However, rutting influences the road user and requires urgent attention.
Levels of rutting as defined in TRH12' are used as a description of pavement end of life.
A rut depth of 10 mm is considered as warning, while a 20 mm rut depth is considered to
represent a severe condition.

In order to simulate the behaviour of the pavement, several iterations in pavement

response modelling to simulate the various phases in the behaviour of the pavement
17 22
layers are often needed. Figure 5.24 • shows a worksheet which can be used to
analyse various phases in the life of a pavement. The use of this worksheet is
demonstrated in Figure 5.2517.22.

As mentioned, each pavement layer is ana lysed using an applicable failure theory. The
applicable theory and criteria is a function of the type of material in each layer and the
condition of each layer as characterised. The follov/ing types of pavement layers are
subject to distress and require analysis in terms of failure:
• bituminous layers,
• cemented layers,
• granular layers, and
• in-situ soils.

The pavement response parameters critical to the analysis of the various layer types are
summarised in Table 5.13.

Table 5.12: Pavement response parameters critical to the analysis of pavement layers
MATERIAL TYPE MODE OF CRITICAL REMARKS
DISTRESS
1. Bitumen-treated: Cracking Horizontal tensile strain ( ε r) Position of strain not
• thin (20-75mm) always at the bottom of
• thick Stress state in asphalt the layer
34
Deformation Refer Shell
2. Cemented layer Cracking Horizontal tensile strain ( ε r) Position of strain not
Vertical compressive stress always at the bottom of
Crushing ( σ v) the layer

3. Granular layers Deformation Stress state in layer

4. Soil Deformation Vertical comprehensive
strain at the top layer
 5-55

ROAD CATEGORY
PAVEMENT STRUCTURE DESIGN TRAFFIC CLASSES
PAVEMENT TYPE
INPUT VALUES CRITICAL PARAMETERS
Thick- E-Value (MPa) Stress ( σ 1,kPa); Strains ( ε )
Layer Poisson
ness Phase Phase Phase
number ratio Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
(mm) 1 2 3

INTERPRETATION AND EVALUATION

LAYER LAYER LIFE (E80)

NUM- STRUCTURAL LIFE (E80)
PHASE 1 PHASE 2 PHASE 3
BER

DEFLECTION (MM)

INITIAL FINAL

FIGURE 5.24
17
Worksheet used for the mechanistic structural analysis of pavements (After Maree )
 5-56

FIGURE 5.25
Example of a mechanistic analysis of pavements structure
 5-57
.5.2 Bitumen-treated lavers
Bitumen-treated layers are analysed in terms of deformation and cracking.

5.5.2.1 Deformation

Bitumen-treated layers are susceptible deformation in the layer, especially under the
conditions of high temperatures, steep gradients and slow-moving heavy axle loads. The
deformation characteristics are a function of the layer characteristics. Consequently, any
assessment of the deformation potential of asphalt layers should be based on tests of
the properties of the existing layer.

No scientifically proven procedure for the assessment of the deformation of asphalt

layers in South Africa can, at this stage be recommended. However, the SHELL34
method for asphalt pavements and overlays contains an elaborate procedure for the
assessment of deformation of asphalt layers. The SHELL34 method is based on the
material properties of the layer and takes the temperature gradient in asphalt layers into
account. The SHELL34 method to assess deformation potential holds promise, but its
applicability should be evaluated in South Africa before it can be recommended for
general use.

At this stage, excessive deformation can be prevented by ensuring that asphalt layers
are constructed according to the specifications contained in TRH866•

5.5.2.2 Cracking.

Cracking in bituminous layers is primarily the result of fatigue of the layers due to
bending under the effect of traffic loads. The horizontal tensile strain (E) in asphalt layers
is used to determine the fatigue life of the layer. The fatigue criteria depend on the
thickness of the asphalt layer, the traffic loading and the type of mix.

Various aspects should be taken into account when an asphalt or bitumen-treated layer
IS analysed in terms if its fatigue life. These include:

• the applicable fatigue criteria,

• the position of maximum horizontal strain in the layer, and
• the situation in which the asphalt layer is analysed, which could be:
⋅ a new layer on a granular base; determine fatigue life,

⋅ an old uncracked layer; determine remaining life,

⋅ an asphalt layer on a cracked cement treated layer; determine fatigue life taking
into account the effect of the cracked CTB layer,
⋅ a new asphalt layer on an existing uncracked asphalt layer; determine remaining
life, and
⋅ a new asphalt layer on an existing cracked layer; determine fatigue life.
 5-58
a. Fatigue criteria
As mentioned, the fatigue criteria is a function of the thickness of the asphalt layer, the
traffic loading and the type of mix.

i) Thin asphalt surfacings (thickness between 20mm and 75 mm)

The criteria in Figures 5.26(a) and 5.26(b), respectively for gap-graded and continuously
graded asphalt, are applicable for the analysis of thin asphalt surfacings. The criteria
have been adjusted to be applicable for the determination of actual field behaviour.

The fatigue life of thin asphalt surfacings is a function of the total number of axles,
irrespective of the load, that pass over the surfacings.

ii) Thick bitumen and tar hot-mix bases (Thickness> 75 mm)

(Also recommended for cold-mix emulsion treated layers)
22
The criteria in Figure 5.27 are applicable for the analysis of the fatigue life of thick
bituminous and tar hot-mix layers as well as for the analysis of emulsion-treated layers.
For tar hot-mix bases the fatigue life given in Figure 5.27 should be reduced by 50 per

cent.

The criteria given in Figure 5.27 give the life to crack initiation at a point in the asphalt

layer. This crack will not be immediately visible on the surface of the layer, but will take
time to reflect through to the surface. The reflection of the crack is a function of the
thickness of the layer from the point of crack initiation to the top of the layer, as shown in
Figure 5.282. The fatigue life, as determined from Figure 5.27 is multiplied by an

appropriate shift factor to determine the life of the pavement, up to visible cracking on the
surface of this layer.

b. Position of maximum horizontal tensile strain

The maximum horizontal tensile strain is used to determine the fatigue life of asphalt
layers. The position of the maximum horizontal tensile strain is not always found at the
34
bottom of the asphalt layer. The level at which the maximum strain is found at the
bottom of the layer when:

34
h1 (E2/E1) < 133 (After SHELL )

Where:
h1 = thickness of the asphalt layer (mm)
E2 = modulus of the base layer (MPa)
E1 = modulus of the asphalt layer (MPa)
 5-59

FIGURE 5.26
22
Recommended criteria for bitumen surfacings with a thickness of 20-75mm (After Freeme )
 5-60

FIGURE 5.27
Recommended fatigue life criteria for thick Bitumen bases with a thickness of more than 75mm (After
22
Freeme )

FIGURE 5.282
2
Shift factor for asphalt layers to allow for crack propagation through the layer (After Jordaan )
 5-61

It is seen that for high modular ratios and a thick asphalt layer, the position of the
maximum strain will, most probably, be in the layer itself. In such cases the maximum

strain will be in the lower half of the asphalt layer when h1 ≤ 200 mm, and in the upper
half when h1 > 200 mm. A detailed analysis of the layer will be required to determine the
position and magnitude of the maximum strain.

c. Analysis of bitumen-treated layers in various situations

The determination of the fatique life of an asphalt layer depends strongly on the specific
pavement situation. A number of different pavement situations was identified, each of
which could result in different fatique lifes of the asphalt layer. The flow diagram in
Figure 5.29 can be used to identify the pavement situation which applies to a particular
case and hence, the process that should be followed.

i) Remaining life of an old uncracked layer.

The following steps are taken:

1. Calculate the fatigue life of the asphalt as discussed in Section 5.5.2.2(c)(i).

2. Calculate the remaining life of the asphalt layer by subtracting the past equivalent
cumulative traffic loading from the fatigue life.

3. The relative remaining life of the asphalt layer is determined using Miner's
34,39
concept

Relative NR = 1 – (NA1/ND1)

Where:
NR = relative remaining life in terms of standard axle loads
NA1 = number of standard axle loads carried to date
ND1 = fatigue life of the asphalt layer in terms of standard axle loads

ii) New asphalt layer

The following steps are followed to determine the fatigue life of a bitumen-treated layer:

1. Determine the position of maximum strain in the layer.

If h1 (E2/E1) < 133 the strain at the bottom of the layer is used to calculate the
fatigue life of the layer.
 5-62

Determination of the fatigue life of

an asphalt layer

No
Is it a new asphalt layer?

Use situation (i) to determine the

fatigue life of the existing
uncracked asphalt layer Yes

Use situation (ii) to determine the No Is the new asphalt layer placed
fatigue life of the new asphalt on an existing asphalt or
layer cemented layer?

Yes
Use situation (iii) to determine the No
Is the existing layer an asphalt
fatigue life of the new asphalt
layer?
layer

Yes

Use situation (iv) to determine the No

fatigue life of the new asphalt Is the existing asphalt layer
layer cracked?

Use situation (v) to determine the Yes

fatigue life of the new asphalt
layer

FIGURE 5.29
Flow diagram to identify the pavement situation applicable to determine the fatigue life of an asphalt
layer
 5-63

If h1 (E2/E1) ≥ 133 the strain is not a maximum at the bottom of the layer and a
detailed analysis of the asphalt layer is carried out to determine the position of the
maximum strain (E) within the layer.

2. Determine the thickness of the layer above the point at which the maximum

horizontal tensile strain is found.

3. Take into account the total thickness of the layer to determine the criteria

applicable for the analysis of the fatigue life of the layer:

If thickness ≤ 75 mm, continue with Step 4,

If thickness > 75 mm, continue with Step 5.

4. Take the mix characteristics into account to select the criteria in Figure 5.26
which is appropriate to the analysis of the layer. The maximum horizontal tensile
strain calculated by an appropriate computer program is used in Figure 5.26 to
calculate the fatigue life of the layer.

5. The maximum horizontal tensile strain is used together with the E-modulus of the

layer in Figure 5.27 to determine the fatigue life of the layer to crack initiation.

6. Use the thickness calculated in Step 2 in Figure 5.28 to determine the shift factor

applicable to the pavement layer.

7. Multiply the fatigue life to crack initiation (Step 5) with the shift factor (Step 6) to

determine the life to visible cracking at the top of the asphalt layer.

iii) New asphalt overlay on a cracked cement-treated layer (reflection cracking)

Cracking of a cemented layer below an asphalt layer usually results in accelerated

cracking of the asphalt layer. The factors influencing the reflection of cracks are
identified in Figure 5.302. Although a cracked cemented base is taken into account
through a lower effective modulus, some additional allowance should be made to
account for the effect of the cracks. This is done as follows2,53:

1. Adjust the calculated horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer
( ε r), to allow for the discontinuity of cracks in the supportive layer. This is done
by increasing the asphalt strain εr by a factor. The adjusted asphalt strain is
known as the modified asphalt strain ( ε r n) where:
 5-64

Where: n ≈3

2.Use the modified asphalt strain (Ern) to determine the fatigue life of the pavement as

discussed in Section 5.5.2.2(c)(i).

FIGURE 5.302
Factors influencing the formation of cracking of a pavement containing a cement treated base course

iv) New asphalt layer on an old existing uncracked asphalt layer

In this case the position of maximum strain will still occur in the old layer (most
probably at the bottom of that layer). The fraction of life used up by the old asphalt
layer prior to the placing of a new asphalt layer, should be taken into account in
the design of the new layer. The following steps are taken:

1. Determine the relative remaining life NR of the old asphalt layer as discussed in
Section 5.5.2.2(c)(ii).

2. The cumulative traffic loading expected during the rehabilitation design life
(NA2) as a fraction of the design fatigue life for the rehabilitation design period

(ND2) should be equal to the remaining life:

 5-65

N A 2 N A1
= 1 −
N D 2 N D1

Determine the design fatigue life of the asphalt for the rehabilitation design period:

ND2 = NA2 X ND1/(ND1 – NA1)

3. Use ND2 with the appropriate fatigue criteria (Figure 5.26 or 5.27) to find the
design strain ( ε rd) for the asphalt layer.

4. The design ( ε rd) can now be used to find the thickness of the asphalt overlay
required on the pavement to prevent cracking of the layer.

v) New asphalt layer on an existing cracked layer

If large active cracks are present the procedure to determine the fatigue life of the
new layer would be similar to that of an asphalt over-lay on a cracked cemented
layer as discussed in Section 5.5.2.2(c) (iii).

However, if the asphalt has broken down with cracks showing little activity, the
procedure of analysis should be similar to that discussed in Section 5.5.2.2(c)(i).

5.5.3 Cemented lavers

Cemented layers are analysed in terms of fatigue cracking and crushing. Deformation
in this layer will occur after these layers have broken down (due to cracking and/or
crushing) to represent equivalent granular layers. When broken down the layers
should be analysed similarly to that of granular layers as discussed in Section 5.5.4.

5.5.3.1 Fatigue cracking

Fatigue cracking in cemented layers is primarily the result of cumulative damage
caused by the bending of the layer under the effect of traffic loading. The horizontal
tensile strain ( ε r) in a cemented layer is used to determine the fatigue life of the
pavement. The fatigue life of the pavement is defined as the life to a state where the
layer breaks up into an equivalent granular layer. Hence, the fatigue life of cemented
layers encompass both Phase 1 and Phase 2 in the behaviour of cemented layers as
shown in Figure 5.7.
 5-66

Various aspects should be taken into account when a cemented layer is analysed in
terms of the fatigue life of the layer. These include:
• the applicable fatigue criteria (which depend on the quality of the layer (Table 5.9)
and the behaviour phase (Figure 5.7)),
• shrinkage cracking,
• the position of maximum strain, and
• the condition of the cemented layer:
⋅ analysis of new layers, and
⋅ analysis of old layers.

a. Fatigue criteria
The fatigue criteria applicable to the analysis of cemented layers are a function of the

behaviour phase in which the layer is, as shown in Figure 5.7 and the quality of the layer

(strength of cementation). When a layer is in behaviour Phase 1, the fatigue life to crack

initiation is given by the formula50:

( ε /ε )
9 ,1 1−
N = 10 f
s b

Where:

N f
= number of standard load repetitions to crack initiation

ε s
= traffic induced strain as adjusted for shrinkage cracking

ε b
= tensile strain at break

In behaviour Phase 2, as shown in Figure 5.7, the presence of micro-cracks effectively

leads to a reduction in the traffic induced strain as adjusted for shrinkage cracking. The

fatigue criteria applicable to determine the effective life in behaviour Phase 2, depends

on the strength of the cementation of the layer. Different criteria applies to strongly

cemented (C, and C) layers2 compared to lightly cemented (C3 and C4) layers24•

2
i) Strongly cemented (C, and C2) layers
The effect of micro cracking is taken into account by increasing the strain at break
by a factor m. The fatigue life for strongly cemented layers in Phase 2 is given by
2 53
the formula . :

( ε /ε )
9 ,1 1−
N ef
= 10 s bm

Where:

N ef
= number of standard load repetitions to crack initiation for strongly

cemented materials
 5-67

ε s
= traffic induced strain as adjusted for shrinkage cracking (µE )
ε bm
= tensile strain at break modified to take the effect of micro-cracks into

account and (ε bm
= mε b )(µE )

ε b
= elastic tensile strain at break (µE )
m = 4,7

2,53
The fatigue criteria for strongly cemented layers are given in Figure 5.31 .

ii) Lightly cemented (C3 and C4) layers

The criteria applicable for the analysis of lightly cemented (C3 and C4) layers are
shown in Figure 5.3224. This formula gives the effective fatigue life24 to
approximately 50 per cent cracking (based on area) on the surface of the
24
cemented layer which is associated with approximately 2mm permanent
deformation on the top of the layer. The effective fatigue life of lightly cemented
layers is given by24:

= 10
( ε /8 xε )
7 ,19 1−
N ef
s b

Where:

N ef
= effective fatique life for lightly cementitious materials

ε s
= traffic induced strain as adjusted for shrinkage cracking (µE )
ε b
= elastic tensile strain at break (µE )
b. Shrinkage cracking
Shrinkage cracking is accounted for by increasing the traffic induced strain (E) at the
bottom of the cemented layer by a factor d, which is obtained from Table 5.14.

Table 5.14 Factor, d, for modifying the tensile strain included in cemented
materials to allow for the presence of shrinkage cracking (After
Freeme22)
Factor, d, for the total thickness of
Unconfined compressive cemented material (mm)
Type of cracking
strengths (MPa)
< 200 > 200

Moderate cracking; crack widths less

0,75 – 1,5 1,1 1,2
than 2mm (e.g. natural materials with
1,5 – 3,0 1,15 1,3
lime or 2-3% cement)
Extensive cracking; cracks widths
more than 2mm (e.g. high quality
3 - 12 1,25 1,4
natural gravels and crushed stone with
4-6% cement)
 5-68

2,53
FIGURE 5.31
Fatigue criteria applicable to strongly cemented layers (C1 and C2) in pavements in various phases of
behaviour

FIGURE 5.3224
Fatigue criteria applicable to lightly cemented layers (C3 and C4) in pavements in various phases of
behaviour
 6-69

The increased strain is known as the modified strain ( ε s) Where:

E s
= dε

c. Position of maximum horizontal tensile strain

The maximum horizontal tensile strain is used to determine the fatigue life of cemented
2
layers. The position of the maximum horizontal tensile strain is not always found at the
bottom of the cemented layer.

The position of the maximum horizontal tensile strain is at the bottom of the layer when:

2 2,53
(E3/E2) hc< K (After Jordaan )

1/3 1/3
With hc = (h1 (E1/E3) + h2 (E2/E3) )

Where:

E1 = elastic modulus of the asphalt layer (MPa)

E2 = elastic modulus of the cement-treated base layer (MPa)
E3 = elastic mofulus of the sub-base layer (MPa)
h1 = thickness of the asphalt layer (mm)
h2 = thickness of the cement-treated base layer (mm)
K = constant = 128

d. Analysis of cemented layers in various situations

1. New cemented layers

The following procedure is followed:

i) Establish initial elastic properties of all the pavement layers as discussed in Section
5.4

ii) Determine the maximum horizontal tensile strain ( ε r) at the bottom of the CTB layer.
If ε r < 0,25 strain at break ( ε b) (from Table 5.14), continue with Step (vi) to (ix),
assuming m = 1 in (viii), in a Phase 1 analysis, before continuing with Step (iii) in a
Phase 2 analysis (refer Figure 5.7). If ε r > 0,25 ε b continue with Step (iii).

iii) Select an effective elastic modulus for the cement treated layer from the
recommended ranges of elastic moduli in Table 5.9 for a layer in a Phase 2
behaviour state.
 5-70

iv) Use the modulus for the cemented layer as determined in (iii) together with the
moduli for the other layers as established in (i) to determine the pavement response
using an appropriate computer program. .
2
v) Determine the numerical value of (E3/E2) hc

2
If (E3/E2) hc > 128, then the maximum horizontal strain occurs within the layer and
not at the bottom. In such cases a more detailed analysis of the strain is required to
determine both the position and the magnitude of the maximum horizontal strain. If
2
(E3/E2) hc < 128, the maximum horizontal strain occurs at the bottom of the layer
and the magnitude is determined using the computer program.

vi) Adjust the calculated maximum horizontal strain to take into account the shrinkage
of the cemented material. This is done by increasing the traffic induced maximum
horizontal strain ( ε r) in the cemented layer by a factor d, which is obtained from
Table 5.13.

The increased strain is known as the modified strain ( ε s) where:

ε = dε
s r

vii) Determine the tensile strain at break recommended for the different materials from
Table 5.15
For strongly cemented materials (C1 and C2)2,63:

viii) Adjust the tensile strain at break a~ determined in the laboratory on uncracked
cemented samples to allow for in-situ pavement conditions. This is done by
increasing the strain at break ( ε b) of the cemented layer by a factor m.

Table 5.15: Tensile Strain at Break Recommended for the Standard Cemented-
material Categories (After Otte51)

Cemented material Tensile strain at break

ε
unconfined compressive Code Material type cemented
( ( µε )
strength (MPa) b

6 - 12 C1 Crushed stone 145

3-6 C2 Stone/gravel 120
1,5 - 3 C3 Gravel 125
0,75 - 1,5 C4 Gravel 145
 5-71
The increased strain at break is known as the modified strain at break ( ε bm) where:

(ε ) = (mε ) and m = 4,7

bm b

ix) Determine the life of the cemented layer to crack initiation (Net) where:
9 ,1(1−εs / ebm )
N ef
= 10
x) In practice the cemented layer becomes visibly cracked only when the cracks
have reflected through the layer to the top of the layer. In order to determine the
life prior to cracking of the layer, it is necessary to adjust the life to crack initiation
by multiplying it with a shift factor determined from Figure 5.332, which allows for
the propagation of the crack to the top of the layer from the position of maximum
horizontal tensile strain.

xi) If the position of maximum horizontal tensile strain did not occur at the bottom of
the layer but within the layer, resulting in the layer breaking up into two horizontal
layers. The part of the layer from the position of maximum strain to the top will
break up as described above. The two sections of the original cemented layer
must now be analysed separately.

For an analysis of the layer in an equivalent granular state go to (xiii).

24
For lightly cemented materials (C3 and C4) ;

xii) Determine the effective fatique life of the layer (Nef) where:
( ε /8ε )
7 ,19 1−
N − s b

ef

xiii) A Phase 3 (refer Figure 5.7) analysis of the cemented layer is done to determine
the stability of the layer in a broken-up or equivalent granular state. The theory
recommended for the analysis of granular layers applies in this case.

2. Old cemented layers

It is considered necessary to simulate the behaviour of pavements containing
cemented layers from the time of construction to the time of analysis. An
agreement between the observed and simulated behaviour will give confidence
with regard to the future prediction of the behaviour of the layer. Hence, the same
procedures as described for the analysis of new cemented layers also apply for
old layers.
 5-72

2
FIGURE 5.33
Shift factor for cemented layers to provide for cracked propagation through the layer

24,57
5.5.3.2 Crushing of cemented layers (Compression failure)
Lightly cemented layers (C3 and C4) are under certain conditions prone to crushing of the
top of the layer as described in Section 5.3.4.2. Crushing24 is a function of the tyre
contact stress ( σ 1) and the Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) of the cemented
layer.

Failure criteria for the analysis of lightly cemented layers in relatively "deep" pavements
are given in Figure 5.3424,57 which are as follows:

For initiation of crushing57:

 σt 
8, 21 1− 
N c1 = 10  1, 2 xUCS 


Where:

N c1
= number of stress ratio repetitions to initiate crushing
 5-73

σ t
= vertical stress at the top of the layer (kPa)

UCS = Unconfined Compressive Strength of the in-situ cementitious material

in which the crushing failure is to be investigated in kPa. (USC = DCP

derived in-situ UCS of the top 50 mm of the layer)

67
For 10 mm permanent deformation in the layer :
 σt 
9 ,1 1− 
N c 2 10
= 
 1, 2 xUCS 

Where:

N c2
= number of stress ratio repetitions to achieve approximately 10 mm

permanent deformation within the cementitious layer

σ t
= vertical stress at the top of the layer (kPa)

UCS = Unconfined Compressive Strength of the in-situ cementitious material

in which the crushing failure is to be investigated in kPa. (USC = DCP

derived in-situ UCS of the top 50 mm of the layer)

5.5.4 Granular lavers

The shear strength of the material is assessed by limitations of a safety factor, F, which
is calculated in the middle of the pavement layer:

F= ( σ 3 φ + c)/( σ 1 - σ 3)

φ term C term

F = {σ 3 [K(tan2(45 + φ /2) – 1] + 2kc(tan(45 + φ /2))}/( σ 1 - σ 3)

Where:

σ 1 and σ 3 = calculated major and minor principal stresses at a point in the

layer. (Compressive stresses are positive while tensile
stresses are negative.)

It should be noted:
i) that σ 1 is the largest of the vertical ( σ zz) and horizontal ( σ xx ; σ yy )
stresses.
ii) that σ 2 is determined by obtaining the average of the two remaining minor
principal stresses.

c = cohesion (from Table 5.15)

φ = angle of internal fiction (from table 5.15)

k = constant = 0,65 saturated conditions

= 0,95 for normal conditions
 5-74

FIGURE 5.34
Criteria for the analysis of lightly cemented layers in terms of compression failure (after de
Beer24,57)

The φ term and c term can be obtained from Table 5.16. The safety factor depends on wheel
contact pressure and contact area. A 40 kN dual wheel load at a contact pressure of 520 kPa
is recommended for use. However, this should be clarrified with the authority in question since
much higher wheel pressures (700 kPa +) are being used on trucks on the roads in southern
Africa. Calculations should be done in the mid-depth of a layer under one of the wheels and at
the centre between dual wheels. Recommended safety factors for the different categories of
road and different traffic conditions are given in Table 5.17 and Figure 5.35. The use of the
Safety factor for treated layers in an equivalent granular layer is also recommended.
 5-75

Table 5.16: The shear properties of granular materials (After Maree17)

MOISTURE COHESION INTERNAL

MATERIAL, CODE φ TERM C TERM
STATE Cm kPa FRICTION, φ (°)

High density Dry 65 55 8,64 392

crushed stone, G1 Wet 45 55 5,44 171

Moderate density Dry 55 52 7,06 303

crushed stone, G2 Wet 40 52 4,46 139

Crushed stone and Dry 50 50 6,22 261

soil, binder, G3 Wet 35 50 3,93 115

Base quality gravel, Dry 45 48 5,50 223

G4 Wet 35 48 3,48 109

Moderate 40 43 3,43 147

Subbase quality
(K = 0,8)
gravel, G5
Wet 30 43 3,17 83
Moderate 30 40 2,88 103
Low quality suubase
(K = 0,8)
gravel, G6
Wet 25 40 1,76 64

WBM - 120 70 29,61 1293

17
Table 5.17: The safety factor recommended for granular material (After Maree )
MINIMUM ALLOWABLE
ROAD CATEGORY DESIGN TRAFFIC CLASS
SAFETY FACTOR
E4 1,60
A
E3 1,40
E3 1,30
B E2 1,05
E1 0,85
E2 0,95
C E1 0,75
E0 0,50

Materials in an equivalent G7 to G 10 state are considered to be in an equivalent

subgrade material state. However, if such a layer is sandwiched between two stiff layers,
the safety factor approach recommended for the analysis of granular material should be
used. In this case the factors applicable for use in the analysis are given in Table 5.18
 5-76

Table 5.18: Estimates of values of c and φ for soils (After Freeme )

22

MATERIAL MOISTURE COHESION INTERNAL

φ TERM C TERM
CODE STATE cm kPa FRICTION, φ (°)
Dry 25 35 2,51 86
G7
Wet 20 35 1,21 46
Dry 30 30 1,85 93
G8
Wet 20 30 0,8 41
Dry 30 28 1,63 90
G9
Wet 20 28 0,66 40
Dry 35 25 1,34 99
G10
Wet 30 25 1,48 37

The use of the Safety factor (F) for the analysis of granular layers has limitations in terms

of its general applicability. Work is currently in progress to improve the mechanistic

analysis of granular layers. Recent work by Wolff59 in particular, holds promise to be used

to enhance the analysis of granular pavement layers using elasto-plastic behaviour

models. Future updates of this manual should consider the incorporation of improved

procedures for the analysis of granular layers.

5.5.5 Soils (Subqrade)

The compressive vertical strain (v) at the top of the layer is used to analyse the bearing

capacity of subgrade soils. (These materials are, in general, found at a depth of more than

450 mm within the pavement structure.) The criteria recommended for use in terms of a rut

depth of 10 mm and 20 mm are given in Figure 5.35 as contained in the formula:

−10

N = ε v 
 (
 10 (Rut ) 
2 , 37
 )
Where:

N = number of equivalent 80 kN axle loads to be carried before reaching the

deformation equal to the rut depth

ε v
= vertical compressive strain at top of the subgrade

Rut = Rut depth criteria (mm)

 5-77

FIGURE 5.35
Recommended safety factors for granular materials (G1 to G10) (After Maree17)

FIGURE 5.36
Recommended vertical subgrade strain criteria in terms of a 10mm and 20mm rut depth
 5-78

5.6 DETERMINATION OF REHABILITATION OPTIONS

Pavement rehabilitation can be defined as the alteration of pavement behaviour to

ensure that distress limits are not exceeded over the rehabilitation design period.

Following the method as described in the previous sections, the condition of the

pavement and the future expected behaviour can be simulated with confidence. The

same principles are now used to calculate the effect of alterations to the pavement

structure (rehabilitation options) in terms of the behaviour of the pavement as a whole.

Several alternatives can be assessed to determine appropriate rehabilitation options.

Various strategies in terms of postponements of certain actions should also be

investigated.

A final selection on the rehabilitation option and strategy to be recommended is only

made after an economical assessment of the various applicable options and strategies.
 6-1

6. CONCLUSIONS
This document contains details with regard to the application of the South African

Mechanistic Rehabilitation Design Method. Several improved procedures for the

analysis of various pavement layer types which have, in recent years been developed

since the previous update of the method, are included in this document. However, it can

be expected that improvements will continuously be developed in future and hence, the

manual should be updated from time to time.

 7-1
7. REFERENCES

1. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT, Flexible Pavement Rehabilitation Investigation and

Design, Draft TRH 12, Pretoria, 1991.

2. JORDAAN, G.J., Analysis and Development of some Pavement Rehabilitation Design

Methods, PhD Thesis, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 1988.

3. JORDAAN, G.J., Bituminous Pavement Rehabilitation Design, MEng (Civil) Thesis,

University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 1984.

4. WESTERGAARD, H.M., Stresses in Concrete Pavements Computed by Theoretical

Analysis, Public Roads, Vol. 7, No.2, 1926.

5. BARKSDALE, R.D. AND HICKS, R.G., Material Characterization and Layered Theory for
use in Fatigue Analyses, Proceedings of the Symposium on the Structural Design of
Asphalt Concrete Pavements to Prevent Fatique Cracking, Highway Research Board
Special Report 140, Washington, D.C., Highway Research Board, 1973.

6. BURMISTER, M.D., The Theory of Stresses and Displacements in Layered Systems and
Applications to the Design of Airport Runways, Proceedings, Highway Research Board,
Vol. 23, Washington, D.C., 1943.

7. NAIR, K. AND CHANG, C.Y., Flexible Pavement Design and Management - Material
Characterization, Research Report 140, Washington, D.C., Highway Research Board,
1973.

8. JORDAAN, G.J., The Classification of Pavement Rehabilitation Design Methods, DPVT,

Division of Roads and Transport Technology, Research Report DPVT 5, CSIR, Pretoria,
1989.

9. BROWN, S.F. AND PELL, P.S., An Experimental Investigation of the Stresses, Strains
and Deflection in a Layered Pavement Structure Subjected to Dynamic Loads,
Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Structural Design of Asphalt
Pavements, Amn Arbor, 1967, pp 348-401.

10. SEED, H.B., MITRY, F.G., MONISMITH, C.L. AND CHAN, C.K., Factors Influencing the
Resilient Deformation of Untreated Aggregate Base in Two-Layered Pavements
Subjected to Repeated Loadings, Highway Research Record 190, Washington, D.C.,
1967, pp 19-57.

11. DEHLEN, G.L. AND MONISMITH, C.L., Effect of Non-linear Material Response on
the Behaviour of Pavement Under Traffic, Highway Research Record 310,
Washington, D.C., 1970,ppl-16.
 7-2

12. HICKS, R.G., AND FINN, F.N., Analyses of Results from the Dynamic
Measurements Program of the San Diego Test Road, Proceedings of the
Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 39, Kansas City, 1970, pp 153-
185.

13. FREEME, C.R. AND MARAIS, C.P., The Structural Behaviour of Bituminous
Surfacing in an Experimental Asphalt Pavement, Proceedings of the Third
International Conference on the Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, London,
1972, pp 812-822.

14. FREEME, C.R. AND MARAIS, C.P., Thin Bituminous Surfaces: Their Fatique
Behaviour and Prediction, Highway Research Board Special Report 140,
Washington, D.C., 1973, pp 158-182.

15. GRANT, M.C., MARAIS, C.P. AND UYS D.G., An Investigation of an Asphalt
Overlay on a Lightly Trafficked Road Showing Premature Cracking, Proceedings of
the Third Conference on Asphalt Pavements for Southern Africa, Durban, 1979, pp
303-315.

16. SMITH, B.E. AND WICTZAK, M.W., Equivalent Granular Base Moduli: Prediction,
Transportation Engineering Journal of ASCE, Vol. 107, No. TE6, Memphis, 1981, pp
635-653.

17. MAREE, J.H., Aspekte van die antwerp en Gedrag van Playeisels met
Korrelmateriaalkroonlae, D.lng Tesis, Universiteit van Pretoria, Pretoria, 1982.

18. STOCK, A.F. AND BROWN, S.F., Nonlinear Characterisation of Granular Materials
for Asphalt Pavement Design. Transportation Research Record 755, Evaluation and
Analvsis of Flexible Pavement Components and Properties, Transportation
Research Board, Washington, D.C., 1980.

19. GRANT, M.C. AND NETTERBERG, F., Determining the Causes of Distress in
Pavements with Thin Bituminous Surfacing, Proceedings of the Fourth Conference
on Asphalt Pavements for Southern Africa, Vol. 1, Cape Town, 1984, pp 655-665.

20. FREEME, C.R. AND VILJOEN, A.W., Moderators Report on Session V - Pavement
Performance, Proceedings of the Fourth Conference on Asphalt Pavements for
Southern Africa, Vol. 2, Cape Town, 1984, pp 175-199.

21. ONISMITH, C.L., Pavement Evaluation and Overlay Design: Summary of Methods,
Pavement Evaluation and Overlay Design: A Symposium and related papers,
Transportation Research Record 700, Transportation Research Board, Washington,
D.C., 1979.
 7-3

22. FREEME, C.R., Evaluation of Pavement Behaviour for Major Rehabilitation of Roads,
NITRR Technical Report RP/19/83, CSIR, Pretoria, 1983.

23. FREEME, C.R. AND DE BEER, M., Examples of Catalogue of Behaviour states,
Companion Document to NITRR Technical Report RPI19/83, CSIR, Pretoria, 1983.

24. DE BEER, M., Aspects of the Design and Behaviour of Road Structures Incorporating
Lightly Cementitious Lavers, PhD Thesis, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 1990.

25. ANNUAL TRANSPORTATION CONVENTION, Symposium of Recent Findings of

Heavy Vehicle Simulator Testing, A TC 1984, Pretoria, 1984.

26. COMMITTEE FOR STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES, Structural Design of Inter-urban

and Rural Road Pavements, TRH4, Department of Transport, Pretoria, 1985.

27. KENNEDY, C.K. AN LISTER, N.W., Prediction of Pavement Performance and the
Design of Overlays, TRRL Laboratory Report 833, TRRL, Crowthorne, Berkshire,
1978.

28. KLEYN, E.G., DE WET, L.F. AND SAVAGE, P.F., The Development of an Equation
for Strength Balance of Road Pavement Structures, The Civil Engineer in South
Africa, Johannesburg, 1989.

29. DE BEER, M., KLEYN, E.G., AND SAVAGE P.F., Towards a Classification System
for the Strength-balance of Thin Surfaced Flexible Pavements, Proceedings of the
Annual Transportation Convention (A TC'88), Pretoria, 1988.

30. HORAK, E., Aspects of Deflection Basin Parameters used in Mechanistic

Rehabilitation Design Procedures for Flexible Pavements in South Africa, PhD
Thesis, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 1988.

31. JORDAAN, G.J., Towards Improved Procedures for the Mechanistic Analysis of
Cement-treated Layers in Pavements, Proceedings of the 7th International
Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Nottingham, England, 1992.

32. THEYSE, H.L. AND VAN DER MERWE, C.J., Environmental Influences on
Pavement Life Predictions, Research Report PR91 /014, Department of Transport,
Pretoria, 1992.

33. SAUNDERS, P.J., AND DE BEER, M., Characterization of the Elastic Properties of
Existing Pavements: State of the Art, Research Report PR91 /012, Department of
Transport, Pretoria, 1992.
 7-4

34. SHELL INTERNATIONAL PETROLEUM COMPANY LIMITED, Shell Pavement

Desiqn Manual - Asphalt Pavements and Overlays for Road Traffic, London, 1978.

35. KENNEDY, C.K., Pavement Deflection Operating Procedures for Use in the United
Kingdom, TRRL Laboratory Report 835, Transport and Road Research Laboratory,
Crowthorne, 1978.

36. ISADA, N.M., Determining Variations in Load-carrying Capacity of Flexible

Pavements, National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 21, Highway
Research Board, Buffalo, New York, 1966.

37. HUDSON, W.R., Other Input Variables: Traffic and Environmental,

Proceedings of a Symposium on the Structural Design on Asphalt Concrete
Pavements to Prevent Fatique Cracking, Highway Research Report Board Special
Report 140, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1973.

38. THE ASPHALT INSTITUTE, Asphalt Overlays and Pavement Rehabilitation,

Asphalt Institute Manual MS-17, USA, 1969.
39. MINER, A.M., Cumulative Damage in Fatique Journal of Applied Mechanics,
California, 1945.

40. KLEYN, S.A, Application of the Rational Design of Flexible Pavements, South
African Institution of Civil Engineers, Johannesburg, 1958.

41. BARKER, W.R., BRABSTEN, W.N. AND CHAU, Y.T., A General System for the
Structural Design of Flexible Pavements, Fourth International Conference on the
Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, Vol. 1, Ann Arbor, 1977.

42. CURTAYNE, P.C. AND TODRES, H.A., Investigation and Correlation of Parameters
Determining Structural Properties of Subqrades, NITRR RR 137, CSIR, Pretoria,
1971.

43. DEEN, R.C., SOUTHGATE, H.F. AND HAVENS, J.H., Structural Analysis of
Bituminous Concrete Pavements, Research Report of the Kentucky Department of
Highways, Kentucky, 1971.

44. DE BEER, M., Use of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) in the Design of Road
Structures, Research Report DPVT187, CSIR, Pretoria, 1991.

45. JORDAAN, G.J. AND DU TOIT, G.D., The Relationship Between Dvnamic Cone
Penetration and Surface Deflection and the Effective Young’s Modulus of Pavement
Layers, Research Done for and on Behalf of the Department of Transport by
Jordaan & Joubert Inc., Project Report PR91 /250, Pretoria, 1992.
 7-5

46. DE BEER, M., HORAK, E. AND VISSER, A.T., The Multi-depth Deflecto-meter
(MOD) System for Determining the Effective Elastic Moduli of Pavement Layers,
First International Symposium on nondestructive testing of pavements and back
calculation of moduli, Baltimore, USA, 1988.

47. LACANTE, S.C. DE BEER, M. AND HORAK, E., Comparison Between Falling
Weight Deflectometer (FWD) and Benkelman Beam Deflection Basin Parameters
and Back-Calculation of Laver Moduli, Project Report 88/025, Department of
Transport, Pretoria, 1991.

48. RUST, F.C., SERVAS, V.P. AND VAN DER WALT, N., Performance of Various
Modified Binders and Under Simulated Crack Movement in the Laboratory,
Proceedings of the 5th Conference on Asphalt Pavements for Southern Africa,
Swaziland, 1989.

49. RöHDE, G. T. The Mechanistic Analysis of Pavement Deflections on Subqrades

Varying in Stiffness with Depth, PhD dissertation, Texas A&M University, 1990.

50. SOUTH AFRICAN ROADS BOARD, Guidelines for Road Construction Materials,
TRH14, Department of Transport, Pretoria, 1985.

51. OTTE, E., A Structural Design Procedure of Cement-treated Lavers in Pavements, D.Eng
_ Thesis, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 1978.

52. BOFINGER, H.E., The Measurement of the Tensile Properties of Soil-cement, T.R.R.L.
Report LR365, London, 1970.

53. JORDAAN, G.J., Towards Improved Procedures for the Mechanistic Analysis of Cement-
treated Layers in Pavements, Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on the
Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, Nottingham, 1992.

54. MONISMITH, C.L., SEED, H.B., MITRY, F.G. AND CHAN, C.K., Prediction of Pavement
Deflections from Laboratory Tests, Proceedings of the Second International Conference
on the Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, London, 1967.

55. HEUI<ELOM, W. AND KLOMP, A.J.G., Dynamic Testing as a Means of Controlling

Pavements During and After Construction, Proceedings of the First International
Conference on the Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, Ann Arbor, 1962.

56. SOUTH AFRICAN ROADS BOARD, Selection and Design of Hot-mix Asphalt Surfacinqs
for Highways, Draft THR8, Department of Transport, Pretoria, 1987.
 7-6

57. DE BEER, M., Developments in the Failure Criteria of the South African Mechanistic
Design Procedure for Asphalt Pavements, Proceedings of the 7th International
Conference on the Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, Nothingham, 1992.

58. MAREE, J.H. AND BELLEKENS, R.J.L., The Effect of Asphalt Overlays on the Resilient
Deflection Bowl Response of Typical Pavement Structures, Project Report PR90/1 02,
South African Roads Board, Pretoria, 1991.

59. WOLFF, H. The Elasto-plastic Behaviour of Granular Pavement Lavers in South Africa,
Phd dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 1992.

60. JORDAAN, G.J., VENTER, J.S.M. AND VAN AS, S.C., Optimization of the Number and
Type of Testing Needed for the Evaluation and Assessment of Pavements, Project
Report PR 91/249, Department of Transport, Pretoria, 1992.

61. JORDAAN, G.J. AND VAN AS, S.C., Pavement Evaluation: Test Frequency
Requirements for Deflection Bowl Parameters, Proceedings of the 6th Conference
on Asphalt Pavements of Southern African (CAPSA), Cape Town, 1994.
 APPENDIX A
AVAILABLE REHABILITATION DESIGN

APPROACHES AND THEIR

APPLICABILITY
 A-1

A1 AVAILABLE REHABILITATION DESIGN METHODS2

A1.1 GENERAL

Considerable progress has been made throughout the world in the development of
procedures and theory for improved evaluation and prediction of pavement behaviour. This
has led to the development of numerous pavement rehabilitation design methods which vary
considerably in their basis of derivation and pavement behaviour characterisation. Each of
the basic approaches has built-in characteristics such as assumptions and limitations of
applicability which are associated with their basis of derivation. An understanding of the
general characteristics and the influence of assumptions on the prediction of pavement
behaviour is fundamental to the assessment and rating of available methods.

Pavement rehabilitation design methods may be based on, or derived from, empirical or
theoretical principles. In practice, methods often include both theoretical and empirical
concepts and can therefore be associated with assumptions and limitations inherent in either
or both these concepts. The method discussed in detail in this document is empirically
derived, based on maximum surface deflection measurements to predict pavement
behaviour.

A1.2 EMPIRICALLY DERIVED METHODS

Empirically derived methods are based on results of observations made or experience

gained on trends of behaviour of pavement structures. These observations are usually
limited to specific types of pavements constructed with materials peculiar to certain areas
and subject to specific traffic and environmental conditions. The experience gained under
such conditions cannot be applied confidently to different pavements, materials, traffic and
environmental conditions.

Methods based on empirical principles can be divided into methods based on the condition
assessment approach, pavement component analysis approach and response analysis
approach.

A1.2.1 Condition assessment approach

Methods using the condition assessment approach rely on the knowledge and experience of
the assessor to evaluate the condition of the pavement. Decisions on the need and type of
rehabilitation are based on subjective judgement. The assessor applies personal knowledge
of the expected behaviour of the pavement taking into account the type of pavement,
materials, distress, traffic, drainage facilities, geology, topography, vegetation, climate and
 A-2

season within an area, as the main input into his design framework. Although this approach
is highly subjective, it is used in some regions where a local engineer takes decisions on the
needs of roads under his jurisdiction on the basis of their visual appearance.

A1.2.2 Component analysis approach

Methods using the pavement component analysis approach are based on empirical
correlations between material tests and expected pavement performance. These methods
use laboratory or in-situ measurements of an empirical defined material property such as the
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) or Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) value to evaluate
pavement behaviour. Relationships between the measured material property, pavement
composition, traffic loading and minimum cover requirement are used to evaluate the
existing pavement, to determine the structural requirements suitable for a specific traffic
loading and to design adequate rehabilitation options for the pavement. These relationships
are usually a function of only one distress parameter such as deformation. A specific level of
the distress parameter is used to indicate a minimum acceptable state of behaviour, the
reaching of which would indicate the end of the service life of the pavement.

A1.2.3 Response analysis approach

Methods using the response analysis approach are based on one or more empirically
derived relationships which are used to predict pavement behaviour. Most of these methods
use surface deflection as a measurement of pavement response.

Pavement surface deflection measured under a standard wheel load, is related to

accumulated equivalent traffic loading, usually incorporating pavement behaviour on the
basis of a single distress parameter (usually deformation in terms of rut depth or riding
quality). Deflection measurements are used in these relationships to determine the
remaining life of a pavement. The remaining life is expressed in terms of the traffic loading
that the pavement is expected to be able to carry before reaching the critical level of the type
of distress used in the derivation of the relationship. Since the traffic loading expected
during the rehabilitation design period is known, these relationships are also used to
determine a design or "tolerable" deflection below which the pavement is not expected to
reach a critical level of distress. The design deflection, design traffic and the measured
deflection are then used in overlay thickness design curves to determine the thickness of
asphalt overlay required to reduce the measured deflection to the level of the design
deflection.
 A-3

This document deals in detail with methods based on the response analysis approach, using
maximum surface deflection as an input into the design method.

A1.3 THEORETICALLY DERIVED METHODS

Theoretically derived methods are based on mathematical models based on sound

engineering principles. Using these models, pavement response is calculated in terms of the
basic material properties of stress and strain. It follows that these methods should be
applicable for use on all types of materials. However, these mathematical models are
usually based on one or another theory of material response which is based on various
assumptions which limit the general applicability of methods based on these models.

Most of the theoretically based pavement rehabilitation design methods that have been
developed to a stage where practical implementation is possible, are based on the linear
elasticity theory.

Because of the complexity associated with the use of mathematical models, researchers
often incorporate additional assumptions into relationships developed to predict pavement
behaviour. Consequently, theoretically derived rehabilitation design methods may be
categorised according to the extent to which assumptions have been incorporated into the
methods which ultimately determines its general applicability.

A2 THE APPLICABILITY OF REHABILITATION DESIGN METHODS

A2.1 GENERAL

The type and number of assumptions on which any method is based determine the
limitations of its applicability. In order to select applicable methods for use on a specific
pavement, the characteristics of the methods available must be compared to those of the
identified pavement situation. Two tasks are important:

• the assessment of a method in terms of its capability to address critical aspects that
may be associated with any given pavement situation, and

• the identification of the prevailing pavement situation that needs to be analysed (done
as part of the condition assessment).
 A-4

The critical elements of the design and performance variables are now identified as a first
step towards the assessment of the applicability of methods for the analysis of a pavement
situation. If more than one method is found to be applicable for use on a specific pavement,
these methods should all be used in a multiple analysis approach for the design of the
rehabilitation needs of the pavement.

A2.2 DESIGN VARIABLES

A2.2.1 General

Design variables embody all the structural, load and environmental factors, the interaction of
which primarily determine the performance of a pavement. The following elements of these
variables could have an influence on the ability of a method to analyse any given pavement
situation and should be used to assess the capabilities of rehabilitation design methods.

A2.2.2 Structural variables

Methods should be assessed for limitations with respect to the:

• type of pavement, i.e. pavements with cemented materials in the base course (CTB),
bituminous-treated materials (BTB), lightly cemented materials (LCB), or granular or
untreated materials (NGB),

• thickness of pavement layers,

• strength of pavement layers, and

• strength of the pavement as a whole.

A2.2.3 Load variables

Methods should be assessed for limitations with respect to the design traffic loading. This is
usually done in terms of the accumulated equivalent 80 kN single axle loads (E80s).
Equations used in methods are derived through the assessment of the behaviour of
pavements or pavement materials during loading. These observations cover a range of
E80s, defining the range of loading conditions for which the method is applicable.

A2.2.4 Environmental variables

 A-5

The ability of methods to take into account the micro (daily) and macro (seasonal) variations
in climate should be noted. The daily variations in temperature are of importance during the
evaluation of the pavement due to their effect on pavement response. Similarly, the
seasonal variations in both temperature and moisture could have a marked effect on the
bearing capacity of the pavement. Although these factors will not directly influence the
applicability of the methods, it is clear that their omission could seriously affect the results
obtained through the use of the methods.

A2.2.5 Performance variables

Performance variables concern the surface condition and material behaviour elements of a
pavement. These variables usually are a function of the interaction of the structural, load
and environmental variables with time.

Pavement condition is described by the visible surface condition of a pavement, which is a

function of any distress present. Rehabilitation design methods base their analysis of the
structure and the design of rehabilitation options on limiting criteria for specific modes of
distress such as cracking and/or deformation. Critical levels of deformation and/or cracking
are directly or indirectly incorporated in most rehabilitation design methods.

The modes of distress (deformation/cracking) are used in pavement rehabilitation design

methods to calculate pavement life. However, deformation and/or cracking can originate in
any of the pavement components, i.e. the surfacing, base, subbase, selected subgrade or
subgrade. The origin of distress and the distress mechanisms are often closely associated
with the material used in the various pavement layers of the structure. Rehabilitation design
methods are only applicable for use on pavements where the mechanism of distress is
similar to that on which the method is based. It follows that rehabilitation design methods
should be assessed in terms of the following performance variables:

• the mode(s) of distress and the respective criteria used to define a terminal pavement
condition, and

• the mechanism of distress and the critical distress parameters used in the analysis of
the mode of distress.

Similar to the design variables, the elements of the performance variables should be used to
assess the capabilities of rehabilitation design methods.
 APPENDIX B

APPLICABILITY OF REHABILITATION

DESIGN METHODS
 B-1

B1 APPLICABILITY OF REHABILITATION DESIGN METHODS2

The importance of the assessment of the applicability of pavement rehabilitation design

methods for use on any specific pavement, is best demonstrated through a practical
example. In the following two cases the results of the application of the three methods are
given and compared to results obtained through the testing of the pavement using the
Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS)2.

B1.2 CASE STUDY 12

In this case the pavement can be described as a pavement containing a bituminous treated
base (BTB) with the following pavement layers:

• 40 mm Asphalt surfacing,

• 85 mm Bitumen treated base,

• 100 mm lime modified natural gravel subbase,

• 100 mm natural gravel selected subgrade, and

• in-situ material.

The pavement situation is summarised in Table B1.

The remaining life of the pavement in terms of the various distress parameters as found
through HVS testing, is summarised in Table B2. Table B2 gives the 95 per cent probability
that at least 99 per cent of all possible measurements that can be taken on the test site as
an indication of pavement life in terms of a given performance parameter would indicate a
life within the limits shown. This life interval is shown as follows:

Nx = 95[L; H]99 E80s

where Nx = variation in the life of the pavement as defined by x, in E80s

x = distress and level of distress
L = lower limit of the variation in pavement life as defined by x
H = higher limit of the variation in pavement life as defined by x
 B-2

Table B1: Situation identification: Bituminous base pavement

ROAD NUMBER BTB PAVEMENT

TRAFFIC LOADING: PAST 0

5 x 106 E80s; 10 x 106 E80s; 20 x 106 E80s

FUTURE

ROAD CATEGORY B

PAVEMENT STRUCTURE SURFACING BASE SUBBASE SSG SUB-

GRADE

TYPE OF MATERIAL ASPHALT ASPHALT LIME MODIFIED NATURAL IN-SITU

(70 % (70 % (2 %) GRAVEL SOIL
RECYCLED) RECYCLED) NATURAL
GRAVEL

THICKNESS OF LAYERS 40 85 100 100 ∞

TYPE OF PAVEMENT BTB ON WEAK SUPPORT

STRENGTH EVALUATION (1) DEFLECTION (2) RADIUS OF (3) DCP

CURVATURE

INSTRUMENT USED: BENKELMAN BEAM DEHLEN DCP

CURVATURE
METER

APPLICABLE CRITERIA:SOUND < 0,3 mm > 200 m DSN800 > 360

WARNING ≥ 0,3 mm + < 0,7 mm ≤ 200 m + > 90 m DSN800 ≤ 360 + > 160

SEVERE ≥ 0,7 mm ≤ 90 m DSN800 ≤ 160

MEASURED RESPONSE MEAN=0,809 mm/95th MEAN=64,6 m/95th MEAN=168/95th P=152

P=0, 919 mm P=31 m

CONDITION SEVERE/SEVERE SEVERE/SEVERE WARNING/SEVERE

PERFORMANCE EXPECTED(DELETED NOT APPLICABLE)

MODE OF DISTRESS CRACKING FOLLOWED BY DEFORMATION

TYPE OF DISTRESS CROCODILE CRACKING/RUTTING

POSSIBLE: ORIGIN BTB/SUBGRADE

CAUSE/MECH. TENSILE STRAIN AT THE BOTTOM OF THE BTB/COMPRESSIVE STRAIN

AT THE TOP OF THE SUBGRADE
 B-3

In addition, Table B2 also gives the meaning of the life in terms of the distress parameters,
as found through HVS testing.

Table B2: Measured remaining pavement life of the BTB pavement section in terms
of various levels of distress as determined by HVS testing

PAVEMENT LIFE IN E80s

PAVEMENT LEVEL OF Lower 95 % Upper 95 %

SECTION DISTRESS DISTRESS limit limit Mean life

Cracking Visible 0,7 x 106 1,7 x 106 1,2 x 106

10 mm 1,1 x 106 1,8 x 106 1,5 x 106

BTB Deformation 20 mm 1,0 x 106 2,3 x 106 1,6 x 106

Using the material characteristics determined through HVS testing in a mechanistic

rehabilitation design approach, the rehabilitation needs in terms of overlay thickness for
various design traffic loading are calculated as shown in Table B3.

Table B3: Rehabilitation needs for the BTB pavement section for various traffic
loadings

PAVEMENT DESIGN TRAFFIC PERCENTILE OVERLAY

SECTION LOADING (E80s) LEVEL OF DESIGN THICKNESS (mm)

40 35
5 x 106
95 90

BTB section 40 60
10 x 106
95 125

40 85
20 x 106
95 150

Using the recommended rehabilitation design methods the remaining pavement life and
rehabilitation needs for the various traffic loading are calculated as shown in Table B4.
 B-4

Table B4: Prediction of pavement life and rehabilitation needs of a BTB pavement using
three different rehabilitation design methods

REHABILITATION NEEDS (THICKNESS OF

OVERLAY)
PARA- PAVEMENT
DESIGN METHOD METER LIFE (E80s) 5 x 106 E80s 10 x 106 E80s 20 x 106 E80s

1. Response
analysis
- Deflection Deform 1,18 x 106 60 mm AC 90 mm AC 115 mm AC
method 10 mm

2. Component
analysis
- CBR approach Deform 3,65 x 106 35 mm AC 45 mm AC 60 mm AC
20 mm

- DCP approach Deform 0,9 x 106 Improve 150 mm Improve Improve 100
20 mm + 50 mm AC 150 mm + 50 mm + 100 mm
mm AC

6
3. SA Mechanistic Cracking 1,2 x 10
design
Deform 1,2 x 106
10 mm

Deform 1,21 x 106

20 mm 45 mm AC 65 mm AC 85 mm AC

AC = Asphalt

For this pavement the applicability rating2 of the deflection method determined by Figures
3.1 and 3.2 is compatible to that of the SA mechanistic rehabilitation design method. A
good correlation between the results obtained through the use of these two methods and
the HVS results (especially for the prediction of pavement life) is obtained. The applicability
rating2 of the component analysis methods are a bit lower, with the DCP approach more
applicable for use on the pavement than the CBR approach. The results obtained through
the use of the methods are in line with the applicability ratings of the methods.
 B-5

B1.2 CASE STUDY 22

The pavement can be described as a cement treated base (CTB) pavement, consisting of
the following pavement layers:

• 35 mm Asphalt wearing course,

• 2 x 115 mm Cement treated base layers,

• 200 mm Laterite subbase, and

• In-situ sand.

The pavement situation is summarised in Table B5.

The remaining life of the pavement in terms of the various distress parameters as found
through HVS testing, is summarised in Table B6. Table B6 gives the 95 per cent probability
that at least 99 per cent of all possible measurements that can be taken on the test site as
an indication of pavement life in terms of a given performance parameter would indicate a
life within the limits shown, as well as the mean expected life in terms of each performance
parameter.

Table B6: Measured remaining pavement life of the CTB pavement sections in a dry
condition in terms of various levels of distress as determined by HVS
testing

LEVEL OF PAVEMENT LIFE IN E80s

PAVEMENT
DISTRESS DISTRES
SECTION Lower 95 % Upper 95 %
S Mean life
limit limit

Cracking Visible 0 0,9 x 106 0,26 x 106

CTB 10 mm 0 6,2 x 106 1,8 x 106

Deformation
20 mm 0 17,9 x 106 7,2 x 106
 B-6

Table B5: Pavement situation identification: Cemented base pavement

ROAD NUMBER CTB PAVEMENT

TRAFFIC LOADING: PAST 1,3 x 106 E80s

(E80s)
5 x 106 E80s; 10 x 106 E80s; 20 x 106 E80s
FUTURE

ROAD CATEGORY B

PAVEMENT STRUCTURE SURFACING BASE SUBBASE SSG SUBGRADE

TYPE OF MATERIAL ASPHALT CEMENT LATERITE - IN-SITU SAND

(Cont. Grade) TREATED G5
GRAVEL (C2)

THICKNESS OF LAYERS 35 mm 230 mm 200 mm - ∞

(2 x 115)

TYPE OF PAVEMENT CTB - PAVEMENT

STRENGTH EVALUATION (1) DEFLECTION (2) RADIUS OF (3) RUT DEPTH

CURVATURE

INSTRUMENT USED: BENKELMAN BEAM DEHLEN STRAIGTH EDGE (2 m)

CURVATURE METER

APPLICABLE CRITERIA:SOUND < 0,3 mm > 200 m DSN800 > 360

WARNING ≥ 0,3 mm + < 0,6 mm ≤ 200 m + > 90 m DSN800 ≤ 360 + > 160

SEVERE ≥ 0,6 mm ≤ 90 m DSN800 ≤ 160

MEASURED RESPONSE MEAN=0,36 mm/90th MEAN=247 m/90th MEAN=6,2 m/90th

P=0,395 mm P=165m P=8,4 mm

CONDITION WARNING/WARNING SOUND/WARNING SOUND/SOUND

PERFORMANCE OBSERVED(DELETED NOT APPLICABLE)

MODE OF DISTRESS CRACKING

TYPE OF DISTRESS BLOCK CRACKING + SECONDARY CRAKING IN WHEELTRACKS

POSSIBLE: ORIGIN CTB

CAUSE/MECH. TENSILE STRAIN AT THE BOTTOM OF THE BASE

 B-7

Using the material characteristics determined through HVS testing in mechanistic

rehabilitation design approach, the rehabilitation needs in terms of overlay thickness for
various design traffic loadings are calculated as shown in Table B7.

Table B7: Rehabilitation needs for the CTB pavement section for various traffic
loadings

PAVEMENT DESIGN TRAFFIC PERCENTILE OVERLAY

SECTION LOADING (E80s) LEVEL OF DESIGN THICKNESS (mm)

40 155
5 x 106
95 175

40 170
CTB section 10 x 106
95 200

40 180
20 x 106
95 220

The recommended rehabilitation design methods are used in the CTB pavement to
calculate the remaining life (if any) of the pavement and to determine the rehabilitation
needs for the various design traffic loadings. The results are summarised in Table B8.

Table B8: Prediction of pavement life and rehabilitation needs of a CTB pavement
using three different rehabilitation design methods

REHABILITATION NEEDS (THICKNESS OF

PARA- PAVEMENT OVERLAY)
DESIGN METHOD
METER LIFE (E80s)
6 6 6
5 x 10 E80s 10 x 10 E80s 20 x 10 E80s

1. Response analysis
Deform 30,3 x 106 0 0 0
- Deflection method
10 mm

2. Component analysis
Deform
- CBR approach 3,5 x 106 0 0 30 mm AC
20 mm

Deform
- DCP approach - COULD NOT APPLY
20 mm

Cracking
0
Recycle Recycle Recycle
Deform 6 115 mm Base 115 mm Base
3. SA Mechanistic 0,1 x 10 115 mm
10 mm to G1 + to G1 +
design Base to G3 +
50 mm GGA 40 mm GGA 50 mm GGA
Deform 6
10 x 10
20 mm
 B-8

The applicability ratings2, as determined through the use of Figures 3.1 and 3.2, of the
deflection, CBR and DCP methods for use on the CTB pavement, are very low when
compared to that of the SA mechanistic rehabilitation design method. Consequently, as can
be expected, the methods with low applicability ratings also gave a poor indication of the
remaining life and rehabilitation needs of the CTB pavement. The SA mechanistic
rehabilitation design method is the only method that gave realistic results for the analysis of
the CTB pavement
 APPENDIX C

DEFLECTION BOWL PARAMETERS

GENERALLY USED IN PAVEMENT

EVALUATIONS
 C-1

C1 DEFLECTION BOWL PARAMETERS GENERALLY USED IN FA VEMENT

EVALUATIONS

Table C 130 gives a summary of the deflection bowl parameters most commonly used for the
assessment of pavement condition. As seen, the parameters are derived using
measurements some distance from the point of impact of the load. The distance of the
measurements are related to the depth of the pavement layers which have a major influence
on the magnitude of the parameter. For example, radius of curvature is derived using
measurements taken at a distance 0 and 127 mm from the point of impact and
consequently, give a good indicator of the condition of the top of the pavement.

Research is still in progress on criteria applicable for use, for these deflection bowl
parameters as a rough indicator of pavement condition and available criteria30,47,58 differ
somewhat. Table C23 contains criteria for the processing of radius of curvature
measurements measured with the Dehlen Curvature meter. Table C330 and Table C458
contain criteria for the rough assessment of deflection bowl parameters measured with the
Falling Weight Deflectometer (Inpulse Deflection Meter). Table C458 was derived from
Figure C 158• It is clear from a comparison between Tables C330 and C458 that some
significant differences in the criteria exists and extreme care should be taken in the
application of these criteria which should only be used as a rough first indicator of pavement
condition.

These criteria are only applicable when a statistically significant number of tests have been
conducted on each significant length of road. Research59,60 on the number of tests required
on each significant length of road has recently been conducted.

Deflection bowl parameters are commonly used30 to derive the basic engineering properties
of the various pavement layers as an input into mechanistic rehabilitation design procedures.
These aspects do not resort under the objective of this document and will not be further
discussed in this document.
 C-2

Table C1: Summary of the most commonly used deflection bowl parameters (After Horak30)

PARAMETER FORMULA MEASURING DEVICE

1. Maximum Deflection δ
Benkelman beam
0 Lacroix deflectograph
2. Radius of Curvature 2

R= r
2δ 0 (1 − δ r / δ 0 ) Curvature meter

r = 127 mm
3. Spreadability [(δ + δ + δ + δ )/ 5]100
0 1 2 3
Dynaflect
δ 0

A = 6[1 + 2(δ / δ ) + 2 * (δ / δ ) + δ / δ ]
4. Area Falling weigth deflectometer
1 0 2 0 3 0
(FWD)
5. Shape Factors
F = (δ − δ )/ δ
1 0 2 1

F = (δ − δ )/ δ
FWD
2 1 3 2

6. Surface Curvature
SCI = ( δ − δ ), Where
Index 0 2 Benkelman beam

r = 305mm Road rater

or r = 500mm FWD

7. Base Curvature Index BCI = δ 610

− δ 915 Road rater

8. Base Damage Index BDI = δ 305

− δ 610 Road rater

9. Qr = δr / δ 0 where
Deflection Ratio FWD
δ ≈δ r 0
/2
BI = δ / a where
10. Bending Index Benkelman beam
a = Deflection Ba sin Length

11. Slope of Deflection

SD = tan
−1
(δ − δ )/ r
0 r
Benkelman beam
Where r = 610mm
 C-3

Table C2: Performance criteria recommended for the assessment of pavement structural
3
condition (After Jordaan )

PARAMETER BASECOURSE MOISTURE CATEGORY OF ROAD

MATERIAL REGIME A B C
X Y X Y X Y
Radius of NGB (USB) - 100 60 80 45 60 30
curvature (m) NGB (TSB) - 150 80 110 60 80 40
LCB - 200 100 150 75 100 50

(Dehlen BTB - 300 130 200 90 130 65

Curvature CTB - 300 150 200 100 150 80
Meter)

NGB (USB) = Natural gravel base on an unstabilised subbase

NGB (TSB) = Natural gravel base on an treated subbase

LCB = Lightly cement-treated base

BTB = Bitumen-treated base

CTB = Cement-treated base

Measurements <X = Sound condition

Measurements X < and < Y = Warning condition

Measurements Y< = Severe condition

 C-4

Table C3: Typical measurement ranges for deflection bowl parameters as measured with the IDM
30
(After Horack )
GRANULAR BASE PAVEMENT
TRAFFIC BEHAVIOUR MAX. DEFL. SD SCI BDI BCI
CLASS STATE (mm) (x10-6) (mm) (mm) (mm)
E4 Very Stiff <0,30 150 <0,08 <0,05 <0,04
E3 Stiff 0,30 – 0,50 150 - 400 0,08 – 0,25 0,05 – 0,15 0,04 – 0,08
E2 Flexible 0,50 – 0,75 400 - 900 0,25 – 0,50 0,15 – 0,20 0,08 – 0,10
E1 Very Flexible >0,75 >900 >0,50 >0,20 >0,10
ASPHALT BASE PAVEMENT
TRAFFIC BEHAVIOUR MAX. DEFL. SD SCI BDI BCI
-6
CLASS STATE (mm) (x10 ) (mm) (mm) (mm)

E4 Very Stiff <0,25 100 <0,05 <0,03 <0,03

E3 Stiff 0,25 – 0,40 100 - 300 0,05 – 0,20 0,03 – 0,10 0,03 – 0,05
E2 Flexible 0,40 – 0,60 200 - 750 0,20 – 0,40 0,10 – 0,15 0,05 – 0,08
E1 Very Flexible >0,60 >750 >0,40 >0,15 >0,08
CEMENTED BASE PAVEMENT (CRUSHED STONE CEMENTED) E CEMENTED)
[SUGGESTED SEPARATE SET FOR STAB. GRAVELS]

TRAFFIC BEHAVIOUR MAX. DEFL. SD SCI BDI BCI

-6
CLASS STATE (mm) (x10 ) (mm) (mm) (mm)

E4 Initial phase <0,15 <80 <0,04 <0,03 <0,03

slab state
E3 Initial fatigue 0,15 – 0,25 80 – 250 0,04 – 0,10 0,03 – 0,06 0,03 – 0,05
cracking
E2 Substantial 0,25 – 0,40 250 – 400 0,10 – 0,30 0,06 – 0,10 0,05 – 0,08
fatigue
cracking
E1 Flexible >0,40 >400 >0,30 >0,10 >0,08
Phase
CONCRETE BASE PAVEMENT
TRAFFIC BEHAVIOUR MAX. DEFL. SD SCI BDI BCI
-6
CLASS STATE (mm) (x10 ) (mm) (mm) (mm)

E4 Initial phase <0,10 NA NA NA NA

slab state
E3 Initial fatigue 0,10 – 0,20 NA NA NA NA
cracking
E2 Substantial 0,20 – 0,30 NA NA NA NA
fatigue
cracking
E1 Flexible >0,30 NA NA NA NA
Phase
NA = Not available
 C-5

Table C4: Typical criteria for the assessment of deflection bowl parameters measured with the IDM
58
(After Maree et al )

GRANULAR BASE PAVEMENT

E80 ALLOWED LIMITS ( µm )

CLASS TRAFFIC YMAX. SCI BDI DCI
(E80 X 106)
EOL 0,05 – 0,1 1050 – 1300 700 – 900 410 – 560 230 – 310
EOH 0,1 – 0,2 870 – 1050 540 – 700 310 – 410 170 – 230
E1L 0,2 – 0,4 700 – 870 420 – 540 230 – 310 125 – 170
E1H 0,4 – 0,8 580 – 700 320 – 420 170 – 230 94 – 125
E2L 0,8 – 1,6 470 – 580 250 – 320 130 – 170 70 – 94
E2H 1,6 – 3,0 390 – 470 200 – 250 100 – 130 54 – 70
E3L 3,0 – 6,0 320 – 390 160 – 200 75 – 100 40 – 54
E3H 6,0 – 12,0 260 – 320 120 – 160 55 – 75 29 – 40
E4L 12,0 – 24,0 210 – 260 90 – 120 40 – 55 21 – 29
E4H 24,0 – 50,0 170 – 210 70 – 90 30 – 40 16 – 21
E5 50,0 – 100,0 0 – 170 0 – 70 0 – 30 0 – 16
ASPHALT BASE PAVEMENT

E80 ALLOWED LIMITS ( µm )

CLASS TRAFFIC YMAX. SCI BDI DCI
(E80 X 106)
EOL 0,05 – 0,1 1000 – 1220 610 – 800 340 – 460 200 – 270
EOH 0,1 – 0,2 790 – 1000 470 – 610 260 – 340 150 – 200
E1L 0,2 – 0,4 640 – 790 360 – 470 190 – 260 110 – 150
E1H 0,4 – 0,8 510 – 640 270 – 360 145 – 190 80 – 110
E2L 0,8 – 1,6 410 – 510 210 – 270 110 – 145 59 – 80
E2H 1,6 – 3,0 340 – 410 160 – 210 84 – 110 44 – 59
E3L 3,0 – 6,0 270 – 340 125 – 160 63 – 84 33 – 44
E3H 6,0 – 12,0 220 – 270 95 – 125 47 – 63 24 – 33
E4L 12,0 – 24,0 170 – 220 70 – 95 35 – 47 18 – 24
E4H 24,0 – 50,0 140 – 170 54 – 70 26 – 35 13 – 18
E5 50,0 – 100,0 0 – 140 0 – 54 0 – 26 0 – 13
CEMENT-STABILISED BASE PAVEMENT

E80 ALLOWED LIMITS ( µm )

CLASS TRAFFIC YMAX. SCI BDI DCI
(E80 X 106)
EOL 0,05 – 0,1 940 – 1150 560 – 750 300 – 400 180 – 240
EOH 0,1 – 0,2 740 – 940 420 – 560 230 – 30 130 – 180
E1L 0,2 – 0,4 590 – 740 320 – 420 170 – 230 96 – 130
E1H 0,4 – 0,8 470 – 590 240 – 320 125 – 170 70 – 96
E2H 1,6 – 3,0 300 – 370 140 – 180 72 – 94 39 – 52
E3L 3,0 – 6,0 240 – 300 110 – 140 54 – 72 29 – 39
E3H 6,0 – 12,0 190 – 240 80 – 110 40 – 54 21 – 29
E4L 12,0 – 24,0 150 – 190 60 – 80 29 – 40 15 – 21
E4H 24,0 – 50,0 120 – 150 45 – 60 22 – 29 11 – 15
E5 50,0 – 100,0 0 – 120 0 – 45 0 – 22 0 – 11
 C-6

FIGURE C1
58
Limiting criteria for IDM deflection bowl parameters (After Maree et al )
 32
APPENDIX D
MEAN MONTHLY AMBIENT

TEMPERATURES FOR SOUTH AFRICA

 D-1

32
FIGURE D1

Mean monthly ambient temperatures during January for South Africa

 D-2

32
FIGURE D2

Mean monthly ambient temperatures during February for South Africa

 D-3

FIGURE D332
Mean monthly ambient temperatures during March for South Africa
 D-4

FIGURE D432

Mean monthly ambient temperatures during April for South Africa

 D-5

32
FIGURE D5

Mean monthly ambient temperatures during May for South Africa

 D-6

32
FIGURE D6

Mean monthly ambient temperatures during June for South Africa

 D-7

FIGURE D732

Mean monthly ambient temperatures during July for South Africa

 D-8

FIGURE D832

Mean monthly ambient temperatures during August for South Africa

 D-9

FIGURE D932

Mean monthly ambient temperatures during September for South Africa

 D-10

FIGURE D1032

Mean monthly ambient temperatures during October for South Africa

 D-11

FIGURE D1132

Mean monthly ambient temperatures during November for South Africa

 D-12

32
FIGURE D12

Mean monthly ambient temperatures during December for South Africa

 APPENDIX E

DETERMINATION OF THE E-MODULUS

OF BITUMEN-TREATED LAYERS

(AFTER SHELL34)
 E-1

APPENDIX E
DETERMINATION OF THE E-MODULUS OF
BITUMEN - TREATED LA YERS
(AFTER SHELL34)

1. Introduction

. he stiffness modulus of asphalt mixes can cover a considerable range, from around IO5 to
about 5 x 1010 N/m2. The upper range of stiffness values (say 107 to 5 X 1010 N/m2) can be
determined for a particular mix by means of dynamic or semi-static (e.g. constant rate of
loading) tests (2-, 3- or 4-point bending, torsion) at various temperatures and under
different loading conditions. Extensive measurements of this type in Shell laboratories
have demonstrated that the mix modulus depends solely on the stiffness of the bitumen - as
it is in the mix - and the volumetric ratios of bitumen, aggregate and voids in the mix.
The results of experimental work on a large number of asphalt mixes of different composition
have been expressed in a nomograph, from which the mix stiffness modulus can be derived
for given volume concentrations of aggregate and bitumen and a given bitumen stiffness
modulus. The latter parameter can be derived from another nomograph for given values of
temperature and loading time and given bitumen type (e.g. characterized by T800pen and PI).
This Appendix provides both nomographs and describes the procedures for their use.
In the case of low stiffness values of the asphalt mix (say lower than 107 N/m2), high
temperatures and/or long loading times, the modulus depends not only on the pa-
rameters mentioned above but also on the nature and grading of the aggregate, the
influence of which is considerable. In addition, the method of mixing and compacting
may have a pronounced effect. Under these conditions, relevant for permanent
deformation of the asphalt mix, the stiffness modulus is preferably determined in static
and constant-load uni-axial compression tests as described in Appendix 4.

2. Determination of the stiffness of the bitumen in the mix

The Van der Poel nomograph* (Figure A2.1) is used.
*See ref. 1 in the Bibliography
E-2
 E-3

Four parameters are required:

• two for the bitumen in the mix
(1) T8OO pen, the temperature at which the penetration is 800. For paving grades it is
approximately
the softening point (ASTM D 36- 76) .
(2) PI, penetration index.

Parameters 1 and 2 can be obtained from the chart in Figure A2.2. The characteristics of the
bitumen are obtained from penetration tests at several temperatures . For convenience, a
copy of the Van der Poel nomograph is included in the pocket inside the front cover of the
Manual, together with a transparency of the penetration nomograph on which Fig. A2.2 is
based.

It should be noted that during mixing and laying, and in service, bitumens harden and it is
therefore not correct to use the characteristics of the bitumen as supplied. The
characteristics can either be: determined by testing the recovered bitumen, e.g. use a
standard method of recovery (e.g. ASTM D 1856-75 or equivalent) and measuring the
penetration at two temperatures; or estimated. With normal temperatures and control during
mixing and laying the bitumen becomes approximately one grade harder (e.g. a 80/100 pen
bitumen becomes a 60/70, a 60/70 becomes a 40/50, etc.) and there is a small increase in PI.
The effect of hardening with time is very difficult to estimate, as it varies with voids content,
position in the pavement and weather conditions. For impervious mixes the hardening during
service is negligible.

• Two for the service conditions

(3) temperature
(4) time of loading. For road traffic this is typically 0.02
seconds (speed 50-60 km/h); in a laboratory test when sinusoidal loading is applierl the
frequency (Hz) may be used.

A worked example is shown in the graphs.

3. Calculation of the volumetric composition of mixes

(The Asphalt Institute nomenclature is used)

It is assumed that the mix is composed of:

P1mass of aggregate g1, with bulk specific gravity G1;

P2 mass of aggregate g2, with bulk specific gravity G2;
Pi mass of aggregate gi, with bulk specific gravity Gi;
Pb % by mass (% m) of bitumen with specific gravity Gb.
 E-4

The bulk specific gravity of the mineral aggregates is:

The maximum P + Pgravity

specific Pthe
... + of mix is:
G 1
sb
2

P
i

P ... + P
1
+ 2 i

G 1 G100 G2 i

G 100 − P
+ P
mm
b b

G sb G b

The bulk specific gravity of the compacted mix is:

Gmb (determined by water displacement method)

The bulk Specific gravity of the compacted aggregates is:

G = G
100 − P b
sc mb
100
From these values the volume percentages are:

V = 100 G sc

Aggregates g
G sb

V = 100 G mb
−V
bitumen b
G mm
g

air  G 
V = 100  1 − mb 
 
a
 G mm 

Note: If the specific gravity of the bitumen and of the aggregates is unknown, the following
values may be used:
for bitumen Gb = 1.02
for Gi = 2.85 for porphyry, diorites and granites;
aggregates
= 2.65 for silicocalcareous materials, river and dune sand;
= 2.70 for limes tone fillers;
= 2.95 for basaltic materials.

EXAMPLE

MIX COMPOSITION
 Grading Curve %m specific gravity 2.86

6/10 mm diorite 30 2.86

4/6 mm diorite 20 2.86

3/4 mm diorite 12 2.85

0/2 mm diorite 30.2 2.83

fill er diori te 7.8 2.91

The mix is bound with 5.5 %m of bitumen, specific gravity 1.02.

CALCULA TION

The bulk specific gravity of the mineral aggregates is:

30 + 20 + 12 + 30.2 + 7.8
G sb
=
30 20 12 30.2 7.8
+ + + +
2.86 2.86 2.85 2.83 2.91
= 2.853

The maximum specific gravity of the mix is:

100
G sb
=
100 − 5.5 5.5
+
2.85 1.02
= 2.597

The bulk specific gravity of the compacted mixture is (determined by water displacement
method):

Gmb = 2.43

The bulk specific gravity of the compacted aggregates is:

(100 − 5 .5 )
G sc
=
100
= 2 . 296
 E-6

The mix is composed of: 2 .296

V g
= 100
2 .853
= 80 .5

2 .43
V b
= 100
2 .597
− 80 .5 = 13 .1

 2 .43 
V a
= 100  1 −
 2 .597 
 = 6 .4

The sum Va + Vb + Vg must be 100: 80.5 + 13.1 + 6.4 = 100.

4. Determination of the stiffness modulus of bituminous mixes

The stiffness of the bitumen from Fig. A2.1 and the, volumetric composition of the mix are
known, the stiffness modulus of the mix is obtained from the nomograph* in Fig. A2.3.

EXAMPLE

Stiffness of the bitumen under the operating conditions:

Sbit = 2.0 x IO8 N/m2

Volume percentage of bitumen:

Vb= 13.1

Volume percentage of aggregates:

Vg = 80.5

The stiffness modulus of the mix is:

Smix = 1.1 x 1010 N/m2.

The accuracy of the nomograph, as checked by extensive measurements on a large number

of different asphalt mixes, is a factor of 1.5-2, which is sufficient for practical design.

The stiffness of a particular mix derived from the nomograph can be plotted in Chart M-1 of
the Manual as a function of bitumen stiffness, or in Chart M-2 as a function of temperature
for a loading time of t = 0.02 s. The mix stiff ness curve thus obtained can be compared with
those used for thickness charts (see Chapter 8, Section 2.1 of the Manual).
 E-7

FIGURE A2.3.
Nomograph for mix stiffness

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