Important board questions and extra questions rise of nationalism in Europe

Q1. How did the Greek War of Independence mobilise nationalist feelings among the educated
elite across Europe? Explain. (2020, 11)
Ans. Greek war of independence mobilized the nationalist feeling in Europe through the following ways:
(i) Greece was viewed as a part of Europe that had been annexed by Ottomans and now needed to
be liberated.
(ii) Greece perceived as the foundation and cradle of civilisation in Europe by poets and artists
and this led to nationalist consciousness.
(iii) Greek nationalists received support from other Greeks living in exile.
Q.3. Why is it said that the 1830s were the years of great hardships in Europe? Explain. (2020, 19,
17, 16,)
Ans. The decade of 1830 had brought great economic hardship or crisis in Europe due to the following
reasons:
(i) The first half of the 19th century saw an enormous increase in population all over Europe.
(ii) Job-seekers were more and employment opportunities were less.
(iii) People from rural areas migrated to cities and made cities over-crowded slums.
(iv) Small producers often faced stiff competition from imports of cheap machine-made goods.
(v) Peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations
Q4.How did nationalism align with imperialism to become the cause of the First World war?
Explain. (2020)
Ans. The Balkan states had become the region of intense rivalry among the Balkan states themselves for
independence as well as the big powers for expansion and influence in the region. Reasons for the growth of
nationalist tension in Balkan region:
(i) The Balkan was a region of geographical and ethnic variations comprising of modern-day
Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina Slovenia, Serbia
and Montenegro. The inhabitants were called Slavs.
(ii) The spread of romantic nationalism led to its disintegration.
(iii) Different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity.
(iv) Balkan region became a region of intense conflict over expansion of territory.
(v) At the same time, the great European Powers –Russia, Germany, England and Austria-
Hungary were keen on taking the control of the Balkan region, since it was important from trade
point of view.
(vi) This led to the series of wars in the region and finally became the cause of the First World
War.
Q5. Describe the event of the French Revolution which had influenced the people belonging to
other parts of Europe. (2015)
(i) Students and other members of educated middle class began to set up Jacobin clubs.
(ii) Their activities and campaigns paved the way for the French armies which moved into
Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and large parts of Italy.
(iii) Due to the outbreak of various revolutionary wars the French armies began to carry the idea
of nationalism abroad.
(iv) Thus, a sense of collective identity prevailed upon the people in other parts of Europe.
Q6.“The first clear expression of nationalism came with the ‘French Revolution’ in 1789.”
Examine the statement. (2017)
Ans. The event of the French Revolution was so big a movement toward creating a nation state
that it is regarded as the first clear expression of nationalism in Europe as it inspired the people in
other parts of Europe as well.
The events of the French Revolution that influenced the people in other parts of Europe are as
follows:
(i) A new French flag was adopted to replace former Royal Standard.
(ii) The Estates General renamed as General Assembly, became an elected body.
(iii) Centralised administration and uniform civil laws were made for citizens.
(iv) Uniform weighing and measurement system was adopted.
(v) French became the national language of France.
The revolution gave people true power to shape the destiny of France. France became a nation-
state and the world got a clear expression of nationalism through the French Revolution.
Q7. What was the status of France as a state before 1789? Which two political and constitutional
changes came in the wake of the French Revolution? (2015)
Ans. Before 1789, France was a full-fledged territorial state under an absolute monarchy.
The two changes are:
• The French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from monarchy to a body of
citizens. This spread the message of rule by people’s representatives
• The revolution demonstrated that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the
nation and shape its destiny. So, the French revolutionaries introduced various measures
and practices that could create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people.
Q8. Describe steps taken by French revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity
among the French people? (2017, 16, 12, 10)
Ans. The French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that created a
sense of collective identity amongst the French people—
(i) The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasised the notion of
a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
(ii) A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former Royal Standard.
(iii) The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the
National Assembly.
(iv) New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name
of the nation.
(v) A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for
all the citizens within its territory.
(vi) Internal custom duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and
measures was adopted.
(vii) Regional dialects were discouraged and French was promoted as the common
language of the nation.

Q9. List any three features of the Civil Code of 1804 usually known as the Napoleonic Code.
OR. How had Napoleonic code exported to the regions under French control? Explain with
examples.
Ans. Napoleonic Code of 1804 was exported to the regions under the French control with the
following changes:
(i) Administrative divisions were simplified.
(ii) Feudal system was abolished.
(iii) The laws Freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
(iv) In towns, guild restrictions were removed.
(v) Transport and communication system improved.
Q10. Explain the changes which Napoleon introduced to make the administrative system more
efficient in Europe (2011).
OR. “Napoleon had destroyed democracy in France but in the administrative field, he had
incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make whole system more rational and
efficient. “Analyse the statement with arguments. (2016)
Ans. Napoleon had destroyed democracy in France but in administrative field he had
incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and
efficient.
(i) All privileges based on birth were removed.
(ii) He had established equality before law.
(iii) Right to property was given.
(iv) Simplified administrative divisions were made.
(v) Feudal system was abolished and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
(vi) Guild restrictions were removed.
(vii) Transport and communication systems were improved.
(viii) Standardised weights, measures and a common national currency was introduced.
Q11. Who hosted ‘Vienna Congress’ in 1815? Analyse the main changes brought by the ‘Vienna
Treaty.’ [Delhi: 2017]
OR. How did conservatives establish their power after 1815? (2016,12)
OR. Explain the objectives of the Treaty of Vienna. (2011,12)
OR. How did the Treaty of Vienna change the map of Europe? (2012)
OR. Explain any three provisions the treaty of Vienna of 1815. (2012)
Answer:
• A New-Conservatism prevailed after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. The new
conservative order was established through the Treaty of Vienna 1915.
• The objectives of the Treaty of Vienna 1815 were to undo the victories of Napoleon and
restore Europe to the revolutionary era with restoration of monarchies to establish a new
conservative order.
• Congress of Vienna was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich in 1815.
The following changes were made to redraw or change the map of Europe.:
• The Bourbon Dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution, was
restored to power and France lost the territories it had annexed.
• A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent the French
expansion in future. Thus,
• The kingdom of the Netherlands, which included Belgium, was set up in the north and
Genoa was added to Piedmont in the south.
• Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers, while Austria was
given control of northern Italy.
• The German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon was left
untouched
Q12. Why did most of the ‘conservative regimes’ impose censorship laws to control printed
material associated with the French Revolution in 1815? (2019)
Answer:
• The regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic. They did not tolerate criticism and dissent.

• They sought to curb activities that questioned the legitimacy of their governments.
 • Censorship laws were imposed to control what was said in newspapers, books, plays
and songs and reflected the ideas of liberty and freedom associated with the French
Revolution.
• The memory of the French Revolution nonetheless, continued to inspire liberals.
Q13. Why in the years after 1848, the autocrats of central and Eastern Europe began to
introduce the changes that had already taken place in Western Europe before 1815?
Explain. (2016)
Answer:
(i) There were numerous revolutions after the Treaty of Vienna challenging the conservative forces
and the monarchies. Though conservative forces were able to suppress liberal movements in 1848,
they could not restore the old order.
(ii) Monarchs were beginning to realise that the cycles of revolution and repression could only be
ended by granting concessions to the liberal-nationalist revolutionaries.
(iii) Some steps were taken to address some issues that irked the people most. In the years after
1848, the autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to introduce the changes that
had already taken place in Western Europe before 1815.
(iv) Thus, serfdom and bonded labour were abolished both in the Habsburg dominations and in
Russia. The Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.
Liberalism and Zollverein
Q14. How were the ideas of national unity in early nineteenth century Europe closely allied to
the ideology of liberalism? Explain. (2020)
OR. What does the term ‘Liberalism’ mean? What did it mean to different classes and
people? (2012)
Answer:
Ideology of Liberalism
(i) Liberalism is derived from the Latin word ‘liber’ which means ‘free’.
(ii) Liberalism in the early 19th century stood for freedom for the individual and equality to all
before law for the new middle classes.
(iii) Politically, it emphasised the concept of government by consent.
(iv) It stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges.
Ideas of national unity that allied to the ideology of liberalism:
(i) The abolition of state-imposed restrictions
(ii) Freedom for the individual
(iii) Equality of all before the law.
(iv) The concept of government by consent.
(v) End of autocracy and clerical privileges
(vi) A constitution and representative government through parliament.
(vii) Freedom of markets.
(viii) Removal of restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
Q15. Explain the conditions that were viewed as obstacles to the economic exchange and
growth by the new commercial classes during the nineteenth century in Europe? (2014)
OR. Interpret the concept of ‘liberalisation’ in the field of economic sphere during the
19th century in Europe. (2019)
Ans. The following conditions were viewed as obstacles to the economic exchange and growth by
the new commercial classes during the nineteenth century in Europe:
(i) The absence of freedom of markets.
(ii) State-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
(iii) Time-consuming calculations resulting from the difference in currency, weight and
measurement
Q16. How did a wave of economic nationalism strengthen the wider nationalist sentiment
growing in Europe? Explain. (2015)
Ans. Economic nationalism strengthened the wider nationalist sentiment. Economically,
liberalism stood for:
(i) Freedom of markets.
(ii) End of state -imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
(iii) A customs union or zollverein was formed by Prussia in 1834, which was joined by many
German states. This union reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two and
abolished tariff barriers.
(iv) A network of railways led to great mobility and gave an impetus to national unity.
(v) It was assumed that economic unification like Zollverein would pave the way for national
unification.
Giuseppe Mazzini
1. What happened during the year following 1815 when the fear of repression drove many
liberal-nationalists underground? Explain. (2016)
OR. How had revolutionaries spread their ideas in many European states after 1815? Explain
with example. (2014)
Answer: After 1815, many liberal nationalists went underground for the fear of repression by
autocratic monarchies.
(i) Secret societies sprang up in many European states to train revolutionaries and spread their
ideas. Carbonari was one such secret society with many members as revolutionaries.
(ii) To be revolutionary at this time meant a commitment to oppose monarchical forms that had
been established after the Vienna Congress, and to fight for liberty and freedom.
(iii) Most of these revolutionaries also saw the creation of nation-states as a necessary part of this
struggle for freedom.
(iv) The Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Mazzini founded two underground societies, first, Young
Italy in Marseilles, and then, Young Europe in Berne, whose members were like-minded young
men from Poland, France, Italy and the German states.
(v) Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. So, Italy
could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms. It had to be forged into a
single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations.
(vi) Following the footsteps of Mazzini, many secret societies were set-up in Germany, France,
Switzerland and Poland
(vii) Mazzini‘s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics
frightened the conservatives. Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our
social order’.
2. Describe the role of Giuseppe Mazzini as an Italian revolutionary. (2012)
Ans. The role of Giuseppe Mazzini as an Italian revolutionary:
Giuseppe Mazzini was a famous Italian revolutionary was born in 1807 in Genoa.

• He was the part of a secret society called Carbonari.

• In 1831, Mazzini was sent into exile for attempting a revolution in Liguria.
 • He founded two secret societies—Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne.
Members of these societies were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and
German states.
• Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind.
• Mazzini believed in the unification of the small kingdoms and principalities in Italy to
form a republic.
• Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republic
frightened the conservatives.
Greek War of Independence
How did Greek War of independence mobilise nationalists feeling among the educated elite
across Europe? (2020, 2011)
Answer:
(i) Greek war of Independence of 1821 was a successful war waged for independence of Greece
which had been a part of Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century.
(ii) Revolutionary Nationalism inspired this struggle. West Europeans and Greeks in exile
supported this struggle against the huge Muslim empire.
(iii) Greek poets and artists used the rich ancient heritage and culture of Greece to mobilise public
opinion by calling it ‘the cradle of European civilisation’.
(iv) The English poet Lord Byron, organised funds, fought in war and died of fever in 1824.
(v) Treaty of Constantinople declared Greece Independent in July, 1832.
Another Answer:
Greek war of independence mobilized the nationalist feeling in Europe through the following
ways:
(i) Greece was viewed as a part of Europe that had been annexed by Ottomans and now needed to
be liberated.
(ii) Greece perceived as the foundation and cradle of civilisation in Europe by poets and artists
and this led to nationalist consciousness.
(iii) Greek nationalists received support from other Greeks living in exile. The Rise of Nationalism
in Europe 25
(iv) Many Europeans had a natural sympathy for the ancient Greek civilisation.
(v) Europeans and Greek nationalist were against the Muslim Empire.

Romanticism – Role of language and Folk Culture

1. Define the term Romanticism. How did it facilitate the promotion of nationalist
sentiment? (2016)
OR. How did Romanticism pave the way for Nationalism in Europe? Explain. (2012)
Answer.
Romanticism was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist
sentiments in the following ways.

(i) Critical approach towards reason and science: Romantic artists criticized the glorification of reason
and science and focused on emotions, intuitions and mystical feeling.
(ii) Folk culture as the spirit of the nation: Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that through folk songs,
folk poetry and folk dances, the true spirit of nation could be popularised. The Polish composer
Karol Kurpinski celebrated and popularised the Polish nationalist struggle through his operas and
music, by turning folk dances into nationalist symbols.
(iii) Emphasis on vernacular language: They gave emphasis on vernacular language to recover the
national spirit and to carry the modern nationalist message to large audience who were mostly
illiterate.
(iv) Language as a symbol of national resistance: Language also played an important role in developing
nationalist sentiments. For example, it was mainly used as a weapon of national resistance when
the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere
in Poland. Many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national
resistance.
2. Explain the role of languages in developing the national sentiment in Europe. (2011)
• Vernacular languages and local folklores played an important role in creating the idea of
nation in Europe.
• This was especially so in the case of Poland which had been partitioned by the great
powers — Russia, Prussia & Austria.
• Karol Kurpinski of Poland celebrated the national struggle through his operas and
music, turning folk dances like the Polonaise, Mazurka into nationalist symbols. l
• After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian
language was imposed everywhere. l
• Many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national
resistance. l Polish was used for church gatherings and all religious instructions. l
• As a result, a large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia by
the Russian authorities. l
• The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance.
Years of Great Hardship – 1830s
3. Why were the years of 1830s of great hardship in Europe? Explain any five reasons. (2011)
OR. “The decade of 1830 had brought great economic hardship in Europe”. Support the
statement with arguments. (2020,19,17, 16, 12, 11)
Ans. Economic hardships faced by Europe in the 1830s:
(i) There was enormous increase in population all over Europe. In most countries there were more
seekers of jobs than employment.

(ii) Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.

(iii) Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap
machine-made goods from England.

(iv) In those regions of Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled
under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.

(v) The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and
country.

July Revolution of 1830

What were the effects of revolutionary upheaval in France in 1830? (2011)
Ans. The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830. The Bourbon kings who had been
restored to power during the conservative reaction after 1815, were now overthrown by liberal
revolutionaries, who installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head.
Metternich once remarked, “When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold.” The July
Revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the United
Kingdoms of the Netherlands.
Main Points

• The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830.

• The Bourbon Kings, who had been restored to power during the conservative reaction
after 1815, were now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries, who installed a
constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head.
• Most of the European countries followed France persistently and that is why Metternich
said, ‘When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold’.
• The July revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away
from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
• An event that mobilised nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe was
the Greek war of Independence.
1848 Revolution of the Liberals
1. Why was the period of 1848 considered as phase of the revolution of the Liberals in Europe?
Explain. (CBSE SQP 2020-21)
Ans. The period of 1848 was considered as phase of the revolution of the Liberals in Europe
because of the following reasons:
(i) Events of February 1848 in France had brought about the abdication of the monarch and a
republic based on universal male suffrage had been proclaimed.
(ii) Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire – men and women of the liberal middle
classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification.
(iii) They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their demands for the creation of
a nation-state on parliamentary principles – a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of
association.
(iv) In the German regions a large number of political associations whose members were middle-
class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt
and decided to vote for an all German National Assembly.
(v) The middle classes who resisted the demands of workers and artisans and consequently lost
their support. In the end troops were called in and the assembly was forced to disband.
(vi) The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal
movement, in which large numbers of women had participated actively over the years.
(vii) Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in
political meetings and demonstration.
2. Explain the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and economic
ideas supported by the liberals? (2012)
Ans. The educated middle class led the Revolution of Liberals in 1848. They emphasised upon the
following ideals:
(i) Politically, they stressed on the establishment of government by consent, freedom of press.
(ii) Socially, they asserted the abolition of all hereditary privileges.
(iii) Economically, they stood for abolition of trade restrictions imposed by the state.
(v) Middle-class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans came together in the city of
Frankfurt to vote for an all-German National Assembly.
Frankfurt Parliament
(i) On 18 May, 1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their
places in the Frankfurt Parliament convened in the Church of St. Paul.
(ii) A Constitution was drafted which instructed the German nation to be headed by a monarchy
subject to a parliament.
(iii) The parliament lacked a broader support as the parliament was dominated by the middle
classes who resisted the demands of workers and artisans.
(iv) King of Prussia, Friedrich Wilhelm IV rejected the offer of crown and joined other monarchs to
oppose the elected assembly.
(v) The Assembly could not sustain the opposition from monarchy and Junkers. It was forced to
dissolve and was disbanded.
3. What were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals, in Europe?
(2011)
(i) The 1848 revolution was led by the educated middle class along with the poor, unemployed
starving peasants and workers in many European countries for fulfilling their demand of
constitutionalism with nation unification.
(ii) Political ideas: – In German regions, large number of political associations whose member were
middle class professionals, business man and prosperous artisans came together in the city of
Frankfurt and decided to vote for all German National Assembly.
(iii) Social ideas: – A large number of women had participated actively and formed their own
political associations founded newspapers, took part in political meetings and struggled for right
to vote.
(iv) Economic ideas: – Liberals struggled for abolition of serfdom and bonded labour and wanted
freedom of market.
(v) Though conservative forces were able to suppress liberal movements in 1848, they could not
restore the old order. Thus, serfdom and bonded labour were abolished.
4. What is the significance of 1848 for France and the rest of Europe? What did the liberals
demand? (2011)
Ans. With many revolts, like revolts of the poor, unemployed workers and starving peasants
during 1848 in Europe, the educated middle class of France also started a revolution for the
abdication of the monarch and a republic based on universal male suffrage.
In other parts of Europe, men and women of the Liberal middle classes combined their demands
for constitutionalism with national unification.

They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their demand for the creation of a
nation- state on parliamentary principles — a constitution, freedom of press and freedom of
association.

The issue of extending political rights to women was most controversial subject matter within the
liberal movement in which large number of women had participated actively.

5. Explain any three reasons for the nationalist upsurge in the 19th century Europe. (2011)
Ans. Reasons for the Nationalist upsurge in the 19th century Europe.
(i) Oppression of people under absolute rulers.
(ii) Liberal ideas spread by well-known philosophers and leaders.
(iii) The French Revolution inspired the people to fight for freedom. The slogan ‘Liberty, Equality
and Fraternity’ became the clarion call for the common people.
(iv) With the outbreak of revolutionary wars, the French army and its soldiers began to carry the
ideas of nationalism abroad.
Unification of Germany
1. Describe the process of unification of Germany. (2015, 11, 10)
Answer:
(i) In the 1800s, nationalist feelings were strong in the hearts of the middle-class Germans.
(ii) During the Vienna Congress in 1815, Germany was identified as a loose confederation of 39
states.
(iii) They united in 1848 to create a nation-state out of the numerous German states.
(iv) Prussia soon became the leader of German unification movement.
(v) Chief Minister of Prussia Otto von Bismarck was the architect of the process with the support
from the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
(vi) The unification process was completed after Prussia won wars with Austria, Denmark and
France over a time period of seven years.
(vii) In January 1871, the Prussian King, William I, was proclaimed the German Emperor in a
ceremony held at Versailles.
2. Otto von Bismarck was the architect of ‘German Unification ‘. Explain. (2012)
Ans. Otto von Bismarck was the architect of Germany as he played an important role in the
unification of the country with the help of army and tactful diplomacy. He is known for his policy
of ‘Blood and Iron’.
(i) The revolution of the liberals led by middle-class Germans in 1848 tried to unite the different
regions of the German confederation into a nation-state. It failed in its goal.
(ii) After the failure of the revolution of 1848, Prussian Chief Minister, Otto von Bismarck, with the
help of the army and bureaucracy, carried out the task of unification.
(iii) Three wars over seven years with Austria, Denmark and France ended in Prussian victory and
completed the process of unification.
(iv) On 18th January 1871, the Prussian King, Kaiser William I was proclaimed German Emperor
in a ceremony held at Versailles in the presence of important officials, army representatives and
Otto von Bismarck.
Unification of Italy
1. Describe the process of Unification of Italy. (2015, 14, 12)
Ans. Unification of Italy:
(i) During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states of which only one,
Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house.
(ii) The unification process was led by three revolutionaries—Giuseppe Mazzini, Count Camillo
de Cavour, and Giuseppe Garibaldi
(iii) During 1830, Mazzini decided to unite Italy. He had formed a secret society ‘Young Italy’ to
achieve his goal.
(iv) After earlier failures in 1831 and 1848, King Victor Emmanuel II took to unify the Italian states
through wars.
(v) Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in
defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
(vi) After earlier failures in 1831 and 1848, King Victor Emmanuel II took to unify the Italian states
through wars.
(vii) Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded
in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
(viii) Under the leadership of Garibaldi armed volunteers marched into South Italy in 1860 and the
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants in order
to drive out the Spanish rulers.
(ix) In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.

2. Examine the conditions of Italy before unification. (2012)

Ans. Conditions of Italy before unification:
(i) The greatest problem in the unification of Italy was its fragmentation into several political units,
each under a different authority.
(ii) Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multinational Habsburg
Empire.
(iii) During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states.
(iv) Out of seven, only one Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house.
(v) The north was under Austrian Habsburgs.
(vi) The centre was ruled by the Pope.
(vii) Southern regions were under the Bourbon kings of Spain.
(viii) The Italian language had not acquired one common form. It still had many regional and local
variations.
3. Who was Cavour? Explain his contributions to the unification of Italy. (2011,12)
Ans. Cavour was the Chief Minister of Sardinia Piedmont. His contribution to the unification of
Italy was:
(i) He was a good administrator.
(ii) He worked for the unification of Italy. through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France
engineered by Cavour of Sardinia-piedmont.
(iii) He led the movement to unify the regions of Italy.
(iv) He was a tactful diplomat. He succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
4. Describe the role of Giuseppe Mazzini in the Unification of Italy. (2012)
Ans. Giuseppe Mazzini was a famous Italian revolutionary was born in 1807 in Genoa. He
inspired nationalism among people through his ideology of a United Italian republic and founded
different societies to organise like-minded people.

• He was the part of a secret society called Carbonari.

• In 1831, Mazzini was sent into exile for attempting a revolution in Liguria.
• He founded two secret societies—Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne.
Members of these societies were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and
German states.
• Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind.
• Mazzini believed in the unification of the small kingdoms and principalities in Italy to
form a republic.
• Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republic
frightened the conservatives.
Unification of Britain
1. In Britain the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or
revolution. Validate the statement with relevant arguments. (2016)
Ans. In Britain, the formation of the nation–state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or
revolution. It was the result of a long-drawn-out process.
(i) The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones–such as
English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. There was no British nation prior to the 18th century.

(ii) All of these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political traditions.

(iii) Because of steady growth of the English nation in case of wealth, importance and power, it
was able to extend its influence over the other nations of the islands.

(iv) The Act of Union 1707 between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of the ‘United
Kingdom of Great Britain’. It meant that England was able to impose its influence on Scotland.

(v) The English parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy in 1688 at the end of a
protracted conflict, was the instrument through which a nation-state with England at its centre,
came to be forged.

(vi) The growth of the British identity meant that Scotland’s distinctive culture and political
institutions were systematically suppressed.

(vii) The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their
national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.

(viii) The British imposed control over Ireland as well. The English favoured the Protestants of
Ireland and helped them establish their dominance over a largely Catholic Ireland.

(ix) In 1801, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom after a failed Irish revolt.

(x) The symbols of new Britain were the English language, the British flag (Union Jack) and the
British national anthem (God Save Our Nobel King).

2. How did Britain come into existence as a nation-state? Explain. (2019)

OR. Describe the process of Unification of Britain. (2015)
Ans. Unification of Britain:
(i) Britain was not a nation state prior to 18th century. The primary identities were based on
ethnicities such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.

(ii) The steady growth of power made the English nation extend its influence over the other
nations and islands.

(iii) In 1688, England was established as a nation state. English parliament seized power from the
monarchy.

(iv) In 1707, the United Kingdom of Great Britain formed with the Act of the Union between
England and Scotland.
(v) England dominated Scotland and Ireland in all spheres. British parliament was dominated by
English members.

(vi) Ireland was forcibly taken by the British after the failed revolution led by Wolfe and his
United Irishmen (1798).

(vii) Thus, a new “British nation” was formed with the dominating English culture, its national
anthem and British national Flag.

3. With reference to Scotland and Ireland, explain how British Nationalism grew at the cost of
other cultures. (2012)
Ans. A new “British nation” was formed at the cost of other cultures of Scotland and Ireland.
(i) Through the Act of Union (1707), England was able to impose its influence on Scotland.

(ii) The growth of the British identity meant that Scotland’s distinctive culture and political
institutions were systematically suppressed.

(iii) The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national
dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.

(iv) Ireland was also divided between Catholics and Protestants.

(v) Ireland was forcibly incorporated in the UK after the failed revolution led by Wolfe and his
United Irishmen (1798)

Visualising the Nation

1. How had the female figures become an allegory of the nation during nineteenth century in
Europe? Analyse. (2016)
Ans. Artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries found a way out by personifying a nation.
They portrayed a country as a female figure.
(a) The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular
woman in real life.

(b) It gave an abstract idea of the nation a concrete form.

(c) The female figure became an allegory of the nation.

(d) In France she was named Marianne and in Germany she was named Germania.

During the French Revolution, artists used the formal allegory to portray ideas such as Liberty,
Justice and the Republic.

Another Answer:
Female figures became an allegory of the nation during the nineteenth century in Europe in the
following ways:
 • Artists, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, often made efforts to represent a
country as if it were a person. Female figures were chosen to express an abstract idea of a
nation. These female figures, thus, became an allegory of the nation.
• In France, the female figure was christened Marianne, which was characterised by
liberty and the republic through the red cap, the tricolour and the cockade. Statues of
Marianne stood in public squares to remind people of the national symbol of unity.
• In Germany, the female figure – Germania – became the allegory of the German nation.
In visual representations, Germania wore the crown of oak leaves, as the German oak
stood for heroism
Nationalism and Imperialism
What was the area of the Balkans ? Why was it the most serious source of nationalist tension in
Europe after 1871 ? What was its result ?
Answer:
(1) The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern day
Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia
and Montenegro whose inhabitants were broadly known as Slavs.
(2) Causes for being the most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe in 1871 were as
mentioned below :

1. A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. However,
with the weakening and disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, the nationalist
tensions emerged in the area. Its European subject nationalities broke away and
declared their independence.
2. The people of the Balkans argued that they were once independent before the foreign
powers controlled them. So their object was to regain their lost independence.
3. Nationalist tensions emerged due to rivalries of the European powers i.e., Russia,
England, Germany, Austria-Hungary. All of these powers wanted to have their
control due to one reason or the other.
4. Rivalries among the Balkan states — The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each
other and each one of them wanted to extend her territory at the expense of the
others.

(3) Results : Rivalries of the European powers and among the Balkan states led to a series
of wars in the region and finally the First World War.