NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

Q1) How was the French Revolution a clear expression of Nationalism?

i) In 1789, France was a territorial state that was under the absolute power of
a monarch.
ii) Led by political and constitutional changes, the sovereignty of France was
transferred from the monarchy to the French citizens.
iii) The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would constitute the
nation and decide its destiny.
Q2) How did the French Revolution create a sense of belonging among its
people?
i) Ideas of la partie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the
notion of a united community under a constitution that gave equal rights.
ii) A new French flag, the tricolor, replaced the royal standard.
iii) Estates General was elected by a body of active citizens and renamed the
National Assembly.
iv) New hymns were proposed, oaths were taken, and martyrs were
commemorated.
v) Centralized administrative system was introduced, and it gave uniform laws
for all the people.
vi) Internal customs duties and dues were abolished, and a uniform system of
weights and measures was adopted.
vii) Regional dialects were discouraged, and French became the common
language of the nation.
Q3) What were Jacobin Clubs? How did their activities and campaigns help to
spread the idea of nationalism abroad? Explain.
i) Revolutionaries declared that it was the duty of the French nation to liberate
the people of Europe from despotism.
ii) Inspired by the events of the French revolution, students set up Jacobin
Clubs and their activities paved the way for the French armies.
iii) The French armies moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy in
the 1790s.
iv) The French armies began to carry the idea of nationalism abroad.
Q4) Napoleon had, no doubt, destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field he
had incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and
efficient.” Support the statement.

i) Napolean Bonaparte proposed The Civil Code of 1804- also known as the
Napoleonic Code.
ii) The main provisions of the code were:
- Abolishment of privileges by birth.
 - Established equality before law.
- Secured the right to property.
iii) Napolean simplified administrative divisions, abolished feudal system and
freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues in regions of Switzerland,
Italy, Germany and the Dutch republic.
iv) Guild restrictions were removed.
v) Transport and communication systems were improved.
vi) Business men appreciated the uniform laws, standardized weights and
measures and common national currency, they felt that these would
facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region
to another.
Q5) What were the opinions of the people regarding the Napoleonic Code?
i) In many places such as Holland and Switzerland, the French armies were
seen as the harbingers of liberty.
ii) However, the enthusiasm turned into hostility.
iii) The new administrative measures did not align with political freedom.
iv) Drawbacks such as:
- Increased taxation
- Censorship
- Forced recruitment into French armies.
Seemed to outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes.
Q6) Describe mid-18th century Europe.
i) In mid-18th century Europe, there were no nation-states as we know today.
ii) Eastern and central Europe was under autocratic monarchies, in which the
people did not have any sense of collective belonging.
iii) They often spoke different languages and were of different ethnicities.
iv) Example-The Habsburg Empire was a patchwork of many different regions:
- Alpine regions- Tyrol, Austria, Sudetenland, Bohemia. (German
speaking)
- Lombardy and Venetia (Italian speaking)
- Hungary (Half Magyar and other half different dialects)
- Galicia (Aristocracy spoke polish)
- Peasant people- Bohemians and Slovaks in the north, Slovenes in
Carniola, Croats in the south and Romans in the east in Transylvania.
Q7) What was the social construct of the continent?
i) Dominant class was Aristocracy.
ii) They mainly spoke French for diplomacy purposes.
iii) They owned estates and town houses.
iv) Their families were often connected by marriage.
 v) But Majority of the population were peasants.
- WestLand was farmed by tenants and small owners.
- Eastern and Central EuropeLand cultivated by serfs.
Q8) How did the new social class emerge?
i) Industrialization in Europe brought the new social group known as the
working class or middle class.
ii) Middle class was made up of industrialists, businessmen, professionals, etc.
iii) In central and eastern Europe, this class was small in number until the 19th
century.
iv) They became the main force of Unity and Nationalism.
Q9) What were the demands under political liberalism?
i) Politically, liberalism is the concept of government by consent.
ii) It stood for the End of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution, and
a representative form of government through parliament.
iii) In the 19th century, liberals also demanded for the right to private property.
iv) Not everyone had voting rights, only men with property were allowed to
vote.
v) For a brief period under the Jacobin clubs, all adult men were able to vote.
vi) However, the Napoleonic code went back to limited suffrage.
vii) Women were given the status of a minor, subject to the authority of their
fathers or husbands.
Q10) What were the demands under economical liberalism?
i) Liberalism stood for freedom of market and abolition of state-imposed
restrictions of movement of goods and capital.
ii) Example- In Germany, Napolean’s administrative measures had created a
confederation of 39 states, out of small principalities.
iii) Each of these states had their own currency and weighing system.
iv) Custom barriers in each city hindered economic growth and exchange.
v) In 1834, a customs union, Zollverein, founded by Prussia and joined by
most of the German states, abolished tariff barriers.
vi) They also reduced the number of currencies from over 30 to 2.
vii) Creation of railway network further stimulated mobility.

Q11) Who were the conservatives?

i) With Napoleans defeat in 1815, European governments were driven by
conservatism.
ii) Conservatives believed that traditional and established practices of society
should be conserved.
 iii) However, they realized the changes introduced by Napolean, could
strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy.
iv) It could make state power effective and strong.
- A modern army
- An effective bureaucracy
- Dynamic economy
- Abolition of feudalism and serfdom could strengthen the autocratic
monarchs in Europe.
Q12) What were the provisions of the Treaty of Vienna of 1815?
i) In 1815, the representative of European powers, Britain, Russia, Austria,
and Prussia, came together at Vienna to decide on a settlement for Europe.
ii) The congress was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor, Duke Metternich.
iii) The main objective of the Treaty of Vienna was to undo the changes
brought by Napoleon.
iv) Bourbon dynasty was restored to power.
v) France lost its territories and was bounded by a series of states to prevent
further France expansion:
vi) Kingdom of Netherlands was set up in the north.
vii) Genoa was added to Piedmont in the south.
viii) Prussia was given new territories on its western front and a portion of
Saxony.
ix) Austria was given control of northern Italy.
x) Russia was given part of Poland.
xi) The main intention was to restore the monarchies and create a new
conservative order in Europe.
Q13) What did the new conservative regime impose on the people?
i) Conservative regimes were autocratic. They did not tolerate criticism.
ii) They curbed activities that questioned the legitimacy of the governments.
iii) Most of them imposed censorship laws to control what was said on
newspapers, books, plays and songs.
iv) One of the major issues taken up by liberal-nationalists, was freedom of
press.
Q14) What were the objectives of the revolutionaries?
i) Fear of repression drove many liberal-nationalists underground, and they
created secret societies.
ii) To be revolutionary meant to oppose the autocratic regime, to fight for
liberty and freedom and also to create nation states.
Q15) Write a note about Giuseppe Mazzini.
i) Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionist. He became a member of the
secret society of Carbonari.
ii) He was set to exile in 1824 for attempting a revolution in Liguria.
iii) He founded two more societies, Young Italy in Marseilles, and Young
Europe in Berne.
iv) He believed that God had created nations to be the natural units of mankind.
v) He wanted Italy to be unified as this would be the basis of liberty.
vi) Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic
republics scared the conservatives.
Q16) What were the different revolutions started by the liberals?
i) First upheaval of the liberal revolution took place in July 1830, in France.
ii) The Bourbon kings were overthrown by the liberal revolutionaries.
iii) They appointed Louis Phillipe as the head.
iv) The July revolution of France influenced Brussels, which lead to Belgium
breaking away from the Kingdom of Netherlands.
Q17) Write a note on the Greek War of independence.
i) An event that mobilised nationalists’ feelings was the Greek War of
Independence.
ii) Greece was under the ottoman empire since the 15th century.
iii) The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle
for independence among the Greek people.
iv) Poets and artists considered Greece as the cradle of the European
civilisation.
v) English poet Lord Byron organised funds and went into war, where he died
of fever in 1824.
vi) Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832, declared Greece as an
independent nation.
Q18) Describe the role of culture in shaping the feelings of nationalism in Europe from
1830 to the end of 19th Century
i) Art and poetry, stories and music helped express nationalists feelings.
ii) Romantic artists and poets did not like the glorification of logic and science.
iii) They focused more on mystical feelings, intuition, and emotion.
iv) Their effort was to create a sense of collective belonging.
Q19) How was romantism popularized in Germany?
i) Germany Philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that true German
culture was to be discovered among the common people (das volk).
ii) It is through folk music, folk dance, folk poetry and stories that the true spirit of
the nation (Volksgeist) was popularized.
Q20) How was romantism popularized in Poland?
i) Poland was partitioned by the great powers, Russia, Prussia, and Austria in the
18th century.
ii) Poland had not existed as an independent nation, however, the feeling of
nationalism was kept alive through music and language.
iii) Karol Kurpinski celebrated national struggle through his opera and music.
iv) He turned folk dances like Polonaise and Mazurka into nationalist symbols.
v) Russian language was imposed everywhere.
vi) After a failed armed rebellion in 1831, members of clergy used the polish
language as a weapon of national resistance.
vii) It was used for church gatherings and as a result, large number of priests and
bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia as a punishment of their refusal to
preach in Russian.
viii) Use of polish came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance.

Q21) Why was the decade of 1830s known as great economic

hardships in Europe? Explain any three reasons
i) In the first half of the 19th century, the population in Europe increased
massively.
ii) There were more seekers of jobs than employment.
iii) Population of rural areas migrated to the cities, and they had to live in
overcrowded slums.
iv) Producers struggled with competition against the cheap machine-made
goods imported from England, where industrialization was more prominent
in the continent.
v) In some regions of Europe, aristocracy still enjoyed their powers and
peasants struggled a burden of feudal dues and obligations.
vi) Rise of food prices lead to bad harvest and widespread pauperism in
Europe.
Q22) What happened in France during the hardships of 1848?
i) Food shortages and widespread unemployment brought the people of Paris
onto the roads.
ii) Barricades were erected and Louis Phillipe was forced to flee.
iii) France became a republic and gave suffrage to all males above 21.
iv) National workshops for set up to provide employment.
Q23) Describe the outbreak of Silesia.
i) In 1845, Weavers in Silesia held a revolt against contractors.
ii) These contractors supplied them raw materials and gave orders to give
finished textiles.
iii) However, the payment for the weavers decreased.
iv) Weavers broke into contractors’ mansions and demanded for their rights.
v) 11 weavers were shot dead.
Q24) Describe the revolution of liberals in Germany.
i) The middle class people came together and voted for an all german national
assembly in Frankfurt.
ii) 821 elected representatives marched to Frankfurt parliament convened in
the Church of St. Paul.
iii) They drafted a constitution for a german nation to be headed by a monarch
subject to a parliament.
iv) However, King of Prussia, Friedrich Willhelm IV, rejected this proposal and
joined with other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
v) The assembly eventually lost its support from the people as it was
dominated by the middle class who did not support the workers and artisans
rights.
vi) Assembly was forced to disband as troops were called in.
25) Were women allowed to participate in the revolt of Germany?
i) They formed their own political associations.
ii) They founded newspapers and made many political meetings.
iii) However, they were still denied suffrage.
iv) When the Frankfurt parliament convened at St Paul church, women were only
admitted as observers.
26) What was the outcome of the revolution?
i) Conservative forces were able to supress liberal movements.
ii) However, they could not restore old order.
iii) To avoid another revolt, serfdom and bonded labour were abolished in
Habsburg dominions and Russia.
iv) Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to Hungarians in 1867.
27) Describe the unification of Germany.
i) Nationalists’ feelings were widespread across Germany, opting to unite the
different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by
an elected parliament.
ii) However, this liberal initiative was repressed by the Monarchs, the military and
the Junkers (large landowners).
 iii) Chief minister of Prussia, Otto von Bismark, was the architect of the
unification process and was helped by the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
iv) Prussia was the victor of a 7-year war against Austria, Denmark and France.
v) William I, the Prussian king, was proclaimed the German emperor in a
ceremony held at Versailles.
vi) Princes of German states, representatives of the army, important Prussian
ministers including Otto von Bismark, attended the ceremony.
vii) The new state held importance to modernizing the currency, banking,
and judicial systems in Germany.
viii) Prussian practices became a model for the rest of Germany.
Q28)How was Italy divided?
i) Italy was divided into 7 states.
ii) Only Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house.
- North- Austrian Habsburgs.
- Centre- the pope.
- Southern region- Bourbon Kings of Spain
iii) Italian language did not have a common form and had many variations.
Q29) Explain the unification of Italy.
i) The unification of Italy was important as it offered the possibility of
economic development and political dominance.
ii) Giuseppe Mazzini formed a secret society, known as Young Italy.
iii) He tried to put Italy together in both 1831 and 1848, but failed.
iv) Now the responsibility of unifying Italy lay on the Sardinia-Piedmont ruler,
King Victor Emmanuel II.
v) Chief Minister Cavour led the movement through tactful diplomatic alliance
with France and Sardinia-Piedmont defeated the Austrian forces in 1859.
vi) In 1860, Garibaldi won the support of the peasants in the Kingdom of two
Sicilies, and drove out the Spanish rulers.
vii) In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed the king of United Italy.
Q30) Explain the unification of Britain.
i) The English Parliament, which seized power from monarchy in 1688, was
the instrument through which a nation-state, was created.
ii) The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland resulted in the
formation of United Kingdom of Great Britain.
iii) England had imposed its influence on Scotland.
iv) British Parliament was dominated by English speakers, and the growth of
the British identity meant that the culture of Scotland was severely
repressed.
v) Catholic clans faced severe repression whenever they tried to assert their
independence.
 vi) Scottish highlanders were not allowed to speak the Gaelic language or wear
the national dress of Scotland.
vii) Ireland was divided into Catholics and Protestants.
viii) English helped the protestants assert dominance over the majority catholics.
ix) Catholic revolts against British were severely repressed.
x) After a failed revolt by Wolfe Tone and his united Irishmen, Ireland was
forcible incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
Q31) How was the new British nation propagated?
i) Symbols of new Britain- The British flag (Union Jack), national anthem
(God save our noble king) as well as the English language, were actively
promoted.
Q32) Describe the French allegory.
i) Female figures became an allegory of the nation during 18th and 19th
century.
ii) French revolution artists used female allegory to portray ideas such as
Liberty, justice and the republic.
iii) Attributes of liberty are the red cap or the broken chain.
iv) Justice is generally a blind folded woman carrying a pair of weighing
scales.
v) In France, she was known as the Marianne. She wore a red cap, held the
tricolour and cockade.
vi) Statues of Marianne were held in public squares to promote the national
symbol of unity.
Q33) Describe the German allegory.
i) In Germany, the female allegory was known as Germania.
ii) She wore a crown of oak leaves, and they stood for heroism.
iii) She was first used in Frankfurt Parliament by the liberals.
Q34) What is the history of the Balkans?
i) Balkans is a region of many ethnical variations.
ii) The inhabitants of Balkans were known as the slavs.
iii) The Balkans were under the Ottoman empire. The spread of nationalist
ideas and the disintegration of the Ottoman empire made this region very
explosive.
iv) Ottoman empire tried to strengthen itself through modernisation and
internal reforms, but ultimately failed.
v) One by one, European subject nationalities broke away from the empire
control.
vi) Balkans claimed for independence and used history to prove that they once
had been independent but had been subsequently subjugated by foreign
powers.

Q35) How did the Balkan region become an area of conflict?

i) As Slavic nationalities struggled for their independence and identity, the
Balkan area became an area of intense conflict.
ii) Balkan states were jealous of each other and wanted more territory in the
expenses of others.
iii) Rivalry was also present between big European powers, (Russia, Germany,
England, Austro-Hungary) over trade, colonies, naval and military might.
iv) This led to a series of wars in the regions, which ended up with WW1.